230-462: Italian victory [REDACTED] Italy 1916 1917 1918 White War (1915–1918) The Italian front ( Italian : Fronte italiano ; German : Südwestfront ) was one of the main theatres of war of World War I . It involved a series of military engagements along the border between the Kingdom of Italy and Austria-Hungary from 1915 to 1918. Following secret promises made by
460-650: A Catholic city—before proceeding to sack Constantinople . In the 13th century, Venice established itself as a leading maritime nation . During much of the 12th and 13th centuries, Venice and the Republic of Genoa were engaged in warfare culminating in the War of Chioggia , ousting the Genoese from the Adriatic. Still, the 1381 Treaty of Turin that ended the war required Venice to renounce claims to Dalmatia, after losing
690-714: A republic and abolished the monarchy in 1946. The Kingdom of Italy covered and at times exceeded the land area of present-day Italy. The Kingdom gradually extended its area through the Italian unification until 1870. In 1919 it annexed Trieste and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol . The Triple Entente promised to grant to Italy – if the state joined the Allies in World War I – several regions, including former Austrian Littoral , western parts of former Duchy of Carniola , Northern Dalmatia and notably Zara , Šibenik and most of
920-491: A "political myth", used by fascists to fuel Italian imperialism and obscure the successes of liberal Italy in the aftermath of World War I. Italy also gained a permanent seat in the League of Nations 's executive council. Kingdom of Italy The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian : Regno d'Italia , Italian: [ˈreɲɲo diˈtaːlja] ) was a state that existed from 17 March 1861, when Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia
1150-635: A 46- hectare concession from China in Tianjin (see Italian concession in Tianjin ). These foreign colonies and lands came under Italian control at different times and remained so over different periods. The Kingdom of Italy was a constitutional monarchy . Executive power belonged to the monarch , who governed through appointed ministers . The legislative branch was a bicameral Parliament comprising an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies . The kingdom maintained as its constitution
1380-412: A burden on finances or a change in territory required the approval of the chambers to be effective. The king appointed to all state offices, sanctioned and promulgated the laws, which as well as the government acts had to be countersigned by the responsible ministers, and issued the decrees and regulations necessary for the execution of the laws. Justice was administered in his name, and he alone had
1610-645: A counterclockwise direction, thus bringing clearer waters up the eastern coast and returning increasingly polluted water down the western coast. This circulation has significantly contributed to the biodiversity of the countries along the eastern Adriatic coast; the common bottlenose dolphin is frequent in the eastern coast's waters only, and the Croatian coast provides refuge for the critically endangered monk seal and sea turtles. Recent studies revealed that cetaceans and other marine megafaunas , that were once thought to be vagrants to Adriatic Sea, migrate and live in
1840-491: A crop failure caused by insects, and Italy became the largest wine exporter in Europe. After France's recovery in 1888, Italian wine exports collapsed, causing a wave of unemployment and bankruptcies. From the 1860s, Italy invested heavily in the development of railways , with its rail network more than tripling between 1861 and 1872, then doubling again by 1890. Gio. Ansaldo & C. from the former Kingdom of Sardinia provided
2070-467: A degree of cover and allowed better logistics support . Working at high altitudes in the hard carbonate rock of the Dolomites, often in exposed areas near mountain peaks and even in glacial ice , required extreme skill of both Austro-Hungarian and Italian miners. Beginning on the 13th, later referred to as White Friday , December 1916 would see 10,000 soldiers on both sides killed by avalanches in
2300-529: A few days a year, the worst-case sea level rise scenario between 2050 and 2100 would prompt deployment up to 187 days a year, essentially cutting off the Venetian Lagoon from the Adriatic Sea. Among other possible adverse effects, this can be expected to lower the lagoon's oxygen levels and trap pollution inside of the city. Geophysical and geological information indicate that the Adriatic Sea and
2530-538: A full scale attack and the whole front began to collapse. On 3 November, 300,000 Austro-Hungarian soldiers surrendered, at the same day the Italians entered Trento and Trieste, greeted by the population. On 3 November, the military leaders of the already disintegrated Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce to the Italian commander to ask again for an armistice and terms of peace. The terms were arranged by telegraph with
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#17327799703942760-521: A highly rugged relief with little vegetation; Elevations over 2,500 meters are also covered by glaciers. The barren landscape and lack of sufficient arable land led to little development of these high elevations; settlement was largely limited to the lower-lying zones. From the Julian Alps to the Adriatic Sea , the mountains are constantly losing on height and only rarely reach 1,000 meters as in
2990-469: A major cholera epidemic killed at least 55,000 people. Government action was blocked by strong political and economic opposition from the large landowners. Another commission of inquiry in 1910 found similar problems. Around 1890 there was also an overproduction crisis in the Italian wine industry , almost the only successful sector in agriculture. In the 1870s and 1880s, viticulture in France suffered from
3220-591: A major concern in terms of potential environmental impact and damage to tourism and fisheries. It is estimated that if a major oil spill happened, a million people would lose their livelihoods in Croatia alone. An additional risk is presented by oil refineries in the Po River basin where oil spills have occurred before, in addition to accidents occurring in the Adriatic already, so far with no significant environmental consequences. Since 2006, Italy has been considering
3450-506: A million tonnes of cargo per year. The largest Adriatic seaport by annual cargo turnover is the Port of Trieste , while the Port of Split is the largest Adriatic seaport by passengers served per year. The origins of the name Adriatic are linked to the Illyrian settlement of Adria , which probably derives its name from Illyrian adur 'water, sea'. In classical antiquity , the sea
3680-465: A national park in 1999. The Lim Canal is a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) ria of the Pazinčica river. The Kornati national park was established in 1980; it covers approximately 220 square kilometres (85 sq mi), including 89 islands and islets. The marine environment encompasses three-quarters of the total area, while the island shores' combined length equals 238 kilometres (148 mi). Telašćica
3910-611: A new elevation benchmark referring to the upgraded tide gauge station in the coastal town of Koper . The Alps, which also have a large meteorological impact on the Mediterranean, touch the Adriatic in the area around Trieste towards Duino and Barcola . The Adriatic Sea contains more than 1,300 islands and islets , most along the Adriatic's eastern coast—especially in Croatia, with 1,246 counted. The number includes islands, islets, and rocks of all sizes, including ones emerging at ebb tide only. The Croatian islands include
4140-403: A quick breakthrough was not used was partly due to the slow mobilization of the Italian army. Due to the poorly developed transport network, the provision of troops and war material could only be completed in mid-June, i.e. a month later than estimated by the military leadership. The Italian army also suffered from many shortcomings on the structural level. Artillery pieces and munitions were not
4370-618: A sea surface of 2,227 hectares (5,500 acres) and is adjacent to the Torre Guaceto State Reserve covering 1,114 hectares (2,750 acres) of coast and sharing an 8-kilometre (5.0 mi) coastline with the marine protected area. Furthermore, there are 10 internationally important (Ramsar) wetland reserves in Italy located along the Adriatic coast. There are seven marine protected areas in Croatia: Brijuni and
4600-630: A season. The predominant winter winds are the bora and sirocco (called jugo along the eastern coast). The bora is significantly conditioned by wind gaps in the Dinaric Alps bringing cold and dry continental air; it reaches peak speeds in the areas of Trieste, Senj , and Split , with gusts of up to 180 kilometres per hour (97 kn; 110 mph). The sirocco brings humid and warm air, often carrying Saharan sand causing rain dust . [REDACTED] Bari [REDACTED] Venice [REDACTED] Trieste [REDACTED] Durrës On
4830-495: A series of 79 inflatable pontoons across the sea bed at the three entrances to the Venetian Lagoon . When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres (43 in), the pontoons will be filled with air and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work was due to be completed by 2014, but as of November 2020 is expected to be completed in 2021. Implemented for the first time on October 3, 2020,
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#17327799703945060-655: A short time later, the Alpenkorps was already taking part in combat operations against Italian units, although the German Empire was not officially at war with Italy until August 28, 1916. The "Armeegruppe Rohr" stood under the command of Franz Rohr von Denta and was to secure the Carinthian front. The transfer of the 5th Army and additional troops from the east went smoothly; within a few weeks, Archduke Eugen had around 225,000 soldiers under his command. In June
5290-638: A standard British regiment had by February 1915 four machine gun sections per battalion. During the Italo-Turkish War in Libya (1911–1912), the Italian military suffered equipment and munition shortages not yet repaired before Italian entry into the Great War. At the opening of the campaign, Austro-Hungarian troops occupied and fortified high ground of the Julian Alps and Karst Plateau , but
5520-670: A third of the fresh water flowing into the Mediterranean, acting as a dilution basin . The surface water temperatures generally range from 30 °C (86 °F) in summer to 12 °C (54 °F) in winter, significantly moderating the Adriatic Basin 's climate. The Adriatic Sea sits on the Apulian or Adriatic Microplate , which separated from the African Plate in the Mesozoic era . The plate's movement contributed to
5750-486: A total of over 531,000 dead. Of these, 257,418 men came from Northern Italy , 117,480 from Central Italy , and 156,251 from Southern Italy . While the KIA numbers of Italian soldiers on the Italian front in 1915 were 66,090 killed, in 1916 this figure was 118,880 killed, in 1917 it was 152,790 killed, and in 1918 it stood at 40,250 killed soldiers. Austro-Hungarian KIAs (this category does not include soldiers who perished in
5980-855: Is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula . The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea , extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea ) to the northwest and the Po Valley . The countries with coasts on the Adriatic are Albania , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , Italy , Montenegro , and Slovenia . The Adriatic contains more than 1,300 islands, mostly located along its eastern coast. It
6210-492: Is a nature park established on Dugi Otok in 1988. The park covers 69 kilometres (43 mi) of coastline, 22.95 square kilometres (8.86 sq mi) of land and 44.55 square kilometres (17.20 sq mi) of sea. The Bay of Mali Ston is located at the border of Croatia and Bosnia–Herzegovina, north of the Pelješac peninsula. The marine protected area covers 48 square kilometres (19 sq mi). The Lastovo nature park
6440-435: Is also a site of international importance for waterbird species. The 429-hectare (1,060-acre) Strunjan Landscape Park was established in 2004 and comprises two nature reserves. It includes a 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) long cliff, the northernmost Mediterranean salt field and the only Slovenian lagoon system. It is also the northernmost point of growth of some Mediterranean plant species. The Škocjan Inlet Nature Reserve
6670-494: Is at the mid-width east of Ancona. The normal tide levels are known to increase significantly in a conducive environment, leading to coastal flooding ; this phenomenon is most famously known in Italy—especially Venice—as acqua alta . Such tides can exceed normal levels by more than 140 centimetres (55 in), with the highest tide level of 194 centimetres (76 in) observed on 4 November 1966. Such flooding
6900-464: Is caused by a combination of factors, including the alignment of the Sun and Moon , meteorological factors such as sirocco related storm surges, and the basin's geometric shape (which amplifies or reduces the astronomical component). Moreover, the Adriatic's long and narrow rectangular shape is the source of an oscillating water motion ( French : seiche ) along the basin's minor axis. Finally, Venice
7130-453: Is divided into three basins, the northern being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest, with a maximum depth of 1,233 metres (4,045 ft). The prevailing currents flow counterclockwise from the Strait of Otranto. Tidal movements in the Adriatic are slight, although larger amplitudes occur occasionally. The Adriatic's salinity is lower than the Mediterranean's because it collects
Italian front (World War I) - Misplaced Pages Continue
7360-472: Is geographically divided into the Northern Adriatic, Central (or Middle) Adriatic, and Southern Adriatic. The Adriatic Sea drainage basin encompasses 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi), yielding a land–sea ratio of 1.8. The drainage basin's mean elevation is 782 metres (2,566 ft) above sea level, with a mean slope of 12.1°. Major rivers discharging into the Adriatic include
7590-499: Is increasingly vulnerable to flooding due to coastal area soil subsidence . Such unusually high tides resulting in flooding have also been observed elsewhere in the Adriatic Sea, and have been recorded in recent years in the towns of Koper , Zadar and Šibenik as well. It is estimated that the Adriatic's entire volume is exchanged through the Strait of Otranto in 3.4±0.4 years, a comparatively short period. (For instance, approximately 500 years are necessary to exchange all
7820-586: Is presented by ballast water discharge by ships, especially tankers . Still, since most of the cargo handled by the Adriatic ports, and virtually all liquid (tanker) cargo handled by the ports, is coming to—not coming from—the Adriatic Basin, the risk from ballast water (from tankers expelling ballast water then loading in the Adriatic) remains minimal. However, proposed export oil pipelines were objected to specifically because of this issue. Oil spills are
8050-421: Is shallower and closer to land than are oceans. During particularly cold winters, sea ice may appear in the Adriatic's shallow coastal areas, especially in the Venetian Lagoon but also in isolated shallows as far south as Tisno (south of Zadar). The Southern Adriatic is about 8 to 10 °C (14 to 18 °F) warmer during the winter than the more northerly regions. The Adriatic's salinity variation over
8280-663: Is the most indented Mediterranean coastline. Most of the eastern coast is characterised by a karst topography, developed from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform's exposure to weathering. Karstification there largely began after the Dinarides' final uplift in the Oligocene and the Miocene , when carbonate deposits were exposed to atmospheric effects; this extended to the level of 120 metres (390 ft) below
8510-473: Is threatened by excessive input of nutrients through drainage from agricultural land and wastewater flowing from cities; this includes both along its coast and from rivers draining into the sea—especially from the Po River . Venice is often cited as an example of polluted coastal waters where shipping, transportation, farming, manufacturing and wastewater disposal contribute to polluting the sea. A further risk
8740-643: The 5th Army was reorganized and placed under the command of General d. Inf. Svetozar Boroević who on May 27 had arrived from the Eastern Front . The K. u. k. Landesverteidigungskommando in Tyrol (LVK) was handed to GdK Viktor Dankl to protect the Tyrolean borders. It included the German Alpenkorps which was suitable for operations in the high mountains, the first divisions arrived on May 26;
8970-631: The Apennine Mountains are further away from the shoreline. The coastal water dynamics are determined by the asymmetric coasts and the inflow of the Mediterranean seawater through the Straits of Otranto and further on along the eastern coast. The smooth Italian coast (with very few protrusions and no major islands) allows the Western Adriatic Current to flow smoothly, which is composed of the relatively freshwater mass on
9200-627: The Black Sea 's water.) This short period is particularly important as the rivers flowing into the Adriatic discharge up to 5,700 cubic metres per second (200,000 cu ft/s). This rate of discharge amounts to 0.5% of the total Adriatic Sea volume, or a 1.3-metre (4 ft 3 in) layer of water each year. The greatest portion of the discharge from any single river comes from the Po (28%), with an average discharge from it alone of 1,569 cubic metres per second (55,400 cu ft/s). In terms of
9430-914: The Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo from German Army soldiers rushed in after the Russian offensive ordered by Kerensky of July 1917 failed. Also arrived German troops from Romanian front after the Battle of Mărășești . The Germans introduced infiltration tactics to the Austro-Hungarian front and helped work on a new offensive. Meanwhile, mutinies and plummeting morale crippled the Italian Army from within. The soldiers lived in poor conditions and engaged in attack after attack that often yielded minimal or no military gain. On 24 October 1917
Italian front (World War I) - Misplaced Pages Continue
9660-786: The First Battle of Monte Grappa . Advancing deep and fast, the Austro-Hungarians outran their supply lines, which forced them to stop and regroup. The Italians, pushed back to defensive lines near Venice on the Piave River , had suffered 600,000 casualties to this point in the war. Because of these losses, the Italian Government called to arms the so-called 99 Boys ( Ragazzi del '99 ); the new class of conscripts born in 1899 who were turning 18 in 1917. In November 1917, British and French troops started to bolster
9890-674: The Franco-Prussian War . To keep the large Prussian Army at bay, France abandoned its positions in Rome – which protected the remnants of the Papal States and Pius IX – to fight the Prussians. Italy benefited from Prussia's victory against France by taking over the Papal States from French authority. The Kingdom of Italy captured Rome after several battles and guerrilla-like warfare by Papal Zouaves and official troops of
10120-519: The Free State of Fiume in September 1919. His popularity among nationalists led him to be called Il Duce ("The Leader"), and he used black-shirted paramilitary in his assault on Fiume. The leadership title of Duce and the blackshirt paramilitary uniform would later be adopted by the fascist movement of Benito Mussolini . The demand for the Italian annexation of Fiume spread to all sides of
10350-634: The German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire , following strong disagreements with France about their respective colonial expansions. Although relations with Berlin became very friendly, the alliance with Vienna remained purely formal, due in part to Italy's desire to acquire Trentino and Trieste from Austria-Hungary. As a result, Italy accepted the British invitation to join the Allied Powers during World War I , as
10580-743: The Ionian Sea at the 72-kilometre (45 mi) wide Strait of Otranto . The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the boundary between the Adriatic and the Ionian seas as a line running from the Butrinto River 's mouth ( latitude 39°44'N) in Albania to the Karagol Cape in Corfu , through this island to the Kephali Cape (these two capes are in latitude 39°45'N), and on to
10810-663: The Karaburun Peninsula where the Adriatic and Ionian Seas meet. The park covers a total of 12,570 hectares (31,100 acres). Two additional marine protection areas are planned in Albania: the Cape of Rodon ( Albanian : Kepi i Rodonit ) and Porto Palermo . In addition, Albania is home to two Ramsar wetland reserves: Karavasta Lagoon , and Butrint . Neither Bosnia–Herzegovina nor Montenegro have or plan to establish any marine protection areas. The Adriatic Sea ecosystem
11040-616: The Kingdom of Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War . In exchange, Prussia would allow Italy to annex Austria-controlled Veneto . King Emmanuel agreed to the alliance, and the Third Italian War of Independence began. Italy fared poorly in the war with a badly-organized military against Austria, but Prussia's victory allowed Italy to annex Veneto . At this point, one major obstacle to Italian unity remained: Rome. In July 1870, Prussia went to war with France, igniting
11270-456: The Late Oligocene , the motion was reversed and the Apennine Mountains' orogeny took place. An unbroken zone of increased seismic activity borders the Adriatic Sea, with a belt of thrust faults generally oriented in the northeast–southwest direction on the east coast and the northeast–southwest normal faults in the Apennines, indicating an Adriatic counterclockwise rotation. An active 200-kilometre (120 mi) fault has been identified to
11500-404: The League of Nations , growing economic autarky , and the signing of military alliances with Germany and Japan . Fascist Italy entered World War II as a leading member of the Axis Powers in 1940 and despite initial success, was defeated in North Africa and the Soviet Union . Allied landings in Sicily led to the fall of the Fascist regime and the new government surrendered to
11730-420: The Lim Canal off the Istria peninsula's coast, near Pula and Rovinj respectively; Kornati and Telašćica in the Middle Adriatic basin, near Zadar ; and Lastovo , Bay of Mali Ston ( Croatian : Malostonski zaljev ) and Mljet in southern Dalmatia. The Brijuni national park encompasses the 743.3-hectare (1,837-acre) archipelago itself and 2,651.7 hectares (6,552 acres) of surrounding sea; it became
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#173277997039411960-447: The Po River delta, where an emporium (trading station) was founded in Adria . Roman economic and military influence in the region began to grow with the creation by 246 BC of a major naval base at Brundisium (now Brindisi ), which was established to bar Carthaginian ships from the Adriatic during the Punic Wars . This led to conflict with the Illyrians , who lived in a collection of semi- Hellenized kingdoms that covered much of
12190-512: The Po Valley are associated with a tectonic microplate —identified as the Apulian or Adriatic Plate —that separated from the African Plate during the Mesozoic era . This separation began in the Middle and Late Triassic , when limestone began to be deposited in the area. Between the Norian and Late Cretaceous , the Adriatic and Apulia Carbonate Platforms formed as a thick series of carbonate sediments ( dolomites and limestones), up to 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) deep. Remnants of
12420-415: The Po Valley , at the Adriatic's north-west coast, and as far west as Piacenza , dating to the Pleistocene as the sea advanced and receded over the valley. An advance began after the Last Glacial Maximum, which brought the Adriatic to a high point at about 5,500 years ago. Since then, the Po delta has been prograding (expanding/extending). The rate of coastal zone progradation between 1000 BC and 1200 AD
12650-427: The Santa Maria di Leuca Cape (latitude 39°48'N). It extends 800 kilometres (500 mi) from the northwest to the southeast and is 200 kilometres (120 mi) wide. It covers 138,600 square kilometres (53,500 sq mi) and has a volume of 35,000 cubic kilometres (8,400 cu mi). The Adriatic extends northwest from 40° to 45° 47' north, representing the Mediterranean 's northernmost portion. The sea
12880-405: The Statuto Albertino , the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible solely to the king. However, by this time, a king couldn't appoint a government of his choosing or keep it in office against the express will of Parliament. Members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected through a plurality voting system in single-member districts. A candidate needed
13110-406: The Tagliamento River . When the Austro-Hungarian offensive routed the Italians, the new Italian chief of staff, Armando Diaz ordered to stop their retreat and defend the fortified defenses around the Monte Grappa summit between the Roncone and the Tomatico mountains; although numerically inferior (51,000 against 120,000) the Italian Army managed to halt the Austro-Hungarian and German armies in
13340-461: The Third Battle of the Isonzo , another attack. Forces of Austria-Hungary repulsed this Italian offensive, which concluded on 4 November without resulting gains. The Italians again launched another offensive on 10 November, the Fourth Battle of the Isonzo . Both sides suffered more casualties, but the Italians conquered important entrenchments, and the battle ended on 2 December for exhaustion of armaments, but occasional skirmishing persisted. After
13570-426: The Via Egnatia , a road that by about 130 BC the Romans had extended eastward across the Balkans to Byzantium (later Constantinople , now Istanbul ). This made the sea passage across the Adriatic between Brundisium and Dyrrachium (or Apollonia) a link in the primary route for travelers, trade, and troop movements, between Rome and the East. This route played a major role in some of the military operations that marked
13800-431: The formation of the surrounding mountain chains and Apennine tectonic uplift after its collision with the Eurasian Plate . In the Late Oligocene , the Italian Peninsula first formed, separating the Adriatic Basin from the rest of the Mediterranean. The western coast is alluvial or terraced , while the eastern coast is highly indented with pronounced karstification . There are dozens of marine protected areas in
14030-410: The maritime republics , was founded during this period and went on to become a significant maritime power after receiving a Byzantine tax exemption in 1082. The end of the period brought about the Holy Roman Empire 's control over the Kingdom of Italy (which would last until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648), the establishment of an independent Kingdom of Croatia and the Byzantine Empire's return to
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#173277997039414260-404: The pardon and mitigation of punishment. The first state coat of arms of the kingdom was adopted from Sardinia-Piedmont. It included the coat of arms of the House of Savoy in the middle and four Italian flags dating from 1848. On 4 May 1870, by royal decree, two lions in gold , which now carried the shield , a crowned knight's helmet, which bore the Military Order of Savoy , the Order of
14490-572: The state budget , though proceeding with great caution. The government secured the support of large companies and banks. Most criticism the project came from conservatives, with a majority of the public supporting the soundness of public finances. The state budget, which from 1900 had an annual income of around 50 million lire, was to be additionally strengthened by the nationalization of the railways. In March 1905, after serious labor unrest among railroad workers, Giolitti resigned due to illness, and suggested his fellow party member Alessandro Fortis to
14720-405: The telephone system was nationalized. The Fortis government remained in office until the beginning of 1906. It was followed from 8 February to 29 May by a brief government under Sidney Sonnino . Finally, Giolitti entered his third term. In this he dealt mainly with the economic situation in southern Italy, due both to long-term demographic and economic factors, as well as natural disasters such as
14950-410: The 1,200-metre (3,900 ft) deep South Adriatic Pit and the Middle Adriatic basin from the South Adriatic Basin. Further on to the south, the sea floor rises to 780 metres (2,560 ft) to form the Otranto Sill at the boundary to the Ionian Sea. The South Adriatic Basin is similar in many respects to the Northern Ionian Sea, to which it is connected. Transversely, the Adriatic Sea is also asymmetric:
15180-450: The 1904 law for the development of Naples , prepared by economist and later prime minister Nitti. In 1898, in order to make the steel-industry completely independent from foreign coal imports, the Neapolitan engineer Ernesto Stassano invented the Stassano furnace , the first indirect-arc electric furnace . By 1917, Italian iron and steel plants operated 88 indirect-arc furnaces, manufactured by Stassano, Bassanese and Angelini. In 1899
15410-418: The 1960s, but the city remains threatened by the acqua alta floods. Recent studies have suggested that the city is no longer sinking, but a state of alert remains in place. In May 2003, then-Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE project ( Italian : Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico ), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of inflatable gates. The project proposes laying
15640-399: The 2nd century BC, the region was under Rome 's control. In the Middle Ages , the Adriatic shores and the sea itself were controlled, to a varying extent, by a series of states—most notably the Byzantine Empire , the Croatian Kingdom , the Republic of Venice , the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire . The Napoleonic Wars resulted in the Austrian Empire gaining control of most of
15870-411: The 48. Division (FML Theodor Gabriel) and finally, in July, the four Kaiserjäger regiments and three k.k. Landesschützen regiments from Galicia were added. A major advantage of the Austro-Hungarian defense was its entrenchment on higher ground. Italy ordered general mobilization on May 22, 1915 and by the end of June four armies had marched into the north-east border area. In the deployment plan of
16100-428: The Adriatic Sea in Italy alone, also forming alluvial coastlines, including the lagoons of Venice , Grado and Caorle . There are smaller eastern Adriatic alluvial coasts—in the deltas of the Dragonja, Buna and Neretva rivers. The Adriatic Sea is a unique water body in respect of its overall biogeochemical physiognomy. It exports inorganic nutrients and imports particulate organic carbon and nitrogen through
16330-426: The Adriatic Sea's coasts and islands, there are numerous small settlements and a number of larger cities. Among the largest are (counterclockwise) Trieste, Venice, Rimini, Ancona, Pescara and Bari in Italy; Vlorë and Durrës in Albania; Split, Zadar and Rijeka in Croatia; Koper in Slovenia. In total, more than 3.5 million people live on the Adriatic coasts. There are also some larger cities that are located very near
16560-624: The Adriatic Sea. Exclusive economic zones in Adriatic Sea: The Adriatic Sea's average depth is 259.5 metres (851 ft), and its maximum depth is 1,233 metres (4,045 ft); however, the North Adriatic basin rarely exceeds a depth of 100 metres (330 ft). The North Adriatic basin, extending between Venice and Trieste towards a line connecting Ancona and Zadar , is only 15 metres (49 ft) deep at its northwestern end; it gradually deepens towards
16790-549: The Adriatic Sea. The Northern Adriatic's comparatively shallow seabed is characterised by relict sand (from times when the water level was lower and the area was a sandy beach), while a muddy bed is typical at depths below 100 metres (330 ft). There are five geomorphological units in the Adriatic: the Northern Adriatic (up to 100 metres (330 ft) deep); the North Adriatic islands area protected against sediments filling it in by outer islands (pre- Holocene karst relief);
17020-401: The Adriatic Sea. The most common species are Cymodocea nodosa and Zostera noltii , while Zostera marina and Posidonia oceanica are comparatively rare. A number of rare and threatened species are also found along the Adriatic's eastern coast; it is relatively clearer and less polluted than the western Adriatic coast—in part because the sea currents flow through the Adriatic in
17250-467: The Adriatic Sea. These are particularly due to or dependent upon the karst morphology of the coastal or submarine topography; this includes inhabiting subterranean habitats, karst rivers, and areas around freshwater springs. There are 45 known subspecies endemic to the Adriatic's coasts and islands. In the Adriatic, there are at least 410 species and subspecies of fish, representing approximately 70% of Mediterranean taxa, with at least 7 species endemic to
17480-583: The Adriatic for a few centuries. The last part of the period saw the rise of the Carolingian Empire and then the Frankish Kingdom of Italy , which controlled the Adriatic Sea's western coast, while Byzantine Dalmatia on the east coast gradually shrunk into Dalmatian city-states following the Avar and Croatian invasions starting in the 7th century. The Republic of Venice , one of
17710-430: The Adriatic is solid waste. Drifting waste—occasionally relatively large quantities of material, especially waste plastic—is transported northwest by the sirocco. Air pollution in the Adriatic Basin is associated with the large industrial centres in the Po River valley and the large industrial cities along the coast. Italy and Yugoslavia established a joint commission to protect the Adriatic Sea from pollution in 1977;
17940-782: The Adriatic's coasts were ruled by Ostrogoths , Lombards and the Byzantine Empire . The Ostrogothic Kingdom ruled Italy following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. However, during the reign of Justinian the Byzantine Empire sent an army under the general Belisarius to regain control of Italy, resulting in the Gothic War (535–554) . The Byzantines established the Exarchate of Ravenna and by 553 AD their viceroy (Exarch) ruled almost
18170-411: The Adriatic, designed to protect the sea's habitats and biodiversity—more than 7,000 species are identified as native to the Adriatic, many of them endemic , rare and threatened ones. The Adriatic's shores are populated by more than 3.5 million people; the largest cities are Bari , Venice , Trieste and Split . Early settlements on the Adriatic shores were Etruscan , Illyrian , and Greek . By
18400-437: The Adriatic. Sixty-four known species are threatened with extinction, largely because of overfishing. Only a small fraction of the fish found in the Adriatic are attributed to recent processes such as Lessepsian migration , and escape from mariculture . The biodiversity of the Adriatic is relatively high, and several marine protected areas have been established by countries along its coasts. In Italy, these are Miramare in
18630-519: The Allied Cause, and in September 1918, five Czechoslovak Regiments were formed in the Italian Army. By October 1918, Italy finally had enough soldiers to mount an offensive. The attack targeted Vittorio Veneto , across the Piave. The Italian Army broke through a gap near Sacile and poured in reinforcements that crushed the Austro-Hungarian defensive line. On 31 October, the Italian Army launched
18860-853: The Allied authorities in Paris, communicated to the Austro-Hungarian commander, and were accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November, and took effect at three o'clock in the afternoon of 4 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italian military deaths numbered 834 senior officers and generals, 16,872 junior officers, 16,302 non-commissioned officers, and 497,103 enlisted men, for
19090-757: The Allies in September 1943. German forces occupied northern and central Italy, established the Italian Social Republic , and reappointed Mussolini as dictator. Consequentially, Italy descended into civil war , with the Italian Co-belligerent Army and resistance movement contending with the Social Republic's forces and its German allies. Shortly after the surrender of all fascist forces in Italy , civil discontent prompted an institutional referendum , which established
19320-546: The Allies in the 1915 Treaty of London , the Kingdom of Italy entered the war on the Allied side, aiming to annex the Austrian Littoral , northern Dalmatia and the territories of present-day Trentino and South Tyrol . The front soon bogged down into trench warfare , similar to that on the Western Front , but at high altitudes and with extremely cold winters. Fighting along the front displaced much of
19550-633: The Apennine peninsular coast is relatively smooth with very few islands and the Mount Conero and Gargano promontories as the only significant protrusions into the sea; in contrast, the Balkan peninsular coast is rugged with numerous islands, especially in Croatia. The coast's ruggedness is exacerbated by the Dinaric Alps ' proximity to the coast, in contrast to the opposite (Italian) coast where
19780-474: The Austro-Hungarians and Germans launched the Battle of Caporetto (Italian name for Kobarid or Karfreit in German). Chlorine - arsenic agent and diphosgene gas shells were fired as part of a huge artillery barrage, followed by infantry using infiltration tactics, bypassing enemy strong points and attacking on the Italian rear. At the end of the first day, the Italians had retreated 19 kilometres (12 miles) to
20010-744: The Balkans and controlled the eastern shore of the sea, resulting in the Illyrian Wars from 229 to 168 BC. The initial Roman intervention in 229 BC, motivated in part by a desire to suppress Illyrian piracy in the Adriatic, marked the first time that the Roman navy crossed that sea to launch a military campaign. Those wars ended with the eastern shore becoming a province of the Roman Republic. However, resistance to Roman rule continued sporadically and Rome did not completely consolidate control of
20240-625: The Chamber of Deputies. The highest state administration was divided into the following ministries, with their headquarters in Rome: Due to the war, a number of other short-lived ministries were created during the First and Second World War . The Court of Auditors of the Kingdom had an independent status. The King of Italy was formally the holder of state power, but he could only exercise
20470-599: The Crown of Italy , the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus and the Order of the Annunciation around its collar, were added. The motto FERT was deleted. The lions carried lances that held the national flag. From the helmet fell a royal cloak, which was supposed to protect the nation. Above the coat of arms was the star of Italy (Italian Stella d’Italia ). The newly adopted national coat of arms of 1 January 1890 removed
20700-778: The Dalmatian islands (except Krk and Rab ), according to the secret London Pact of 1915. After the refusal by President Woodrow Wilson to acknowledge the London Pact and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, with the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920 Italian claims on Northern Dalmatia were abandoned. During World War II, the Kingdom gained additional territory in Slovenia ( province of Lubiana ) and Dalmatia ( Governatorate of Dalmatia ) from Yugoslavia after its breakup in 1941. The Kingdom established and maintained until
20930-525: The Dolomites. Numerous avalanches were caused by the Italians and Austro-Hungarians purposefully firing artillery shells on the mountainside, while others were naturally caused. In addition to building underground shelters and covered supply routes for their soldiers like the Italian Strada delle 52 Gallerie , both sides also attempted to break the stalemate of trench warfare by tunneling under no man's land and placing explosive charges beneath
21160-601: The Fascist Party an absolute majority of the Chamber seats. Between 1925 and 1943, Italy was a quasi- de jure Fascist dictatorship, as the constitution formally remained in effect without alteration while the monarchy formally accepted Fascist policies and institutions. In 1928 the Grand Council of Fascism took control of government administration, and in 1939 the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations replaced
21390-515: The Gotthard tunnel 90% of miners came from northern Italy, while at the Lötschberg tunnel 97% were Italian, chiefly from the south. In addition to the now completed nationalization of the railways, the planned nationalization of insurance was tackled and thetrade war with France, which had lasted since 1887, ended. Giolitti thereby interrupted Crispi's pro-German foreign policy and thus enabled
21620-685: The Gulf of Trieste (in the Northern Adriatic), Torre del Cerrano and Tremiti Islands in the Middle Adriatic basin and Torre Guaceto in southern Apulia. The Miramare protected area was established in 1986 and covers 30 hectares (74 acres) of coast and 90 hectares (220 acres) of sea. The area encompasses 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi) of coastline near the Miramare promontory in the Gulf of Trieste. The Torre del Cerrano protected area
21850-570: The Gulf of Trieste coast, especially along Slovenia's coast where the 80-metre (260 ft) Strunjan cliff —the highest cliff on the entire Adriatic and the only one of its type on the eastern Adriatic coast—is located, on the Kvarner Gulf coast opposite Krk, and in Dalmatia north of Split. Rocks of the same type are found in Albania and on the western Adriatic coast. There are alternations of maritime and alluvial sediments occurring in
22080-603: The Holy See against the Italian invaders. Italy's unification was completed and its capital moved to Rome. Victor Emmanuel, Garibaldi, Cavour, and Mazzini are remembered as Italy's Four Fathers of the Fatherland . Garibaldi was elected in 1871 in his home city of Nice to the French National Assembly , where he tried to promote the cession of the city from France to the newborn Italian unitary state. He
22310-477: The Isonzo , launched by the Italians in August, resulted in a success greater than the previous attacks. The offensive gained nothing of strategic value but did take Gorizia , which boosted Italian spirits. The Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth battles of the Isonzo (14 September – 4 November) managed to accomplish little except to wear down the already exhausted armies of both nations. The frequency of offensives for which
22540-539: The Italian general staff (Commando Supremo) under the direction of FM Luigi Cadorna , three main points were set: Although the Italian armed forces were numerically superior, things initially remained surprisingly quiet on the southwestern front. No attempt was made to break through on the Tyrolean front, and there was no major offensive on the Isonzo either. Due to the hesitant implementation of Cadorna's attack plans,
22770-624: The Italian republican drive for unification in Southern Italy. However, the Northern Italy monarchy of the House of Savoy in the Kingdom of Sardinia , whose government was led by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour , also had ambitions of establishing a united Italian state. In the context of the 1848 liberal revolutions that swept through Europe, an unsuccessful First Italian War of Independence , led by King Charles Albert of Sardinia ,
23000-593: The Italian soldiers partook between May 1915 and August 1917, one every three months, was higher than demanded by the armies on the Western Front. Italian discipline was also harsher, with punishments for infractions of duty of a severity not known in the German, French, and British armies. Shellfire in the rocky terrain caused 70% more casualties per rounds expended than on the soft ground in Belgium and France. By
23230-564: The Italians attempted another frontal assault against the Austro-Hungarian trench lines with more artillery in the Second Battle of the Isonzo . In the northern section of the front, the Italians managed to overrun Mount Batognica over Kobarid (Caporetto), which would have an important strategic value in future battles. This bloody offensive concluded in stalemate when both sides ran out of ammunition. The Italians recuperated, rearmed with 1200 heavy guns, and then on 18 October 1915 launched
23460-515: The Italians detonated explosives under the peaks of Col Di Lana, killing numerous Austro-Hungarians. The Italians directed a two-pronged attack against the Austrian lines north and east of Gorizia. The Austrians checked the advance east, but Italian forces under Luigi Capello managed to break the Austrian lines and capture the Banjšice Plateau . Characteristic of nearly every other theater of
23690-575: The Italians initially outnumbered their opponents three-to-one. An Italian offensive aimed to cross the Soča (Isonzo) river, take the fortress town of Gorizia , and then enter the Karst Plateau . This offensive opened the first Battles of the Isonzo . At the beginning of the First Battle of the Isonzo on 23 June 1915, Italian forces outnumbered the Austrians three-to-one but failed to penetrate
23920-561: The Kingdom of Italy was the result of efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire Italian Peninsula . Following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the political and social Italian unification movement, or Risorgimento , emerged to unite Italy consolidating the different states of the peninsula and liberate it from foreign control. A prominent radical figure
24150-711: The Kingdom of Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France, an event that caused the Niçard exodus , that was the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy. In 1860–1861, Garibaldi led the drive for unification in Naples and Sicily (the Expedition of the Thousand ), while the House of Savoy troops occupied the central territories of the Italian peninsula, except Rome and part of Papal States . Teano
24380-721: The Middle Adriatic islands area (large Dalmatian islands); the Middle Adriatic (characterized by the Middle Adriatic Depression); and the Southern Adriatic consisting of a coastal shelf and the Southern Adriatic Depression. Sediments deposited in the Adriatic Sea today generally come from the northwest coast, being carried by the Po, Reno , Adige , Brenta , Tagliamento , Piave and Soča rivers. The volume of sediments carried from
24610-684: The Napoleonic precedent, so their harmonization was relatively straightforward. The next challenge was to develop a parliamentary legislative system. Cavour and most liberals up and down the peninsula highly admired the British system , which became the model for Italy. Harmonizing the Navy ( Regia Marina ) and the Royal Italian Army was much more complex, chiefly because the systems of recruiting soldiers and selecting and promoting officers were so different and grandfathered exceptions to
24840-560: The Northern Adriatic, the Central Adriatic, and the Southern Adriatic. The unique nature of the Adriatic gives rise to an abundance of endemic flora and fauna. The Croatian National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan identified more than 7,000 animal and plant species in the Adriatic Sea. The Central Adriatic is especially abundant in endemic plant species, with 535 identified species of green , brown and red algae . Four out of five Mediterranean seagrass species are found in
25070-532: The Northern Adriatic, the coast of the Gulf of Trieste and western Istria is gradually subsiding, having sunk about 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) in the past two thousand years. In the Middle Adriatic Basin, there is evidence of Permian volcanism in the area of Komiža on the island of Vis and the volcanic islands of Jabuka and Brusnik . Earthquakes have been observed in the region since
25300-535: The Po, Soča , Krka , Neretva , Drin , Buna , and Vjosë . In the late 19th century, Austria-Hungary established a geodetic network with an elevation benchmark using the average Adriatic Sea level at the Sartorio pier in Trieste , Italy . The benchmark was subsequently retained by Austria , adopted by Yugoslavia , and retained by the states that emerged after its dissolution . In 2016, Slovenia adopted
25530-590: The Royal Decree of 17 July 1861 which specified the exchange of pre-unification coins into lire and the fact that local coins continued to be legal tender in their respective provinces of origin. In the entire period from 1861 to 1940, Italy experienced considerable economic growth despite several economic crises and the First World War. Unlike most modern nations, where industrialization was undertaken by large corporations , industrial growth in Italy
25760-467: The Sardinian government to declare a united Italian kingdom on 17 March 1861. Victor Emmanuel II , since March 1849 King of Sardinia, then became the first king of a united Italy, and the capital was moved from Turin to Florence. The title of "King of Italy" had been out of use since the abdication of Napoleon I of France on 6 April 1814. Following the unification of most of Italy, tensions between
25990-636: The Strait of Otranto—acting as a mineralization site. The exchange of the substances is made more complex by bathymetry of the Adriatic Sea—75% of water flowing north through the strait recirculates at the Palagruža Sill and North Adriatic adds no more than 3–4% of water to the South Adriatic. This is reflected in its biogeography and ecology , and particularly in the composition and properties of its ecosystems . Its main biogeographic units are
26220-470: The Western Front. As a result of the Spring Offensive, Britain and France also pulled half of their divisions back to the Western Front. The Austro-Hungarians now began debating how to finish the war in Italy. The Austro-Hungarian generals disagreed on how to administer the final offensive. Archduke Joseph August of Austria decided for a two-pronged offensive, where it would prove impossible for
26450-402: The action of a third Power or otherwise, Austria-Hungary or Italy should find themselves under the necessity of modifying it by a temporary or permanent occupation on their part, this occupation shall take place only after a previous agreement between the two Powers, based upon the principle of reciprocal compensation for every advantage, territorial or other, which each of them might obtain beyond
26680-499: The aim of establishing a base of heavy industry. In the 1880s industrialisation moved into high gear, which lasted until 1912/13 and reached its peak under Giolitti . Industrial plants soon clustered around areas of hydropower energy. Between 1887 and 1911 hydroelectricity became the main source of energy, with over sixty plants constructed. From 1881 to 1887, Italy's textile, mechanical, steel, iron, and chemical industries grew by an average 4.6 percent annually. The backbone of
26910-403: The aim to break through to the Po River plain and thus cutting off the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Italian Armies in the North East of the country. The offensive began on 15 May 1916 with 15 divisions, and resulted in initial gains, but then the Italians counterattacked and pushed the Austro-Hungarians back to the Tyrol. Later in 1916, four more battles along the Isonzo river erupted. The Sixth Battle of
27140-460: The annual total discharge into the entire Mediterranean Sea, the Po is ranked second, followed by the Neretva and Drin , which rank as third and fourth. Another significant contributor of freshwater to the Adriatic is the submarine groundwater discharge through submarine springs ( Croatian : vrulja ); it is estimated to comprise 29% of the total water flux into the Adriatic. The submarine springs include thermal springs , discovered offshore near
27370-467: The area around Gorizia . This area is also sparsely populated and characterized by a harsh climate with cold winters and very hot and dry summers. A craggy karst landscape spreads out around the Isonzo valley, which adjoins the Italian foothills of the Alps in the southwest. The topographical characteristics of the front area had a concrete impact on the conduct of the war. The rocky ground, for example, made it difficult to dig trenches and in addition,
27600-453: The army had only succeeded in procuring 900 rounds per rifle. Meanwhile, Emilio De Bono records that " throughout 1915 hand-grenades remained unheard of in the trenches ". Italy's first machine guns were prototypes, as the Perino Model 1908 , or Maxim guns acquired in 1913 from the British manufacturer Vickers. In line with the 1911 plan for creating 602 machine gun sections. By August 1914 only 150 of these had been created, meaning there
27830-427: The automobile industry commenced when Giovanni Agnelli bought the designs and patents of the Ceirano brothers and founded the Fiat automobile works. In 1906 another automobile factory was built in the Portello district of Milan for the French entrepreneur Alexandre Darracq and the headquarters of his Italian branch Società Anonima Italiana Darracq . In 1910, the company brought the first successful model onto
28060-408: The autumn of 1917 the Italian army had suffered most of the deaths it was to incur during the war, yet the end of the war seemed to still be an eternity away. This was not the same line of thought for the Austro-Hungarians. On 25 August, the Emperor Charles wrote to the Kaiser the following: "The experience we have acquired in the eleventh battle has led me to believe that we should fare far worse in
28290-444: The barriers are made to seal off three inlets that lead to the Venetian Lagoon and counteract floods of up to ten feet; in addition to protecting the city from flooding, the barrier system is also intended to stabilize Venice's water levels so as to minimize erosion of the brick walls and, subsequently, the foundations of various buildings in the city. However, concern has been raised regarding the frequency of its use—while only necessary
28520-494: The borders of Europe should be redefined to help avoid a future European war. The talks provided little territorial gain to Italy as Wilson promised freedom to all European nationalities to form their nation-states. As a result, the Treaty of Versailles did not assign Dalmatia and Albania to Italy as had been promised. Furthermore, the British and French decided to divide the German overseas colonies into their mandates, with Italy receiving none. Italy also gained no territory from
28750-410: The boundary between the Adriatic and Ionian seas at various places ranging from adjacent to the Gulf of Venice to the southern tip of the Peloponnese , eastern shores of Sicily and western shores of Crete . Mare Superum on the other hand normally encompassed both the modern Adriatic Sea and the sea off the Apennine peninsula's southern coast, as far as the Strait of Sicily . Another name used in
28980-493: The breakup of the Ottoman Empire . Despite this, Orlando agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which caused uproar against his government. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Rapallo (1920) allowed the annexation of Trentino Alto-Adige , Julian March , Istria , Kvarner as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara . Furious over the peace settlement, the Italian nationalist poet Gabriele D'Annunzio led disaffected war veterans and nationalists to form
29210-436: The campaign moved inland. Marc Antony and Octavian (later Augustus) crossed the Adriatic to Dyrrachium with their armies in their campaign against two of Caesar's assassins, Brutus and Cassius , that culminated in the Battle of Philippi . Brundisium and Dyrrachium remained important ports well after the Roman period, but an earthquake in the 3rd century AD changed the path of a river causing Apollonia's harbor to silt up, and
29440-481: The capture of Rome in 1870 from French forces of Napoleon III , Papal troops, and Zouaves , relations between Italy and the Vatican remained sour for the next sixty years, with the Popes declaring themselves to be prisoners in the Vatican . The Catholic Church in Italy frequently protested the anti-clerical actions of the secular Italian governments, refused to meet with envoys from the King, and urged Roman Catholics not to vote in Italian elections. Not until 1929
29670-415: The challenges of bureaucratic coordination. Italy has a long history of different coinage types . Italian unification highlighted the confusion of the pre-unification Italian monetary system which was mostly based on silver monometallism and therefore in contrast with the gold monometallism in force in the Kingdom of Sardinia and in the major European nations. To reconcile the various monetary systems it
29900-413: The chance to score the decisive blow right at the beginning was lost. FML Cletus Pichler, the chief of staff of the LVK Tirol, wrote: A general attack on the most important penetration points, such as the Stilfser Joch, Etschtal, Valsugana, Rollepass [sic], [and] Kreuzbergpass, [...] could have led to significant enemy successes in view of the extremely weak defense forces in May. That the opportunity for
30130-488: The city to decline. Another city on the Italian coast of the Adriatic that increased in importance during the Roman era was Ravenna . During the reign of Augustus, it became a major naval base as part of his program to re-organize the Roman navy to better protect commerce in the Mediterranean. During the 4th century AD the emperors of the Western Roman Empire had moved their official residence north from Rome to Mediolanum (now Milan ) in order to be better able to control
30360-489: The coast, such as the Italian cities of Ravenna and Lecce . Venice , which was originally built on islands off the coast, is most at risk due to subsidence, but the threat is present in the Po delta as well. The causes are a decrease in sedimentation rate due to loss of sediment behind dams, the deliberate excavation of sand for industrial purposes, agricultural use of water, and removal of ground water. The sinking of Venice slowed after artesian wells were banned in
30590-537: The completion of the Simplon Tunnel in 1906. Shortly after the railway began its triumphal march through Switzerland , each region wanted its own north-south connection and with the construction of the railway tunnels on the Gotthard 14,998 km (1872–1880), Simplon 19,803 km (1898–1906) and Lötschberg 14,612 km (1907–1913), three major Alpine crossings were realized that were important for Switzerland and neighboring European countries. The workforce of these monumental projects were largely Italians: at
30820-418: The construction of an offshore and an onshore LNG terminal in the Gulf of Trieste , as well as a pipeline, in the immediate vicinity of the Slovenian–Italian border. The Slovenian government and municipalities, the municipal council of Trieste, and non-governmental organisations have voiced concern over their environmental hazards, effect on transport and effect on tourism. Another source of pollution of
31050-418: The construction of the new Italian ocean liner SS Rex , which set a transatlantic sea voyage record of four days in 1933, and the development of the seaplane Macchi-Castoldi M.C.72 , which was the world's fastest seaplane in 1933. In 1933, Italo Balbo completed a flight across the Atlantic in a seaplane to the World's Fair in Chicago . The flight symbolized the power of the Fascist leadership and
31280-399: The control of a substantial part of the eastern Adriatic coast by the Kingdom of Hungary after a personal union was established between Croatia and Hungary in 1102. In this period, the Republic of Venice began to expand its territory and influence. In 1202, the Fourth Crusade was diverted to conquer Zadar at the behest of the Venetians—the first instance of a Crusader force attacking
31510-479: The crow flies. Taking into account the natural terrain, the many yokes, peaks and ridges with the resulting differences in height, the effective length was several thousand kilometers. The front touched very different geographical areas: in the first three sections - from the Stelvio Pass to the Julian Alps in the area of Tarvisio , it ran through mountainous territory, where the average ridge heights reached 2,700 to 3,200 meters. The higher mountainous regions have
31740-421: The disadvantaged regions of the south followed. However, their implementation mostly failed due to the resistance of the large landowners. Nevertheless, there was a significant improvement in the economic situation of smallholders . In 1911, 55.4% of the Italian population worked in agriculture and 26.9% in industry . Strong social tensions came to light, Italy's social legislation took last place in Europe,
31970-542: The disappointment of Italy's allies, no counter-offensive followed the Battle of Piave. The Italian Army had suffered huge losses in the battle, and considered an offensive dangerous. General Armando Diaz waited for more reinforcements to arrive from the Western Front. By the end of October 1918, Austro-Hungary was in a dire situation. Czechoslovakia, Croatia, and Slovenia proclaimed their independence and parts of their troops started deserting, disobeying orders and retreating. Many Czechoslovak troops, in fact, started working for
32200-426: The earliest historical records. A recent strong earthquake in the region was the 1979 Montenegro earthquake , measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale . Historical earthquakes in the area include the 1627 Gargano peninsula and the 1667 Dubrovnik earthquakes, both followed by strong tsunamis. In the last 600 years, fifteen tsunamis have occurred in the Adriatic Sea. All types of seafloor sediments are found in
32430-582: The eastern Adriatic coast, related to the Cardium pottery culture. During classical antiquity, Illyrians inhabited the eastern coast, and the western coast was inhabited by the peoples of Ancient Italy , mainly Etruscans , before the Roman Republic 's rise. Greek colonisation of the Adriatic dates back to the 7th and 6th centuries BC when the ancient cities of Epidamnos and Apollonia were founded. The Greeks soon expanded further north establishing several cities, including Ancona , Black Corcyra , Epidaurus , Issa , with trade established as far north as
32660-521: The eastern Adriatic shore and the Po Valley, while the Kingdom of Italy gradually took control of the remaining Italian coast during the 19th century. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, control of the eastern coast passed to Yugoslavia and Albania, which agreed on their maritime boundaries with Italy in 1975 and 1992 respectively. After Yugoslavia's dissolution during the 1990s, its four coastal successor states—Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro—continued to recognise
32890-485: The eastern shore by the Rječina , Zrmanja , Krka, Cetina , Ombla , Dragonja , Mirna , Raša and Neretva rivers is negligible, because these sediments are mostly deposited at the river mouths. The Adriatic's western shores are largely either alluvial or terraced , whereas the eastern shores are predominantly rocky, except for the southernmost part of the shore located in Albania that consists of sandy coves and rocky capes. The eastern Adriatic shore's Croatian part
33120-487: The end of World War II colonies, protectorates, military occupations and puppet states beyond its borders. These included Eritrea , Italian Somaliland , Libya , Ethiopia (annexed by Italy from 1936 to 1941), Albania (an italian protectorate since 1939), British Somaliland , part of Greece , Corsica, southern France with Monaco , Tunisia , Kosovo and Montenegro (all territories occupied in World War II) Croatia (Italian and German client state in World War II), and
33350-476: The end of the Roman Republic and the start of the imperial period . Sulla used it during the First Mithridatic War . During Caesar's Civil War , there was a three-month delay in Caesar's Balkan campaign against Pompey caused when winter storms on the Adriatic and a naval blockade held up Mark Antony from reaching him from Brundisium with reinforcements; after the reinforcements finally arrived Caesar made an unsuccessful attempt to capture Dyrrachium before
33580-435: The enemy's positions. Between 1 January 1916 and 13 March 1918, Austro-Hungarian and Italian units fired a total of 34 mines in this theatre of the war. Focal points of the underground fighting were Pasubio with 10 mines, Lagazuoi with 5, Col di Lana/Monte Sief also with 5, and Marmolada with 4 mines. The explosive charges ranged from 110 to 50,000 kilograms (240–110,230 pounds) of blasting gelatin . In April 1916,
33810-417: The entire Italian peninsula from that city. In 568 AD the Lombards invaded northern Italy, and over the course of the next century or so the importance of the Exarchate declined as the territory under Lombard control expanded and as the Byzantine outpost of Venice became increasingly independent. In 752 AD the Lombards overthrew the Exarchate, ending the influence of the Byzantine Empire on the western shore of
34040-429: The eruption of Vesuvius in 1906 and the earthquake in Messina , Calabria , and Palmi in 1908. Entire villages were depopulated and centuries-old regional cultures disappeared. Nevertheless, there was a slight economic upswing in the south afterwards. The government, which had initially discouraged emigration to avoid labor shortages , now gave its approval to the emigration of hundreds of thousands of Italians from
34270-405: The export of fruit, vegetables and wine to France. He also boosted the cultivation of sugar beets and their processing in the Po Valley and encouraged heavy industry to gain a foothold in the south as well. However, the latter was not very successful. In 1908, some laws limiting working hours for women and children up to 12 hours were passed with the support of the Socialist MPs. Special laws for
34500-481: The first Italian built locomotives with the FS Class 113 and the later FS Class 650 . The first railway section on the island of Sicily was inaugurated on 28 April 1863 with the Palermo – Bagheria line. By 1914 the Italian railway had around 17,000 km of railways. During the Fascist dictatorship, enormous sums were invested in new technological achievements, especially in military technology. But large sums of money were also spent on prestige projects such as
34730-438: The flight of the Hungarians, and which had announced the union to the Kingdom of Italy. The Regia Marina occupied Pola , Sebenico and Zara , which became the capital of the Governorate of Dalmatia .The Governorate of Dalmatia had the provisional aim of ferrying the territory towards full integration into the Kingdom of Italy, progressively importing national legislation in place of the previous one. The Governorate of Dalmatia
34960-421: The former are found in the Adriatic Sea, as well as in the southern Alps and the Dinaric Alps , and remnants of the latter are seen as the Gargano Promontory and the Maiella mountain. In the Eocene and early Oligocene , the plate moved north and north-east, contributing to the Alpine orogeny (along with the African and Eurasian Plates ' movements) via the tectonic uplift of the Dinarides and Alps. In
35190-411: The former being intermittent and the latter permanent. The SAG measures 150 kilometres (93 miles) in diameter. It contributes to the flow of bottom water from the Adriatic to the Levantine Basin through the Ionian Sea. Through that process, the Adriatic Sea produces most of the East Mediterranean deep water. The Adriatic's surface temperature usually ranges from 22 to 30 °C (72 to 86 °F) in
35420-424: The front came to an end with the entry into force of the armistice of Villa Giusti on 4 November 1918. Italy entered into World War I also with the aim of completing national unity with the annexation of Trentino-Alto Adige and Julian March : for this reason, the Italian intervention in the World War I is also considered the Fourth Italian War of Independence , in a historiographical perspective that identifies in
35650-408: The front line, from the 5 and 6 divisions respectively provided. Far more decisive to the war effort than their troops was the Allies economic assistance by providing strategic materials (steel, coal and crops – provided by the British but imported from Argentina – etc.), which Italy always lacked sorely. In the spring of 1918, Germany pulled out its troops for use in its upcoming Spring Offensive on
35880-454: The fur coat and the lances and the crown on the helmet was replaced by the Iron Crown of the Lombards . The whole group stood under a canopy , crowned with the Italian royal crown, above which was the banner of Italy. The flagpole was carried by a golden crowned eagle . On 11 April 1929, Mussolini replaced the two Savoy lions with lictor's bundles . Only after his dismissal in 1944 was the old coat of arms from 1890 restored. The birth of
36110-466: The general system persisted for decades. The disorganization helps explain the dismal performance of the Italian navy in the 1866 war . Uniformizing the diverse education systems also proved complicated. Shortly before his death, Cavour appointed Francesco De Sanctis as minister of education, an eminent scholar from the University of Naples who proved an able and patient administrator. The addition of Veneto in 1866 and Rome in 1870 further complicated
36340-476: The industrial and technological progress the state had made under the Fascists. During the 1860s and 1870s, Italian manufacturing was backward and small-scale, while the oversized agrarian sector was the backbone of the national economy. The country lacked large coal and iron deposits. In the 1880s, a severe farm crisis led to the introduction of more modern farming techniques in the Po Valley , while from 1878 to 1887 protectionist policies were introduced with
36570-444: The industrial boom was, next to the labor force, institutions of higher learning such as the Politecnico founded in Milan in 1863 by Francesco Brioschi and the Technical School for Engineers in Turin established four years earlier. Steelworks were established with state and private capital, notably from the Credito Mobiliare : in 1884 in Terni and in 1897 in Piombino using iron-ore from Elba . The relative backwardness of
36800-418: The karst rock in the Isonzo Valley turned out to be an additional danger for the soldiers. If grenades exploded on the porous surface fragments of the exploding rock acted as additional shrapnel. Archduke Eugen , who was already in command of the Balkan forces, was promoted to Generaloberst on May 22, 1915 and was given supreme command of the new southwest front. Together with his chief of staff Alfred Krauß
37030-406: The king as his successor. On 28 March Victor Emmanuel III appointed Fortis as the new prime minister, making him the first Jewish head of government worldwide. With Law 137 of 22 April 1905 he sanctioned the nationalization of the railways through a public recruitment process under the control of the Court of Audit and the supervision of the Ministries of Public Works and Finance. At the same time,
37260-470: The largest— Cres and Krk , each covering about the same area of 405.78 square kilometres (156.67 sq mi)—and the tallest— Brač , whose peak reaches 780 metres (2,560 ft) above sea level. The islands of Cres and the adjacent Lošinj are separated only by a narrow navigable canal dug in the time of classical antiquity ; the original single island was known to the Greeks as Apsyrtides . The Croatian islands include 47 permanently inhabited ones ,
37490-403: The latter the conclusion of the unification of Italy , whose military actions began during the revolutions of 1848 with the First Italian War of Independence . However, if, in the course of events, the maintenance of the status quo in the regions of the Balkans or of the Ottoman coasts and islands in the Adriatic and in the Aegean Sea should become impossible, and if, whether in consequence of
37720-408: The local population, and several thousand civilians died from malnutrition and illness in Italian and Austro-Hungarian refugee camps . Military operations came to an end in 1918 with Italian victory and the capture of Trento and Trieste by Italy's forces. Austria-Hungary disintegrated due to military defeats and subsequent turmoils caused by pacifists and separatists. All military operations on
37950-508: The locals in the upper Adriatic for thousands of years. The very large schools consisted mainly of little tunny and moved as far as the Gulf of Trieste . However, increasing fishing prevented the migration of large schools of fish to the north. The last major tuna catch was made there in 1954 by the fishermen from Santa Croce, Contovello and Barcola . The Northern Adriatic in particular is rich in endemic fish fauna. Around thirty species of fish are found in only one or two countries bordering
38180-412: The major party, but were unable to form a government in a parliament split among the three factions of Socialists, Christian populists , and classical liberals . Elections took place in 1919, 1921 and 1924: on this last occasion, Mussolini abolished proportional representation, replacing it with the Acerbo Law , by which the party that won the largest share of votes got two-thirds of the seats, which gave
38410-411: The marine and coastal protected nature areas are the Sečovlje Salina Landscape Park , Strunjan Landscape Park , Škocjan Inlet Nature Reserve , and the Debeli Rtič , Cape Madona and Lakes in Fiesa natural monuments. The Sečovlje Salina Landscape Park was established in 1990, covers 721 hectares (1,780 acres), and includes four nature reserves . In 1993, the area was designated a Ramsar site; it
38640-435: The market with the 24 HP and the brand name ALFA on the radiator grille. While automobiles were only affordable by few its popularity and fascination rose rapidly, and one of the first sports car racing events in the world, the Targa Florio , held annually in the mountains of Sicily was established in 1906. In the financial sector, Prime Minister Giolitti was mainly concerned with increasing pensions and restructuring
38870-425: The military frontier with the Germanic tribes. In 402 AD, during a period of repeated Germanic invasions of Italy, the capital was shifted to Ravenna because nearby marshes made it more defensible, and the Adriatic provided an easy escape path by sea. When the Western Empire fell in 476 AD Ravenna became the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. In the Early Middle Ages , after the Roman Empire's decline ,
39100-441: The most populous among them being Krk, Korčula and Brač. The islands along the Adriatic's western (Italian) coast are smaller and less numerous than those along the opposite coast; the best-known ones are the 117 islands on which the city of Venice is built. The northern shore of the Greek island of Corfu also lies in the Adriatic Sea as defined by the IHO. The IHO boundary places the Diapontia Islands (northwest of Corfu) in
39330-459: The neglect of agriculture, which declined after 1873. The Italian parliament initiated an investigation in 1877, which lasted eight years and blamed the lack of mechanization and modern farming techniques, and the failure of landowners to develop their lands. In addition, most farm laborers were temporary inexperienced short-term workers ( braccianti ). Farmers without a steady income were forced to subsist on meager food. Disease spread rapidly and
39560-418: The newly appointed Italian commander, general Luigi Cadorna . Moreover, preexisting equipment and munition shortages slowed progress and frustrated all expectations for a "Napoleonic style" breakout. Like most contemporaneous militaries, the Italian army primarily used horses for transport but struggled and sometimes failed to supply the troops sufficiently in the tough terrain. Two weeks later on 18 July 1915,
39790-444: The northern part of the eastern shore; Istria contained the important Roman colony at Pula and was incorporated into the province of Italy . During the Roman period, Brundisium, on the western shore, and Apollonia and Dyrrachium (originally called Epidamnos, now Durrës in Albania) on the eastern shore became important ports. Brundisium was linked by the Via Appia road to the city of Rome, and Dyrrachium and Apollonia were both on
40020-407: The northwest of Dubrovnik, adding to the Dalmatian islands as the Eurasian Plate slides over the Adriatic microplate. Furthermore, the fault causes the Apennine peninsula's southern tip to move towards the opposite shore by about 0.4 centimetres (0.16 in) per year. If this movement continues, the seafloor will be completely consumed and the Adriatic Sea closed off in 50–70 million years. In
40250-496: The only area where shortages were acute. In August 1914 the Italian army had at its disposal only 750,000 rifles of the standard Carcano 1891 model and no hand grenades available at all. This inadequate supply of equipment especially limited the scope and efficiency of training throughout 1914 and 1915. Munitions were also urgently needed: in July 1914 only ca. 700 rounds were available per rifle, despite Cadorna's demand that 2,000 rounds each be found in preparation for war, by May 1915
40480-451: The organization later changed with Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro replacing Yugoslavia. Future pollution hazards are addressed and pollution hotspots are assessed not only by nations in the basin but also through regional projects with World Bank support. 27 such hotspots have been determined as of 2011, 6 warranting an urgent response. Settlements along the Adriatic dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC appear in Albania and Dalmatia on
40710-405: The period was Mare Dalmaticum , applied to waters off the coast of Dalmatia or Illyricum . During the early modern period , the entire sea was also known as the Gulf of Venice ( Italian : golfo di Venezia ), although that name is now informally applied only to the northern area of the sea, from Maestra Point in the Po Delta to Cape Kamenjak on the Istrian Peninsula . The names for
40940-442: The political and administrative systems of the seven different major components under a unified set of policies. The different regions were proud of their traditions and could not easily be fitted into the Sardinian model. Cavour started planning for integration, but died (on 6 June 1861) before it was fully developed – indeed, the challenge is thought to have hastened his early death . The regional administrative bureaucracies followed
41170-420: The political spectrum. The subsequent Treaty of Rome (1924) led to the annexation of the city of Fiume to Italy. Italy's lack of territorial gain led to the outcome being denounced as a mutilated victory . The rhetoric of mutilated victory was adopted by Mussolini and led to the rise of Italian fascism , becoming a key point in the propaganda of Fascist Italy . Historians regard mutilated victory as
41400-494: The presence of both chambers. According to the law of 17 March 1861, his title was: " By the grace of God and by the will of the nation, King of Italy and King of Albania (only from 1939 to 1943) and Emperor of Ethiopia (only from 1936 to 1943)". He awarded the five Orders of Knighthood of Savoy and exercised constitutional sovereign rights. He commanded the land, sea and air power; he declared wars, concluded peace, alliance, trade and other treaties, of which only those that entailed
41630-422: The present sea level, exposed during the Last Glacial Maximum . It is estimated that some karst formations are from earlier sea level drops, most notably the Messinian salinity crisis . Similarly, karst developed in Apulia from the Apulian Carbonate Platform. The largest part of the eastern coast consists of carbonate rocks, while flysch (a particular type of sedimentary rock) is significantly represented in
41860-449: The present status quo, and giving satisfaction to the interests and well-founded claims of the two Parties. The Italian Front stretched from the Stelvio Pass (at the border triangle between Italy, Austria-Hungary and Switzerland) along the Tyrolean , Carinthian , and Littoral borders to the Isonzo . Its total length was around 600 kilometers, of which 450 kilometers ran in high alpine terrain. This information relates to measurements as
42090-428: The previous maritime border with Italy, but have disputed the borders between themselves. Fisheries and tourism are significant sources of income all along the Adriatic coast. Adriatic Croatia 's tourism industry has grown faster economically than the rest of the Adriatic Basin 's. Maritime transport is also a significant branch of the area's economy—there are 19 seaports in the Adriatic that each handle more than
42320-407: The proportion employed in agriculture fell below 50% around the turn of the century. However, not everyone benefited from these developments, as southern agriculture in particular suffered from the hot arid climate , while in the north malaria hampered cultivation of low-lying areas on the Adriatic coast. The government's focus on foreign and military policy in the early years of the state led to
42550-474: The rear or as POWs) amounted to 4,538 officers and 150,812 soldiers, for a total of 155,350 dead. The losses were increasing over time; there were 31,135 killed in 1915, 38,519 in 1916, 42,309 in 1917 and 43,387 in 1918. While in 1915 killed-in-action fatalities on the Italian front constituted 18% of all Austro-Hungarian KIAs, in 1916 this figure was 41%, in 1917 it was 64%, and in 1918 it stood at 84%. Italian soldiers entered Trento while Bersaglieri landed from
42780-414: The region until Augustus 's general Tiberius put down the Great Illyrian Revolt , a bitter struggle waged from 6 to 9 AD. Following the repression of the revolt the Roman province of Illyricum was split into Dalmatia and Pannonia . Most of the eastern shore of the Adriatic was part of Dalmatia, except for the southernmost portion, part of the province of Macedonia , and the peninsula of Istria on
43010-405: The right of legislation in conjunction with the national parliament, and the government was de facto responsible to parliament. According to the Salic Law , the throne was inherited in the male line of the royal House of Savoy . The king and his house professed allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church . He came of age at the age of 18 and, upon assuming power, took an oath to the constitution in
43240-587: The royalists and republicans erupted. In April 1861, Garibaldi entered the Italian parliament and challenged Cavour's leadership, accusing him of dividing Italy, and threatened a civil war between the Kingdom in the North and his forces in the South. On 6 June 1861, the Kingdom's strongman Cavour died. During the ensuing political instability, Garibaldi and the republicans became increasingly revolutionary in tone. Garibaldi's arrest in 1862 set off worldwide controversy. In 1866, Otto von Bismarck , Minister President of Prussia , offered Victor Emmanuel II an alliance with
43470-401: The sea in Trieste. The following day the Istrian cities of Rovigno and Parenzo , the Dalmatian islands of Lissa , Lagosta and Lissa , and the cities of Zara and Fiume were occupied: the latter was not included in the territories originally promised secretly by the Allies to Italy in case of victory, but the Italians decided to intervene in reply to a local National Council, formed after
43700-446: The sea in the languages of the surrounding countries include Albanian : Deti Adriatik ; Emilian : Mèr Adriatic ; Friulian : Mâr Adriatic ; Greek : Αδριατική θάλασσα , romanized : Adriatikí thálassa ; Istro Romanian : Marea Adriatică ; Italian : Mare Adriatico ; Serbo-Croatian : Jadransko more , Јадранско море; Slovene : Jadransko morje ; Venetian : Mar Adriàtico . In Serbo-Croatian and Slovene,
43930-411: The sea is often referred to as simply Jadran . The Adriatic Sea is a semi-enclosed sea, bordered in the southwest by the Apennine or Italian Peninsula , in the northwest by the Italian regions of Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia , and in the northeast by Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro , and Albania —the Balkan peninsula . In the southeast, the Adriatic Sea connects to
44160-541: The semi-closed sea on larger scales. Largest of these live normally is the fin whale , and sperm whale , the largest of toothed whales also migrate but less common than fin whales, followed by Cuvier's beaked whales . Basking sharks and manta rays are some of migrant species to the sea. Historical presences of depleted or extinct species such as North Atlantic right whales (extinct or functionally extinct), Atlantic gray whales (extinct), and humpback whales have been speculated as well. Tuna has been caught by
44390-401: The socialists were opposed not only to social policy but also to colonial expansion. Prime Minister Francesco Crispi financed the colonial policy with tax increases and austerity measures. The internal political differences culminated in the Bava Beccaris massacre in Milan. There, on 7 May 1898, there were mass demonstrations against rising bread prices. General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris , after
44620-409: The south continued to be a central problem for the state. Various solutions were proposed for the so-called " Southern question " by Francesco Saverio Nitti , Gaetano Salvemini and Sidney Sonnino, but the government only acted in special problem areas such as Naples . The ILVA group of Genoa , with the political and financial backing of the Italian state, built the Bagnoli steel plant as part of
44850-466: The south. This was motivated by fear of increasing social tensions and monetary instability. In 1906 the government lowered the national interest tax rate from 5% to 3.75%. This move eased the burden on the state's required finances, reduced the fears of state bondholders , and encouraged the growth of heavy industry . The subsequent budget surplus made it possible to finance major government work projects which massively reduced unemployment , such as
45080-410: The southeast. It is the largest Mediterranean shelf and is simultaneously a dilution basin and a site of bottom water formation. The Middle Adriatic basin is south of the Ancona–Zadar line, with the 270-metre (890 ft) deep Middle Adriatic Pit (also called the Pomo Depression or the Jabuka Pit). The 170-metre (560 ft) deep Palagruža Sill is south of the Middle Adriatic Pit, separating it from
45310-435: The southern Apennine peninsula. In addition, the Papal States were carved out in the area around Rome and central Italy in the 8th century. The High Middle Ages in the Adriatic Sea basin saw further territorial changes, including the Norman conquest of southern Italy ending the Byzantine presence on the Apennine peninsula in the 11th and 12th centuries (the territory would become the Kingdom of Naples in 1282) and
45540-430: The state and its creditors. It consisted of a president, three section presidents, 24 councilors of state and the service staff, and was appointed by the king on the proposal of the Council of Ministers. There was brief experimentation in 1882 with multi-member districts, and after World War I proportional representation was introduced with large, regional, multi-seat electoral constituencies. The Socialists became
45770-438: The state of siege was declared, fired artillery and rifles at the crowd. Depending on the information, between 82 and 300 people were killed. King Umberto I congratulated the general in a telegram and awarded him a medal. This made him enemies, and in 1900 he, who had been king for 22 years, was shot in Monza by the anarchist Gaetano Bresci . Adriatic Sea The Adriatic Sea ( / ˌ eɪ d r i ˈ æ t ɪ k / )
46000-441: The strong Austro-Hungarian defensive lines in the highlands of northwestern Gorizia and Gradisca . Because the Austrian forces occupied higher ground, Italians conducted difficult offensives while climbing. The Italian forces therefore failed to drive much beyond the river, and the battle ended on 7 July 1915. Despite a professional officer corps, severely under-equipped Italian units lacked morale. Also many troops deeply disliked
46230-406: The summer, or 12 to 14 °C (54 to 57 °F) in the winter, except along the western Adriatic coast's northern part, where it drops to 9 °C (48 °F) in the winter. The distinct seasonal temperature variations, with a longitudinal gradient in the Northern and transversal gradient in the Middle and Southern Adriatic, are attributed to the continental characteristics of the Adriatic Sea: it
46460-415: The support of 50% of votes and 25% of all enrolled voters to be elected in the first round of ballots. Seats not adjudicated on the first ballot, were filled through a runoff held shortly after the first ballots. In addition to this, there was a Council of State , which had consultative powers and decided on conflicts of jurisdiction between administrative authorities and courts, as well as on disputes between
46690-478: The surface and the cold and dense water mass at the bottom. The coastal currents on the opposite shore are far more complex owing to the jagged shoreline, several large islands and the proximity of the Dinaric Alps to the shore. The last produces significant temperature variations between the sea and the hinterland, which leads to the creation of local jets. The tidal movement is normally slight, usually remaining below 30 centimetres (12 in). The amphidromic point
46920-469: The town of Izola . The thermal spring water is rich with hydrogen sulfide , has a temperature of 22 to 29.6 °C (71.6 to 85.3 °F), and has enabled the development of specific ecosystems. The inflow of freshwater, representing a third of the freshwater volume flowing into the Mediterranean, makes the Adriatic a dilution basin for the Mediterranean Sea. The Middle and South Adriatic Gyres (SAG), are significant cyclonic circulation features, with
47150-462: The twelfth. My commanders and brave troops have decided that such an unfortunate situation might be anticipated by an offensive. We have not the necessary means as regards troops." From 1915, the high peaks of the Dolomites range were an area of fierce mountain warfare . In order to protect their soldiers from enemy fire and the hostile alpine environment, both Austro-Hungarian and Italian military engineers constructed fighting tunnels which offered
47380-549: The two forces to communicate in the mountains. The Second Battle of the Piave River began with a diversionary attack near the Tonale Pass named Lawine, which the Italians repulsed after two days of fighting. Austrian deserters betrayed the objectives of the upcoming offensive, which allowed the Italians to move two armies directly in the path of the Austrian prongs. The other prong, led by general Svetozar Boroević von Bojna initially experienced success until aircraft bombed their supply lines and Italian reinforcements arrived. To
47610-414: The unification period as continuing past 1871, including activities during the late 19th century and the First World War (1915–1918), and reaching completion only with the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 4 November 1918. This more expansive view of the unification is presented at the Central Museum of the Risorgimento . A major challenge for the prime ministers of the new Kingdom of Italy was integrating
47840-478: The war, the Italians found themselves on the verge of victory but could not secure it because their supply lines could not keep up with the front-line troops and they were forced to withdraw. However, the Italians despite suffering heavy casualties had almost exhausted and defeated the Austro-Hungarian army on the front, forcing them to call in German help for the much anticipated Caporetto Offensive. The Austro-Hungarians received desperately needed reinforcements after
48070-506: The western powers promised territorial compensation (at the expense of Austria-Hungary) for participation that was more generous than Vienna's offer in exchange for Italian neutrality. Victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations , but it did not receive all the territories it was promised . In 1922, Benito Mussolini became prime minister of Italy, ushering in an era of National Fascist Party government known as " Fascist Italy ". Authoritarian rule
48300-439: The winter lull, the Italians launched the Fifth Battle of the Isonzo on 9 March 1916, and captured the strategic Mount Sabatino. But Austria-Hungary repulsed all other attacks, and the battle concluded on 16 March in poor weather for trench warfare. Following Italy's stalemate, the Austro-Hungarian forces began planning a counteroffensive ( Battle of Asiago ) in Trentino and directed over the plateau of Altopiano di Asiago , with
48530-503: The year is likewise distinct: it ranges between 38 and 39 PSUs . The southern Adriatic is subjected to saltier water from the Levantine Basin. According to the Köppen climate classification , the upper half of the Adriatic is classified as humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ), with wetter summers and colder and drier winters, and the southern Adriatic are classified as hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csa ) . The air temperature can fluctuate by about 20 °C (36 °F) during
48760-422: Was proclaimed King of Italy , until 10 June 1946, when the monarchy was abolished, following civil discontent that led to an institutional referendum on 2 June 1946 . This resulted in a modern Italian Republic . The kingdom was established through the unification of several states over a decades-long process, called the Risorgimento . That process was influenced by the Savoy -led Kingdom of Sardinia , which
48990-435: Was 4 metres (13 ft) per year. In the 12th century, the delta advanced at a rate of 25 metres (82 ft) per year. In the 17th century, the delta began to become a human-controlled environment, as the excavation of artificial channels started; the channels and new distributaries of the Po have been prograding at rates of 50 metres (160 ft) per year or more since then. There are more than 20 other rivers flowing into
49220-459: Was created in 2009, extending 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) into the sea and along 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) of coastline. Various zones of the protected area cover 37 square kilometres (14 sq mi) of sea surface. The Tremiti Islands reserve has been protected since 1989, while the Tremiti islands themselves are part of the Gargano National Park . The Torre Guaceto protected area, located near Brindisi and Carovigno , covers
49450-401: Was decided to mint coins that nominally had 900‰ fine silver, but which in fact they contained 835‰ so as to approach the real exchange rate between gold and silver which was approximately 1 to 14.38. Exactly four months after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy , the government introduced the new national currency, the Italian lira . The legal tender of the new currency was established by
49680-411: Was decided to opt for bimetallism , taking inspiration from the French franc model, from which the dimensions of the coins and the exchange rate of 1 to 15.50 between gold and silver were taken. The Italian monetary system, however, differed from the French one in two aspects: silver coins could be exchanged in unlimited quantities with the State, but limited quantities between private individuals and it
49910-430: Was declared on Austria . In 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia became an ally of Britain and France in the Crimean War , giving Cavour's diplomacy legitimacy in the eyes of the great powers. The Kingdom of Sardinia again attacked the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859, with the aid of France , resulting in liberating Lombardy . On the basis of the secret Plombières Agreement (21 July 1858),
50140-526: Was enforced, crushing all political opposition while promoting economic modernization, traditional values, and territorial expansion . In 1929, the Italian government reconciled with the Roman Catholic Church through the Lateran Treaties , which granted independence to the Vatican City . The following decade presided over an aggressive foreign policy , with Italy launching successful military operations against Ethiopia in 1935, Spain in 1937, and Albania in 1939. This led to economic sanctions, departure from
50370-441: Was established in 1998 and covers 122 hectares (300 acres). The Debeli Rtič natural monument covers 24 hectares (59 acres), the Cape Madona natural monument covers 12 hectares (30 acres), and the Lakes in Fiesa natural monument, with the coastal lake as the only brackish lake in Slovenia, covers 2.1 hectares (5.2 acres). In 2010, Albania established its first marine protection area, the Karaburun-Sazan National Marine Park at
50600-407: Was established in 2006, and it includes 44 islands and islets, 53 square kilometres (20 sq mi) of land and 143 square kilometres (55 sq mi) of sea surface. The Mljet national park was established in 1960, covering a 24-square-kilometre (9.3 sq mi) marine protection area. In addition, there is a Ramsar wetland reserve in Croatia—the Neretva river's delta . In Slovenia,
50830-475: Was evacuated following the Italo-Yugoslav agreements which resulted in the Treaty of Rapallo (1920). Italy occupied also Innsbruck and all Tyrol by the III Corps of the First Army with 20–22,000 soldiers. As the war came to an end, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando met with British Prime Minister David Lloyd George , Prime Minister of France Georges Clemenceau and United States President Woodrow Wilson in Versailles to discuss how
51060-413: Was known as Mare Adriaticum ( Mare Hadriaticum , also sometimes simplified to Adria ) or, less frequently, as Mare Superum '[the] upper sea'. The two terms were not synonymous, however. Mare Adriaticum generally corresponds to the Adriatic Sea's extent, spanning from the Gulf of Venice to the Strait of Otranto. That boundary became more consistently defined by Roman authors—early Greek sources place
51290-410: Was mostly due to small and medium-sized family businesses. Political unification did not automatically bring about economic integration , because of the sharp contrasts in culture, politics, and economic practices among the various regions. Italy managed to industrialize in several steps, although the country remained the most backward economy among the great powers (except for the Russian Empire ) and
51520-415: Was one of Italy's legal predecessor states . In 1866, Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia and, upon its victory, received the region of Veneto . Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power . In the last two decades of the 19th century, Italy developed into a colonial power , and in 1882 it entered into a Triple Alliance with
51750-510: Was only one machine gun section per regiment, as opposed to one per battalion, as envisaged in the plans. By May 1915 the Fiat-Revelli Mod. 1914 became the standard machine gun of the Italian army and a total of 309 sections had been created, with 618 guns in total; though this was an improvement it was still only half the planned number, leaving many battalions to do without. In contrast a standard k.u.k regiment had four machine gun sections, MG 07/12 "Schwarzlose", one for each battalion, whilst
51980-529: Was prevented from speaking, which led the Garibaldini to riots called the " Niçard Vespers ". Fifteen of the Nice rebels were tried and sentenced. Economic conditions in united Italy were poor. The country lacked transportation facilities (see here ) and industry, and suffered from extreme poverty (especially in the Mezzogiorno ) and high illiteracy. Only a small wealthy elite had the right to vote. The unification movement relied largely on foreign powers' support and continued to do so afterwards. Following
52210-459: Was the Roman question resolved and positive relations restored between the Kingdom of Italy and the Vatican, after the signing of the Lateran Pacts . Some of the states that had been targeted for unification ( terre irredente ), Trentino-Alto Adige and the Julian March , did not join the Kingdom of Italy until 1918 after Italy had defeated Austria-Hungary at the end of the First World War . For this reason, historians sometimes describe
52440-501: Was the patriotic journalist Giuseppe Mazzini , member of the secret revolutionary society of Carbonari and founder of the influential political movement Young Italy in the early 1830s. Mazzini favoured a unitary republic and advocated a broad nationalist movement. His prolific output of propaganda helped to spread the unification movement. The most famous member of Young Italy was the revolutionary and general Giuseppe Garibaldi , renowned for his extremely loyal followers, who led
52670-438: Was the site of the famous meeting of 26 October 1860 between Giuseppe Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II , last King of Sardinia, in which Garibaldi shook Victor Emanuel's hand and hailed him as King of Italy ; thus, Garibaldi sacrificed republican hopes for the sake of Italian unity under a monarchy. Cavour agreed to include Garibaldi's Southern Italy allowing it to join the union with the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860. This allowed
52900-411: Was very dependent on foreign trade , especially the international markets through which it imported coal and exported grain . After unification, Italy had a predominantly agricultural society, with 60 percent of the labor force employed in agriculture. Advances in technology increased export opportunities for Italian agricultural produce after a period of crisis in the 1880s. With industrialization,
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