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146-501: One of the park's unique features is its carbonate geology mountain range, Serra da Arrábida (501 metres (1,644 ft)) which comes into contact with the ocean similarly to some locations in the Mediterranean, contrasting with the usual Portuguese coast (long sand beaches and cliffs) Three of the park's beaches—Galapinhos, Portinho da Arrábida and Figueirinha—are popular among the inhabitants of Lisbon and Setúbal . Overlooking

292-473: A higher GDP PPP per capita than any other region in Portugal. Its GDP PPP amounts to US$ 179 billion and thus $ 61,713 per capita. When it comes to working and employment conditions, Lisbon has some of the lowest wages and purchasing power among European capitals. Energy (electricity, gas and fuel), along with supermarkets, housing, and various government taxes, rank among the most expensive, even compared to

438-534: A Phoenician trading post stood on a site now the centre of the present city, on the southern slope of the Castle hill. The sheltered harbour in the Tagus River estuary was an ideal spot for an Iberian settlement and would have provided a secure harbour for unloading and provisioning trading ships. The Tagus settlement was an important centre of commercial trade with the inland tribes, providing an outlet for

584-495: A basal titanosauriform. The tracks are wide-gauge, and the grouping as close to Sauropodichnus is also supported by the manus-to-pes distance, the morphology of the manus being kidney bean-shaped, and the morphology of the pes being subtriangular. It cannot be identified whether the footprints of the herd were caused by juveniles or adults, because of the lack of previous trackway individual age identification. Generally, sauropod trackways are divided into three categories based on

730-420: A bipedal posture at times, there would be evidence of stress fractures in the forelimb 'hands'. However, none were found after they examined a large number of sauropod skeletons. Heinrich Mallison (in 2009) was the first to study the physical potential for various sauropods to rear into a tripodal stance. Mallison found that some characters previously linked to rearing adaptations were actually unrelated (such as

876-526: A characteristic feature of all sauropods. These air spaces reduced the overall weight of the massive necks that the sauropods had, and the air-sac system in general, allowing for a single-direction airflow through stiff lungs, made it possible for the sauropods to get enough oxygen. This adaptation would have advantaged sauropods particularly in the relatively low oxygen conditions of the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. The bird-like hollowing of sauropod bones

1022-400: A deep impression on its collective psyche. Voltaire wrote a long poem, Poême sur le désastre de Lisbonne , shortly after the quake, and mentioned it in his 1759 novel Candide (indeed, many argue that this critique of optimism was inspired by that earthquake). Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. also mentions it in his 1857 poem, The Deacon's Masterpiece, or The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay . After

1168-402: A great number of adaptations in their skeletal structure. Some sauropods had as many as 19 cervical vertebrae , whereas almost all mammals are limited to only seven. Additionally, each vertebra was extremely long and had a number of empty spaces in them which would have been filled only with air. An air-sac system connected to the spaces not only lightened the long necks, but effectively increased

1314-422: A large energy saving for such a large animal. Reconstructions of the necks of Diplodocus and Apatosaurus have therefore often portrayed them in near-horizontal, so-called "neutral, undeflected posture". However, research on living animals demonstrates that almost all extant tetrapods hold the base of their necks sharply flexed when alert, showing that any inference from bones about habitual "neutral postures"

1460-486: A major gateway for refugees to the U.S. and a haven for spies. More than 100,000 refugees were able to flee Nazi Germany via Lisbon. During the Estado Novo regime (1926–1974), Lisbon, under the influence of Duarte Pacheco , the minister of works, was expanded at the cost of other districts within the country, resulting in nationalist and monumental projects. New residential and public developments were constructed;

1606-513: A part in the different feeding and herding strategies. Since the segregation of juveniles and adults must have taken place soon after hatching, and combined with the fact that sauropod hatchlings were most likely precocial , Myers and Fiorillo concluded that species with age-segregated herds would not have exhibited much parental care. On the other hand, scientists who have studied age-mixed sauropod herds suggested that these species may have cared for their young for an extended period of time before

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1752-490: A population of sauropods isolated on an island of the late Jurassic in what is now the Langenberg area of northern Germany . The diplodocoid sauropod Brachytrachelopan was the shortest member of its group because of its unusually short neck. Unlike other sauropods, whose necks could grow to up to four times the length of their backs, the neck of Brachytrachelopan was shorter than its backbone. Fossils from perhaps

1898-495: A position much above the shoulders for exploring the area or reaching higher. Another proposed function of the sauropods' long necks was essentially a radiator to deal with the extreme amount of heat produced from their large body mass. Considering that the metabolism would have been doing an immense amount of work, it would certainly have generated a large amount of heat as well, and elimination of this excess heat would have been essential for survival. It has also been proposed that

2044-483: A review of the evidence for various herd types, Myers and Fiorillo attempted to explain why sauropods appear to have often formed segregated herds. Studies of microscopic tooth wear show that juvenile sauropods had diets that differed from their adult counterparts, so herding together would not have been as productive as herding separately, where individual herd members could forage in a coordinated way. The vast size difference between juveniles and adults may also have played

2190-404: A stance to be unstable. Diplodocids, on the other hand, appear to have been well adapted for rearing up into a tripodal stance. Diplodocids had a center of mass directly over the hips, giving them greater balance on two legs. Diplodocids also had the most mobile necks of sauropods, a well-muscled pelvic girdle, and tail vertebrae with a specialised shape that would allow the tail to bear weight at

2336-455: A stilt-walker principle (suggested by amateur scientist Jim Schmidt) in which the long legs of adult sauropods allowed them to easily cover great distances without changing their overall mechanics. Along with other saurischian dinosaurs (such as theropods , including birds), sauropods had a system of air sacs , evidenced by indentations and hollow cavities in most of their vertebrae that had been invaded by them. Pneumatic, hollow bones are

2482-400: A triumphal arch (1873) and a monument to King Joseph I . In the first years of the 19th century, Portugal was invaded by the troops of Napoléon Bonaparte , forcing Queen Maria I and Prince-Regent John (future John VI) to flee temporarily to Brazil. By the time the new King returned to Lisbon, many of the buildings and properties were pillaged, sacked or destroyed by the invaders. During

2628-500: A vast area of diverse vegetation, that includes 42 types and subtypes of habitats, 10 prioritized as important for conservation. The complexity and diversity of marine habitats present in the waters of Arrábida have contributed to it being a hotspot of biodiversity, with 1400 registered species occupying the space. A stretch of road in the natural park is notable for being the scene in the 1969 James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service where Tracy Bond (played by Diana Rigg )

2774-414: A wide gauge and lack of any claws or digits on the forefeet. Occasionally, only trackways from the forefeet are found. Falkingham et al. used computer modelling to show that this could be due to the properties of the substrate. These need to be just right to preserve tracks. Differences in hind limb and fore limb surface area, and therefore contact pressure with the substrate, may sometimes lead to only

2920-551: Is a clade of saurischian ('lizard-hipped') dinosaurs . Sauropods had very long necks, long tails, small heads (relative to the rest of their body), and four thick, pillar-like legs. They are notable for the enormous sizes attained by some species, and the group includes the largest animals to have ever lived on land. Well-known genera include Apatosaurus , Argentinosaurus , Alamosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Camarasaurus , Diplodocus , and Mamenchisaurus . The oldest known unequivocal sauropod dinosaurs are known from

3066-429: Is a notable size increase among sauropodomorphs, although scanty remains of this period make interpretation conjectural. There is one definite example of a small derived sauropodomorph: Anchisaurus , under 50 kg (110 lb), even though it is closer to the sauropods than Plateosaurus and Riojasaurus , which were upwards of 1 t (0.98 long tons; 1.1 short tons) in weight. Evolving from sauropodomorphs,

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3212-533: Is amongst the two Portuguese cities (the other being Porto ) to be recognised as a global city, and it is also home to three companies in the Global 2000 ( EDP Group , Galp Energia and Jerónimo Martins ). Lisbon is one of the major economic centres in Europe , with a growing financial sector, with PSI-20 being part of Euronext , the largest center for debt and funds listings in the world. The Lisbon region has

3358-505: Is commonly abbreviated as "LX" or "Lx", originating in an antiquated spelling of Lisbon as Lixbõa . While the old spelling has since been completely dropped from usage and goes against modern language standards, the abbreviation is still commonly used. During the Neolithic period, the region was inhabited by Pre-Celtic tribes, who built religious and funerary monuments, megaliths , dolmens and menhirs , which still survive in areas on

3504-453: Is deeply unreliable. Meanwhile, computer modeling of ostrich necks has raised doubts over the flexibility needed for stationary grazing. Sauropod trackways and other fossil footprints (known as "ichnites") are known from abundant evidence present on most continents. Ichnites have helped support other biological hypotheses about sauropods, including general fore and hind foot anatomy (see Limbs and feet above). Generally, prints from

3650-548: Is dotted by karst cavities, that include the Gruta do Frade, known for its uniqueness, rarity, diversity and scenic beauty. From a paleontological perspective there are fossil deposits that include fragments of dinosaurs (normally sauropods ), relevant to scientific investigation, commonly associated with Cape Espichel. There are also valleys of important interest, including south of the Serra de São Francisco up to Aldeia Grande, and

3796-898: Is evidence that they preferred wet and coastal habitats. Sauropod footprints are commonly found following coastlines or crossing floodplains, and sauropod fossils are often found in wet environments or intermingled with fossils of marine organisms. A good example of this would be the massive Jurassic sauropod trackways found in lagoon deposits on Scotland 's Isle of Skye . Studies published in 2021 suggest sauropods could not inhabit polar regions. This study suggests they were largely confined to tropical areas and had metabolisms that were very different to those of other dinosaurs, perhaps intermediate between mammals and reptiles. New studies published by Taia Wyenberg-henzler in 2022 suggest that sauropods in North America declined due to undetermined reasons in regards to their niches and distribution during

3942-475: Is located at 38°42′49.75″N 9°8′21.79″W  /  38.7138194°N 9.1393861°W  / 38.7138194; -9.1393861 , situated at the mouth of the Tagus River and is the westernmost capital of a mainland European country. The river delta is inverted . The westernmost part of Lisbon is occupied by the Monsanto Forest Park , a 10 km (4 sq mi) urban park, one of

4088-472: Is more varied and elevated than the one from Sesimbra to Cape Espichel . The coast, generally elevated and abrupt, is 380 metres (1,250 ft) at the Alto do Píncaro , with rare and small beaches and coves, mostly accessible by boat. From Alpertuche to Outão the coast is less elevated resulting in more beaches, such as the bay of Portinho or Chã da Anixa, a small platform only metres above the sea. But, generally,

4234-533: Is named for the main geomorphological unit that covers the entire area, designated the Arrábida cordillera or massif, consisting of three subareas: This group is oriented east-northeast to west-southwest, covering an area of about 35 kilometres (22 mi) long and 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) wide, and reaching 501 metres (1,644 ft) at its highest altitude as a result of the Formosinho anticline . Arrábida

4380-560: Is shot dead by Irma Bunt ( Ilse Steppat ) in a drive-by shooting at the end of the film. Arrábida is depicted in the video game Tom Clancy's Endwar as one of the theatres in World War III, when the U.S. Army invades Portugal in an attempt to weaken the European Federation's defences. Lisbon Lisbon ( / ˈ l ɪ z b ən / LIZ -bən ; Portuguese : Lisboa [liʒˈβoɐ] )

4526-632: Is shown in the fossil record. Moreover, it must be determined as to whether sauropod declines in North America was the result of a change in preferred flora that sauropods ate, climate, or other factors. It is also suggested in this same study that iguanodontians and hadrosauroids took advantage of recently vacated niches left by a decline in sauropod diversity during the late Jurassic and the Cretaceous in North America. Many lines of fossil evidence, from both bone beds and trackways, indicate that sauropods were gregarious animals that formed herds . However,

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4672-640: Is still visible in the Alfama district, an old quarter of Lisbon that survived the 1755 Lisbon earthquake : many place-names are derived from Arabic and the Alfama (the oldest existing district of Lisbon) was derived from the Arabic " al-hamma " . For a brief time, Lisbon was an independent Muslim kingdom known as the Taifa of Lisbon (1022–1094), before being conquered by the larger Taifa of Badajoz . In 1108 Lisbon

4818-549: Is the capital and largest city of Portugal , with an estimated population of 567,131 as of 2023 within its administrative limits and 2,961,177 within the metropolis . Lisbon is mainland Europe 's westernmost capital city (second overall after Reykjavik ) and the only one along the Atlantic coast, the others (Reykjavik and Dublin ) being on islands. The city lies in the western portion of the Iberian Peninsula , on

4964-421: Is unknown. The claw was largest (as well as tall and laterally flattened) in diplodocids, and very small in brachiosaurids, some of which seem to have lost the claw entirely based on trackway evidence. Titanosaurs may have lost the thumb claw completely (with the exception of early forms, such as Janenschia ). Titanosaurs were most unusual among sauropods, as, across their history as a clade, they lost not just

5110-489: The African elephant , can only reach lengths of 7.3 metres (24 ft). Others, like the brachiosaurids , were extremely tall, with high shoulders and extremely long necks. The tallest sauropod was the giant Barosaurus specimen at 22 m (72 ft) tall. By comparison, the giraffe , the tallest of all living land animals, is only 4.8 to 5.6 metres (15.74 to 18.3 ft) tall. The best evidence indicates that

5256-629: The Avenida da Liberdade , as the city grew farther from the Tagus. Lisbon was the site of the regicide of Carlos I of Portugal in 1908, an event which culminated two years later in the establishment of the First Republic. The city refounded its university in 1911 after centuries of inactivity in Lisbon, incorporating reformed former colleges and other non-university higher education schools of

5402-742: The Early Jurassic . Isanosaurus and Antetonitrus were originally described as Triassic sauropods, but their age, and in the case of Antetonitrus also its sauropod status, were subsequently questioned. Sauropod-like sauropodomorph tracks from the Fleming Fjord Formation ( Greenland ) might, however, indicate the occurrence of the group in the Late Triassic . By the Late Jurassic (150 million years ago), sauropods had become widespread (especially

5548-535: The English Armada led by Francis Drake , while Queen Elizabeth supported a Portuguese pretender in Antonio, Prior of Crato , but support for Crato was lacking and the expedition was a failure. The Portuguese Restoration War , which began with a coup d'état organised by the nobility and bourgeoisie in Lisbon and executed on 1 December 1640, restored Portuguese independence. The period from 1640 to 1668

5694-460: The Far East and later, Brazil , and acquired great riches by exploiting the trade in spices, slaves, sugar, textiles and other goods. This period saw the rise of the exuberant Manueline style in architecture, which left its mark in many 16th-century monuments (including Lisbon's Belém Tower and Jerónimos Monastery , which were declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites ). A description of Lisbon in

5840-653: The Lisbon metropolitan area , which extends beyond the city's administrative area, making it the third largest metropolitan area in the Iberian Peninsula (after Madrid and Barcelona ) as well as figuring amongst the 10 most populous urban areas in the European Union . It represents approximately 27.83% of the country's population. Lisbon is recognised as an alpha-level global city because of its importance in finance, commerce, fashion, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education, and tourism. Lisbon

5986-748: The Michelin Gala . On 11 July 2018, the Aga Khan officially chose the Henrique de Mendonça Palace, located on Rua Marquês de Fronteira, as the Divan , or seat, of the global Nizari Muslim Imamate . Lisbon hosted World Youth Day 2023 in August of that year, attracting Catholic youth from the around the world. Pope Francis led several events, with the final mass held in the city's Parque do Tejo having an estimated 1.5 million attendees. Lisbon

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6132-645: The NATO summit (19–20 November 2010), a summit meeting that is regarded as a periodic opportunity for Heads of State and Heads of Government of NATO member states to evaluate and provide strategic direction for Alliance activities. The city hosts the Web Summit and is the head office for the Group of Seven Plus (G7+) . In 2018 it hosted the Eurovision Song Contest for the first time as well as

6278-473: The blue whale in size. The weight of Amphicoelias fragillimus was estimated at 122.4 metric tons with lengths of up to nearly 60 meters but 2015 research argued that these estimates were based on a diplodocid rather than the more modern rebbachisaurid, suggesting a much shorter length of 35–40 meters with mass between 80–120 tons. Additional finds indicate a number of species likely reached or exceeded weights of 40 tons. The largest land animal alive today,

6424-430: The bush elephant , weighs no more than 10.4 metric tons (11.5 short tons). Among the smallest sauropods were the primitive Ohmdenosaurus (4 m, or 13 ft long), the dwarf titanosaur Magyarosaurus (6 m or 20 ft long), and the dwarf brachiosaurid Europasaurus , which was 6.2 meters long as a fully-grown adult. Its small stature was probably the result of insular dwarfism occurring in

6570-555: The diplodocids and brachiosaurids ). By the Late Cretaceous , one group of sauropods, the titanosaurs , had replaced all others and had a near-global distribution. However, as with all other non-avian dinosaurs alive at the time, the titanosaurs died out in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event . Fossilised remains of sauropods have been found on every continent, including Antarctica . The name Sauropoda

6716-497: The rorquals , such as the blue whale . But, unlike whales, sauropods were primarily terrestrial animals . Their body structure did not vary as much as other dinosaurs, perhaps due to size constraints, but they displayed ample variety. Some, like the diplodocids , possessed tremendously long tails, which they may have been able to crack like a whip as a signal or to deter or injure predators, or to make sonic booms . Supersaurus , at 33 to 34 metres (108 to 112 ft) long,

6862-520: The urban heat island of the city centre, with Sintra and Setúbal having reached −4 °C (25 °F) and −5.1 °C (23 °F) respectively, both experiencing about 13 days of frost per year on average. The highest temperature ever recorded in Lisbon was 44.0 °C (111.2 °F) on 4 August 2018. Sauropods Sauropoda ( / s ɔː ˈ r ɒ p ə d ə / ), whose members are known as sauropods ( / ˈ s ɔːr ə p ɒ d z / ; from sauro- + -pod , ' lizard -footed'),

7008-423: The 14th century, five in the 16th century (including the 1531 earthquake that destroyed 1,500 houses and the 1597 earthquake in which three streets vanished), and three in the 17th century. On 1 November 1755, the city was destroyed by another devastating earthquake , which killed an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 Lisbon residents of a population estimated at between 200,000 and 275,000, and destroyed 85 percent of

7154-479: The 16th century was written by Damião de Góis and published in 1554. The succession crisis of 1580, initiated a sixty-year period of dual monarchy in Portugal and Spain under the Spanish Habsburgs . This is referred to as the "Philippine Dominion" ( Domínio Filipino ), since all three Spanish kings during that period were called Philip ( Filipe ). In 1589, Lisbon was the target of an incursion by

7300-498: The 1755 earthquake, the city was rebuilt largely according to the plans of Prime Minister Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo , the 1st Marquis of Pombal ; the lower town began to be known as the Baixa Pombalina ( Pombaline central district ). Instead of rebuilding the medieval town, Pombal decided to demolish what remained after the earthquake and rebuild the city centre in accordance with principles of modern urban design. It

7446-458: The 1970s, the effects of sauropod air sacs on their supposed aquatic lifestyle began to be explored. Paleontologists such as Coombs and Bakker used this, as well as evidence from sedimentology and biomechanics , to show that sauropods were primarily terrestrial animals. In 2004, D.M. Henderson noted that, due to their extensive system of air sacs, sauropods would have been buoyant and would not have been able to submerge their torsos completely below

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7592-461: The 1990s, many of the districts were renovated and projects in the historic quarters were established to modernise those areas, for instance, architectural and patrimonial buildings were renovated, the northern margin of the Tagus was re-purposed for leisure and residential use, the Vasco da Gama Bridge was constructed and the eastern part of the municipality was re-purposed for Expo '98 to commemorate

7738-432: The 19th and early 20th centuries concluded that sauropods were too large to have supported their weight on land, and therefore that they must have been mainly aquatic . Most life restorations of sauropods in art through the first three quarters of the 20th century depicted them fully or partially immersed in water. This early notion was cast in doubt beginning in the 1950s, when a study by Kermack (1951) demonstrated that, if

7884-622: The 19th century, the Liberal movement introduced new changes into the urban landscape. The principal areas were in the Baixa and along the Chiado district, where shops, tobacconists shops, cafés, bookstores, clubs and theatres proliferated. The development of industry and commerce determined the growth of the city, seeing the transformation of the Passeio Público , a Pombaline era park, into

8030-431: The 500th anniversary of Vasco da Gama 's sea voyage to India, a voyage that would bring immense riches to Lisbon and cause many of Lisbon's landmarks to be built. In 1988, a fire in the historical district of Chiado saw the destruction of many 18th-century Pombaline style buildings. A series of restoration works has brought the area back to its former self and made it a high-scale shopping district. The Lisbon Agenda

8176-616: The Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo (Ὀλισσιπών) or Olissipona (Ὀλισσιπόνα). Another claim repeated in historical literature is that the name of Lisbon could originate from a supposed ancient Phoenician term Alis-Ubbo , meaning "safe harbour" or "pleasant haven". Although modern archaeological excavations show Phoenician presence at this location since 1200   BC, this folk etymology completely lacks any evidence and "is never attested in ancient classical literature". Lisbon's name

8322-472: The Emperor; a large necropolis under Praça da Figueira ; a large forum and other buildings such as insulae (multi-storied apartment buildings) in the area between Castle Hill and the historic city core. Many of these ruins were first unearthed during the mid-18th century (when the recent discovery of Pompeii made Roman archaeology fashionable among Europe's upper classes). The city prospered as piracy

8468-464: The Islamic world, primarily Muslim Spain and North Africa . All mosques were either destroyed or altered and converted into churches. As a result of the end of Muslim rule in the mid-12th century, spoken Arabic quickly lost its place in Lisbon, and disappeared altogether. With its central location, Lisbon became the capital city of the new Portuguese territory in 1255. The first Portuguese university

8614-466: The Middle Triassic of Argentina, weighed approximately 1 kg (2.2 lb) or less. These evolved into saurischia, which saw a rapid increase of bauplan size, although more primitive members like Eoraptor , Panphagia , Pantydraco , Saturnalia and Guaibasaurus still retained a moderate size, possibly under 10 kg (22 lb). Even with these small, primitive forms, there

8760-679: The Phoenicians, Julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia , adding the term to the name Olissipo . After the fall of the Roman Empire , it was ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, most notably the Visigoths . Later it was captured by the Moors in the 8th century. In 1147, Afonso Henriques conquered the city and in 1255, it became Portugal's capital, replacing Coimbra . It has since been

8906-550: The airflow through the trachea, helping the creatures to breathe in enough air. By evolving vertebrae consisting of 60% air, the sauropods were able to minimize the amount of dense, heavy bone without sacrificing the ability to take sufficiently large breaths to fuel the entire body with oxygen. According to Kent Stevens, computer-modeled reconstructions of the skeletons made from the vertebrae indicate that sauropod necks were capable of sweeping out large feeding areas without needing to move their bodies, but were unable to be retracted to

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9052-418: The animal were submerged in several metres of water, the pressure would be enough to fatally collapse the lungs and airway. However, this and other early studies of sauropod ecology were flawed in that they ignored a substantial body of evidence that the bodies of sauropods were heavily permeated with air sacs . In 1878, paleontologist E.D. Cope had even referred to these structures as "floats". Beginning in

9198-539: The average sea temperature is around 20 °C (68 °F). Among European capitals, Lisbon ranks among those with the warmest winters and has the mildest winter nights out of any major European city, with a minimum mean of 8.2 °C (46.8 °F) in the coldest month. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Lisbon was −1.2 °C (30 °F) in February 1956; although other locations in its metropolitan area can record lower temperatures, not being as affected by

9344-489: The city (such as the Escola Politécnica – now Faculdade de Ciências ). Today there are two public universities in the city ( University of Lisbon and New University of Lisbon ), a public university institute ( ISCTE - Lisbon University Institute ) and a polytechnic institute (IPL – Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa ). During World War II , Lisbon was one of the very few neutral, open European Atlantic ports,

9490-587: The city's structures. Among several important buildings of the city, the Ribeira Palace and the Hospital Real de Todos os Santos were lost. In coastal areas, such as Peniche , situated about 80 km (50 mi) north of Lisbon, many people were killed by the following tsunami . By 1755, Lisbon was one of the largest cities in Europe; the catastrophic event shocked the whole of Europe and left

9636-523: The distance between opposite limbs: narrow gauge, medium gauge, and wide gauge. The gauge of the trackway can help determine how wide-set the limbs of various sauropods were and how this may have impacted the way they walked. A 2004 study by Day and colleagues found that a general pattern could be found among groups of advanced sauropods, with each sauropod family being characterised by certain trackway gauges. They found that most sauropods other than titanosaurs had narrow-gauge limbs, with strong impressions of

9782-521: The diverse population of Muwallads , Arabs , Berbers , Mozarabs , Saqaliba , and Jews to maintain their socio-cultural lifestyles. Mozarabic was the native language spoken by most of the Christian population although Arabic was widely known as spoken by all religious communities. Islam was the official religion practised by the Arabs, Berbers, Saqaliba and Muwallad. The ancient Muslim influence

9928-405: The end of the Jurassic and into the latest Cretaceous. Why this is remains unclear, but some similarities in feeding niches between iguanodontians, hadrosauroids and sauropods have been suggested and may have resulted in some competition. However, this cannot fully explain the full decline in distribution of sauropods, as competitive exclusion would have resulted in a much more rapid decline than what

10074-505: The expropriation of their property. In 1506, an anti-semitic movement among the Old Christians of Lisbon culminated in a massacre lasting four days in which some 1,000 to 4,000 New Christian men, women and children, converted descendants of Sephardic Jews , are estimated to have been killed. The king was at Évora when these events occurred, but angered when he received the news, he ordered an investigation which resulted in two of

10220-423: The external claw but also completely lost the digits of the front foot. Advanced titanosaurs had no digits or digit bones, and walked only on horseshoe-shaped "stumps" made up of the columnar metacarpal bones. Print evidence from Portugal shows that, in at least some sauropods (probably brachiosaurids), the bottom and sides of the forefoot column was likely covered in small, spiny scales, which left score marks in

10366-488: The flesh miss these facts, inaccurately depicting sauropods with hooves capping the claw-less digits of the feet, or more than three claws or hooves on the hands. The proximal caudal vertebrae are extremely diagnostic for sauropods. The sauropods' most defining characteristic was their size. Even the dwarf sauropods (perhaps 5 to 6 metres, or 20 feet long) were counted among the largest animals in their ecosystem . Their only real competitors in terms of size are

10512-601: The forefeet are much smaller than the hind feet, and often crescent-shaped. Occasionally ichnites preserve traces of the claws, and help confirm which sauropod groups lost claws or even digits on their forefeet. Sauropod tracks from the Villar del Arzobispo Formation of early Berriasian age in Spain support the gregarious behaviour of the group. The tracks are possibly more similar to Sauropodichnus giganteus than any other ichnogenera, although they have been suggested to be from

10658-483: The forefeet trackways being preserved. In a study published in PLoS ONE on October 30, 2013, by Bill Sellers , Rodolfo Coria , Lee Margetts et al. , Argentinosaurus was digitally reconstructed to test its locomotion for the first time. Before the study, the most common way of estimating speed was through studying bone histology and ichnology . Commonly, studies about sauropod bone histology and speed focus on

10804-418: The forefoot bone ( metacarpal ) columns in eusauropods was semi-circular, so sauropod forefoot prints are horseshoe-shaped. Unlike elephants, print evidence shows that sauropods lacked any fleshy padding to back the front feet, making them concave. The only claw visible in most sauropods was the distinctive thumb claw (associated with digit I). Almost all sauropods had such a claw, though what purpose it served

10950-419: The formation of Dolomite limestones , today being constituted by white limestone . From the Jurassic there was a movement of submersion, that formed "alternating layers of limestone, sandstone and breccia , with a clear angular unconformity on the previous limestone that ministered part of the material" . The sedimentary breccia is a valuable ornamental stone, more commonly known as Arrábida Marble . Among

11096-401: The gait and speed of Argentinosaurus , the study performed a musculoskeletal analysis. The only previous musculoskeletal analyses were conducted on hominoids , terror birds , and other dinosaurs . Before they could conduct the analysis, the team had to create a digital skeleton of the animal in question, show where there would be muscle layering, locate the muscles and joints, and finally find

11242-447: The head in such a posture for long would have used some half of its energy intake. Further, to move blood to such a height—dismissing posited auxiliary hearts in the neck —would require a heart 15 times as large as of a similar-sized whale. The above have been used to argue that the long neck must instead have been held more or less horizontally, presumed to enable feeding on plants over a wide area with less need to move about, yielding

11388-451: The highest temperature during the day typically ranges from 11 to 19 °C (52 to 66 °F), the lowest temperature at night ranges from 3 to 13 °C (37 to 55 °F) and the average sea temperature is 16 °C (61 °F). In the warmest month – August – the highest temperature during the day typically ranges from 25 to 32 °C (77 to 90 °F), the lowest temperature at night ranges from 14 to 20 °C (57 to 68 °F) and

11534-568: The highly unstable and corrupt Portuguese First Republic . The 6 June 1926 revolution ended the first republic and firmly established the Estado Novo , or the Portuguese Second Republic , as the ruling regime. The Carnation Revolution , which took place on 25 April 1974, ended the right-wing Estado Novo regime and reformed the country to become as it is today, the Portuguese Third Republic . In

11680-618: The hinterland. The city was connected by a broad road to Western Hispania's two other large cities, Bracara Augusta in the province of Tarraconensis (Portuguese Braga ), and Emerita Augusta , the capital of Lusitania . The city was ruled by an oligarchical council dominated by two families, the Julii and the Cassiae, although regional authority was administered by the Roman Governor of Emerita or directly by Emperor Tiberius . Among

11826-490: The history of their study, scientists, such as Osborn , have speculated that sauropods could rear up on their hind legs, using the tail as the third 'leg' of a tripod. A skeletal mount depicting the diplodocid Barosaurus lentus rearing up on its hind legs at the American Museum of Natural History is one illustration of this hypothesis. In a 2005 paper, Rothschild and Molnar reasoned that if sauropods had adopted

11972-586: The importance of the natural vegetation, that includes the last vestiges of varying Mediterranean vegetation, the area was included in a planning process early on, in order to save and preserve the ecosystems. There are three convergent floral elements: In the more eastern areas, the cliffs were populated with important species of Macaronesian flora, supporting nesting species of maritime and raptor birds protected by international convention. In total there are 213 species of vertebrates: 8 amphibians , 16 reptiles , 154 birds , and 35 mammals . Arrábida concentrates

12118-592: The instigating friars being excommunicated and burned alive. Most of the Portuguese expeditions of the Age of Discovery set out from Lisbon during the period from the end of the 15th century to the beginning of the 17th century, including Vasco da Gama 's expedition to India in 1498. The following years of the 16th century began Lisbon's golden era: the city was the European hub of commerce between Africa , India ,

12264-527: The lands are inclined, mainly along the north and south, but predominately along the coast. Slopes in these areas of the Serra da Arrábida, Serra de Ares, Serra de Riscoa and Serra de São Luís exceed 30%, including the Rasca Valley, Comenda, Alto da Madalena Valley until Portela da Sardinha and areas along the north and south of the Serra de São Francisco and Serra de Louro. The waterways of Arrábida can be grouped into two principal types: The hydrology of

12410-418: The large thumb claw on the forefeet. Medium gauge trackways with claw impressions on the forefeet probably belong to brachiosaurids and other primitive titanosauriformes , which were evolving wider-set limbs but retained their claws. Primitive true titanosaurs also retained their forefoot claw but had evolved fully wide gauge limbs. Wide gauge limbs were retained by advanced titanosaurs, trackways from which show

12556-600: The largest dinosaur ever found were discovered in 2012 in the Neuquén Province of northwest Patagonia, Argentina. It is believed that they are from a titanosaur, which were amongst the largest sauropods. On or shortly before 29 March 2017 a sauropod footprint about 5.6 feet (1.7 meters) long was found at Walmadany in the Kimberley Region of Western Australia. The report said that it was the biggest known yet. In 2020 Molina-Perez and Larramendi estimated

12702-433: The largest in Europe, and occupying 10% of the municipality. The city occupies an area of 100.05 km (39 sq mi), and its city boundaries, unlike those of most major cities, coincide with those of the municipality. The rest of the urbanised area of the Lisbon urban area, known generically as Greater Lisbon ( Portuguese : Grande Lisboa ) includes several administratively defined cities and municipalities, in

12848-637: The last centuries of the Middle Ages, Lisbon expanded substantially and became an important trading post with both Northern European and Mediterranean cities. When the Spaniards expelled the Jews from Spanish territory, many of them fled to Lisbon. Although acknowledging the central importance of the Jews to the city's prosperity, Manuel I decreed in 1497 that all Jews must convert to Christianity, only those who refused being forced to leave, but not before

12994-462: The long necks would have cooled the veins and arteries going to the brain, avoiding excessively heated blood from reaching the head. It was in fact found that the increase in metabolic rate resulting from the sauropods' necks was slightly more than compensated for by the extra surface area from which heat could dissipate. When sauropods were first discovered, their immense size led many scientists to compare them with modern-day whales . Most studies in

13140-539: The majority of Latin speakers lived a large minority of Greek traders and slaves. Olissipo, like most great cities in the Western Empire, was a center for the dissemination of Christianity. Its first attested Bishop was Potamius (c. 356), and there were several martyrs during the period of persecution of the Christians: Verissimus, Maxima, and Julia are the most significant examples. By

13286-597: The makeup of the herds varied between species. Some bone beds, for example a site from the Middle Jurassic of Argentina , appear to show herds made up of individuals of various age groups, mixing juveniles and adults. However, a number of other fossil sites and trackways indicate that many sauropod species travelled in herds segregated by age, with juveniles forming herds separate from adults. Such segregated herding strategies have been found in species such as Alamosaurus , Bellusaurus and some diplodocids . In

13432-519: The most massive were Argentinosaurus (65–80 metric tons ), Mamenchisaurus sinocanadorum (60-80 metric tons ), the giant Barosaurus specimen (60-80+ metric tons ) and Patagotitan with Puertasaurus (50-55  metric tons ). Meanwhile, 'mega-sauropods' such as Bruhathkayosaurus has long been scrutinized due to controversial debates on its validity, but recent photos re-surfacing in 2022 have legitimized it, allowing for more updated estimates that range between 110–170 tons, rivaling

13578-495: The mountains and cliffs of Risco. Recognizing the insufficient protection conferred on the area, Decree 622/76 was passed on 28 July 1976, creating the Parque Natural da Arrábida (PNArr). This classification envisioned the protection of the geological, forest, wildlife and landscapes, but also cultural and historical resources located within the area. Regulating decree 23/98, passed on 14 October 1998, further reclassified

13724-641: The muscle properties before finding the gait and speed. The results of the biomechanics study revealed that Argentinosaurus was mechanically competent at a top speed of 2 m/s (5 mph) given the great weight of the animal and the strain that its joints were capable of bearing. The results further revealed that much larger terrestrial vertebrates might be possible, but would require significant body remodeling and possible sufficient behavioral change to prevent joint collapse. Sauropods were gigantic descendants of surprisingly small ancestors. Basal dinosauriformes, such as Pseudolagosuchus and Marasuchus from

13870-533: The natural park, expanding its coastal area and establishing the Arrábida-Espichel Marine Area, in order to support the objectives of the park, especially in the area surrounding the park. This included the region's diverse marine flora and fauna, such as the discontiguous zone of Cabo Espichel, which was included to protect coastal cliffs, endemic flora species, nesting areas for marine birds and preservation of rudimentary fossils. The park

14016-431: The neck, and the head was evolved to be very small and light, losing the ability to orally process food. By reducing their heads to simple harvesting tools that got the plants into the body, the sauropods needed less power to lift their heads, and thus were able to develop necks with less dense muscle and connective tissue. This drastically reduced the overall mass of the neck, enabling further elongation. Sauropods also had

14162-428: The night. January is the coolest month with temperatures averaging between 13–15 °C (55–59 °F) during the day and 5–8 °C (41–46 °F) during the night. These temperatures depend on altitude and proximity to the sea. The morphology of Arrábida allows a variety of microhabitats of distinct characteristics ( Mediterranean / Atlantic ), mixing species of evergreen, deciduous or semi-deciduous trees. Owing to

14308-542: The north bank of the Tagus River. The larger Lisbon metropolitan area includes the Setúbal Peninsula to the south. Lisbon has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ) with mild, rainy winters and warm to hot, dry summers. The average annual temperature is 17.4 °C (63.3 °F), 21.3 °C (70.3 °F) during the day and 13.5 °C (56.3 °F) at night. In the coldest month – January –

14454-552: The northern shore of the River Tagus . The western portion of its metro area, the Portuguese Riviera , hosts the westernmost point of Continental Europe , culminating at Cabo da Roca . Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world and the second-oldest European capital city (after Athens ), predating other modern European capitals by centuries. Settled by pre-Celtic tribes and later founded and civilized by

14600-599: The notable geomorphologic points-of-interest are the Morro de Palmela , at 232 metres (761 ft), the Montes de Azeitão , that include the Serra do Louro , at 254 metres (833 ft)) and the Serra de São Francisco 257 metres (843 ft)). Parallel to the Serra do Louro , and more to the south, is the Serra de Gaiteiros , at 226 metres (741 ft), to the southwest the Serra de São Luís , at 395 metres (1,296 ft) and to

14746-606: The pacification of the west, led by Consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus . Decimus obtained the alliance of Olissipo (which sent men to fight alongside the Roman Legions against the northwestern Celtic tribes) by integrating it into the empire, as the Municipium Cives Romanorum Felicitas Julia . Local authorities were granted self-rule over a territory that extended 50 km (31 mi); exempt from taxes, its citizens were given

14892-527: The park is divided into two great basins: one to the northwest and north, and another to the south and east. Although the main waterways are in the east, between Setúbal, Palmela and the Picheleiros Valley, the ravine of Ajuda is the highest flowing waterway, and results from the confluence of the Ribeiras de Alcube e do Picheleiro, Ribeiras do Almelão and Ribeiras de Pomarinho. This basin includes

15038-528: The park. Of all these waterways within the park, only the Ribeira da Ajuda maintains its flow throughout the year. Arrábida has a Mediterranean climate with warm dry summers and mild wet winters. Its exposure to the Atlantic Ocean has a large influence over the temperature and the humidity felt throughout the year. The humid air masses that come from the Atlantic in the cooler months are confronted by

15184-519: The periphery of Lisbon. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population, thus giving rise to Celtic-speaking local tribes such as the Cempsi or Sefes . Although the first fortifications on Lisbon's Castelo hill are known to be no older than the 2nd century BC, recent archaeological finds have shown that Iron Age people occupied

15330-584: The point it touched the ground. Mallison concluded that diplodocids were better adapted to rearing than elephants , which do so occasionally in the wild. He also argues that stress fractures in the wild do not occur from everyday behaviour, such as feeding-related activities (contra Rothschild and Molnar). There is little agreement over how sauropods held their heads and necks, and the postures they could achieve in life. Whether sauropods' long necks could be used for browsing high trees has been questioned based on calculations suggesting that just pumping blood up to

15476-432: The political, economic, and cultural centre of the country. As the political centre of the country, Lisbon hosts the government , National Assembly , Supreme Court of Justice , Armed Forces and residence of the head of state . It is also the centre of Portuguese diplomacy, with ambassadors from 86 countries residing in the city, as well as representations from Taiwan and Palestine . About 2.96 million people live in

15622-532: The postcranial skeleton, which holds many unique features, such as an enlarged process on the ulna , a wide lobe on the ilia , an inward-slanting top third of the femur , and an extremely ovoid femur shaft. Those features are useful when attempting to explain trackway patterns of graviportal animals. When studying ichnology to calculate sauropod speed, there are a few problems, such as only providing estimates for certain gaits because of preservation bias , and being subject to many more accuracy problems. To estimate

15768-487: The pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus River, Lisso or Lucio . Classical authors writing in Latin and Greek, including Strabo , Solinus , and Martianus Capella , referred to popular legends that the city of Lisbon was founded by the mythical hero Ulysses ( Odysseus ). Lisbon's name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela , a native of Hispania . It was later referred to as "Olisippo" by Pliny

15914-642: The prints. In titanosaurs, the ends of the metacarpal bones that contacted the ground were unusually broad and squared-off, and some specimens preserve the remains of soft tissue covering this area, suggesting that the front feet were rimmed with some kind of padding in these species. Matthew Bonnan has shown that sauropod dinosaur long bones grew isometrically : that is, there was little to no change in shape as juvenile sauropods became gigantic adults. Bonnan suggested that this odd scaling pattern (most vertebrates show significant shape changes in long bones associated with increasing weight support) might be related to

16060-675: The privileges of Roman citizenship, and it was then integrated with the Roman province of Lusitania (whose capital was Emerita Augusta ). Lusitanian raids and rebellions during Roman occupation required the construction of a wall around the settlement. During Augustus ' reign, the Romans also built a great theatre; the Cassian Baths (underneath Rua da Prata ); temples to Jupiter , Diana , Cybele , Tethys and Idea Phrygiae (an uncommon cult from Asia Minor ), in addition to temples to

16206-848: The region of Lisbon until 585. In 585, the Suebi Kingdom was integrated into the Germanic Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo, which comprised all of the Iberian Peninsula: Lisbon was then called Ulishbona . On 6 August 711, Lisbon was taken by the Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate . These conquerors built many mosques and houses, rebuilt the city wall (known as the Cerca Moura ) and established administrative control, while permitting

16352-420: The richest EU countries. The gap between the highest and lowest wages is, again, the largest inside the "Euro Zone". The lowest wages can offer a value per hour as little as 6-7 euros. Due to these reasons Lisbon has had a high level of "youth emigration" mostly to other European cities of countries as France, UK, Luxembourg, Switzerland and Belgium. The city occupies the 40th place of highest gross earnings in

16498-489: The rugged mountains resulting in abundant precipitation in November and December. In the summer, some upwelling occurs around Cabo Espichel which decreases sea temperature and increases the frequency of fogs , which are usually only present in the morning or late in the day. August is the warmest month with temperatures averaging between 24–28 °C (75–82 °F) during the day and 16–17 °C (61–63 °F) during

16644-621: The sauropods were huge. Their giant size probably resulted from an increased growth rate made possible by tachymetabolic endothermy , a trait which evolved in sauropodomorphs. Once branched into sauropods, sauropodomorphs continued steadily to grow larger, with smaller sauropods, like the Early Jurassic Barapasaurus and Kotasaurus , evolving into even larger forms like the Middle Jurassic Mamenchisaurus and Patagosaurus . Responding to

16790-401: The scientists, the specializing of their diets helped the different herbivorous dinosaurs to coexist. Sauropod necks have been found at over 15 metres (49 ft) in length, a full six times longer than the world record giraffe neck. Enabling this were a number of essential physiological features. The dinosaurs' overall large body size and quadrupedal stance provided a stable base to support

16936-451: The shorter hind legs free of the bottom, and using the front limbs to punt forward. However, due to their body proportions, floating sauropods would also have been very unstable and maladapted for extended periods in the water. This mode of aquatic locomotion , combined with its instability, led Henderson to refer to sauropods in water as "tipsy punters". While sauropods could therefore not have been aquatic as historically depicted, there

17082-409: The sides to create a wide foot as in elephants, the manus bones of sauropods were arranged in fully vertical columns, with extremely reduced finger bones (though it is not clear if the most primitive sauropods, such as Vulcanodon and Barapasaurus , had such forefeet). The front feet were so modified in eusauropods that individual digits would not have been visible in life. The arrangement of

17228-489: The site from the 8th to 6th centuries BC. This indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects. Archaeological excavations made near the Castle of São Jorge ( Castelo de São Jorge ) and Lisbon Cathedral indicate a Phoneician presence at this location since 1200 BC, and it can be stated with confidence that

17374-477: The size estimates of A. fragillimus may have been highly exaggerated. The longest dinosaur known from reasonable fossils material is probably Argentinosaurus huinculensis with length estimates of 35 metres (115 ft) to 36 metres (118 ft) according to the most recent researches. However the giant Barosaurus specimen BYU 9024 might have been even larger reaching lengths of 45–48 meters (148–157 ft). The longest terrestrial animal alive today,

17520-537: The size of the animal at 31 meters (102 ft) and 72 tonnes (79.4 short tons) based on the 1.75 meter (5.7 ft) long footprint. As massive quadrupeds , sauropods developed specialized "graviportal" (weight-bearing) limbs. The hind feet were broad, and retained three claws in most species. Particularly unusual compared with other animals were the highly modified front feet ( manus ). The front feet of sauropods were very dissimilar from those of modern large quadrupeds, such as elephants . Rather than splaying out to

17666-514: The southeast the Serro do Viso at 168 metres (551 ft). Along the coast lies the Serra da Arrábida , with its highest point at 499 metres (1,637 ft) ( Formosinho ). Over the sea and abrupt cliffs are the Serra do Risco and Píncaro , the highest point along the Portuguese coast in this area, at approximately 380 metres (1,250 ft). These mountains are constituted by limestone, with frequent rocky outcroppings forming scenic cliffs. Arrábida

17812-467: The surface of the water; in other words, they would float, and would not have been in danger of lung collapse due to water pressure when swimming. Evidence for swimming in sauropods comes from fossil trackways that have occasionally been found to preserve only the forefeet (manus) impressions. Henderson showed that such trackways can be explained by sauropods with long forelimbs (such as macronarians ) floating in relatively shallow water deep enough to keep

17958-647: The three beaches is the Convent of Our Lady of Arrábida, a former monastery established in the 16th century, managed today by the Fundação Oriente. The particular characteristics of the Arrábida massif, resulted (since the 1940s) in various attempts to protect the region, culminating in the creation of the Arrábida Reserve (Decree 355/71) on 16 August 1971, which covered the southern flanks of

18104-671: The time of the Fall of Rome , Olissipo had become a notable Christian center. Following the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, there were barbarian invasions; between 409 and 429 the city was occupied successively by Sarmatians , Alans and Vandals . The Germanic Suebi , who established a kingdom in Gallaecia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), with its capital in Bracara Augusta , also controlled

18250-613: The time, was returned to Christian rule. The reconquest of Portugal and re-establishment of Christianity is one of the most significant events in Lisbon's history, described in the chronicle Expugnatione Lyxbonensi , which describes, among other incidents, how the local bishop was killed by the crusaders and the city's residents prayed to the Virgin Mary as it happened. Some of the Muslim residents converted to Roman Catholicism and most of those who did not convert fled to other parts of

18396-434: The tip, narrow at the neck) teeth. They had tiny heads, massive bodies, and most had long tails. Their hind legs were thick, straight, and powerful, ending in club-like feet with five toes, though only the inner three (or in some cases four) bore claws. Their forelimbs were rather more slender and typically ended in pillar-like hands built for supporting weight; often only the thumb bore a claw. Many illustrations of sauropods in

18542-413: The tooth affected how long it took for a new tooth to grow. Camarasaurus 's teeth took longer to grow than those for Diplodocus because they were larger. It was also noted by D'Emic and his team that the differences between the teeth of the sauropods also indicated a difference in diet. Diplodocus ate plants low to the ground and Camarasaurus browsed leaves from top and middle branches. According to

18688-613: The valleys of Barris and Alcube. Between the Serra da Arrábida and the western Montes de Azeitão, lies the Picheleiros Valley, which continues from the Ribeira da Ajuda Valley to Várzea da Comenda. There is also the Solitário Valley, between the coastal flanks of Arrábida and the Cabeços do Jaspe and Guincho, and the Vitória Valley, in the subplateau of the Serra do Risco. The coast stretching from Sesimbra to Alpertuche

18834-529: The valleys of Picheleiro, Alcube and Ajuda, and the western and southern flanks of the Serra de São Luís, as well as the western flanks of the Nico and Viso, in addition to the Ribeira de Melra, Ribeira do Vale de Cavalo and Ribeira de Mareta. Other waterways, such as the Ribeira da Corva, tributary of the Ribeira de Livramento, or the Ribeira do Calhariz, tributary of the Rio Coina, obtain their maximum flow outside

18980-876: The valuable metals, salt and salted-fish they collected, and for the sale of the Lusitanian horses renowned in antiquity. According to a persistent legend, the location was named for the Greek mythical king of Ithaca, Ulysses , who founded the city when he sailed westward to the ends of the known world. Following the defeat of Hannibal in 202 BC during the Punic wars , the Romans determined to deprive Carthage of its most valuable possession: Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula). The defeat of Carthaginian forces by Scipio Africanus in Eastern Hispania allowed

19126-415: The wide-set hip bones of titanosaurs ) or would have hindered rearing. For example, titanosaurs had an unusually flexible backbone, which would have decreased stability in a tripodal posture and would have put more strain on the muscles. Likewise, it is unlikely that brachiosaurids could rear up onto the hind legs, as their center of gravity was much farther forward than other sauropods, which would cause such

19272-456: The world and, with almost 21,000 millionaires, is the 11th European city by number of millionaires and the 14th by number of billionaires. Most of the headquarters of multinational corporations in Portugal are located in the Lisbon area. Lisbon's name may derive from Proto-Celtic or Celtic Olisippo , Lissoppo , or a similar name which other visiting ancient peoples such as the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans adapted accordingly, such as

19418-433: The young reached adulthood. A 2014 study suggested that the time from laying the egg to the time of the hatching was likely to have been between 65 and 82 days. Exactly how segregated versus age-mixed herding varied across different groups of sauropods is unknown. Further examples of gregarious behavior will need to be discovered from more sauropod species to begin detecting possible patterns of distribution. Since early in

19564-484: The zone of Belém was modified for the 1940 Portuguese Exhibition , while along the periphery new districts appeared to house the growing population. The inauguration of the bridge over the Tagus allowed a rapid connection between both sides of the river. Lisbon was the site of three revolutions in the 20th century. The first, the 5 October 1910 revolution , brought an end to the Portuguese monarchy and established

19710-517: Was a European Union agreement on measures to revitalise the EU economy, signed in Lisbon in March 2000. In October 2007 Lisbon hosted the 2007 EU Summit , where an agreement was reached regarding a new EU governance model. The resulting Treaty of Lisbon was signed on 13 December 2007 and came into force on 1 December 2009. Lisbon has been the site for many international events and programmes. In 1994, Lisbon

19856-603: Was coined by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878, and is derived from Ancient Greek , meaning "lizard foot". Sauropods are one of the most recognizable groups of dinosaurs, and have become a fixture in popular culture due to their impressive size. Complete sauropod fossil finds are extremely rare. Many species, especially the largest, are known only from isolated and disarticulated bones. Many near-complete specimens lack heads, tail tips and limbs. Sauropods were herbivorous (plant-eating), usually quite long-necked quadrupeds (four-legged), often with spatulate (spatula-shaped: broad at

20002-614: Was created during the Jurassic and Miocene epochs, while the plains formed during the Pliocene and Quaternary periods. Ribeiro (1935) indicates that the massif began to be formed with successive movements during the Tertiary era. The same author (1937) indicated that the peninsula of Setúbal was, during the Mesozoic, covered by shallow seas. During a great part of the Jurassic, Arrábida was a marine ecosystem covered by ocean, resulting in

20148-459: Was eliminated and technological advances were introduced, consequently Felicitas Julia became a center of trade with the Roman provinces of Britannia (particularly Cornwall ) and the Rhine . Economically strong, Olissipo was known for its garum (a fish sauce highly prized by the elites of the empire and exported in amphorae to Rome), wine, salt, and horse-breeding, while Roman culture permeated

20294-578: Was formed from four successive phases of rifting that resulted in the fragmentation of Laurasia and the formation of the north Atlantic . This area is unique in the Atlantic for demonstrating the western propagation of the Tethys sea and the formation of the Mediterranean, caused by the collision of the African plate and the Eurasian plate, during the Late Cretaceous . Geologically, the mountainous region

20440-566: Was founded in Lisbon in 1290 by King Denis I ; for many years the Studium Generale ( General Study ) was transferred intermittently to Coimbra , where it was installed permanently in the 16th century as the University of Coimbra . In 1384, the city was besieged by King Juan I of Castille , as a part of the ongoing 1383–1385 Crisis . The result of the siege was a victory for the Portuguese led by Nuno Álvares Pereira . During

20586-453: Was marked by periodic skirmishes between Portugal and Spain, as well as short episodes of more serious warfare until the Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 1668. In the early 18th century, gold from Brazil allowed King John V to sponsor the building of several Baroque churches and theatres in the city. Prior to the 18th century, Lisbon had experienced several significant earthquakes – eight in

20732-687: Was raided and occupied by Norwegian crusaders led by Sigurd I on their way to the Holy Land as part of the Norwegian Crusade and occupied by crusader forces for three years. It was taken by the Moorish Almoravids in 1111. In 1147, as part of Portuguese efforts during the Reconquista , Afonso I of Portugal besieged and reconquered Lisbon with the aid of crusader knights. The city, with around 154,000 residents at

20878-892: Was recognized early in the study of these animals, and, in fact, at least one sauropod specimen found in the 19th century ( Ornithopsis ) was originally misidentified as a pterosaur (a flying reptile) because of this. Some sauropods had armor . There were genera with small clubs on their tails, a prominent example being Shunosaurus , and several titanosaurs , such as Saltasaurus and Ampelosaurus , had small bony osteoderms covering portions of their bodies. A study by Michael D'Emic and his colleagues from Stony Brook University found that sauropods evolved high tooth replacement rates to keep up with their large appetites. The study suggested that Nigersaurus , for example, replaced each tooth every 14 days, Camarasaurus replaced each tooth every 62 days, and Diplodocus replaced each tooth once every 35 days. The scientists found qualities of

21024-516: Was reconstructed in an open rectangular plan with two great squares: the Praça do Rossio and the Praça do Comércio . The first, the central commercial district, is the traditional gathering place of the city and the location of the older cafés, theatres and restaurants; the second became the city's main access to the River Tagus and point of departure and arrival for seagoing vessels, adorned by

21170-731: Was the European Capital of Culture . On 3 November 2005, Lisbon hosted the MTV European Music Awards . On 7 July 2007, Lisbon held the ceremony of the "New 7 Wonders Of The World" election, in the Luz Stadium , with live transmission for millions of people all over the world. Every two years, Lisbon hosts the Rock in Rio Lisboa Music Festival, one of the largest in the world. Lisbon hosted

21316-442: Was the longest sauropod known from reasonably complete remains, but others, like the old record holder, Diplodocus , were also extremely long. The holotype (and now lost) vertebra of Amphicoelias fragillimus (now Maraapunisaurus ) may have come from an animal 58 metres (190 ft) long; its vertebral column would have been substantially longer than that of the blue whale. However, research published in 2015 speculated that

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