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113-681: The Triballi dominated the region before the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC that weakened and subdued the Paleo-Balkan tribes. The Triballi, a Triballi-Dacian tribe, were defeated by the Roman army under Marcus Licinius Crassus , the consul of 30 BC. The region was organized into Moesia Inferior in 87 AD by Emperor Domitian . Hellenistic religious influence is attested through archeological findings in Rovine and Tamnič where Heracles

226-642: A Greek professor and academician , believes that Isaeus helped Demosthenes edit his initial judicial orations against his guardians. Demosthenes is also said to have admired the historian Thucydides . In the Illiterate Book-Fancier, Lucian mentions eight beautiful copies of Thucydides made by Demosthenes, all in Demosthenes' own handwriting. These references hint at his respect for a historian he must have assiduously studied. According to Plutarch, when Demosthenes first addressed himself to

339-698: A Triballian area which in reality is undeterminable via available data. In turn, archaeologists of that era in Yugoslavia began to categorize all finds in the area defined as Triballian by Papazoglu as artifacts of the Triballi tribe. Based on Papazoglu, a periodization of Triballian finds was proposed: Proto-Triballian (1300–800 BC), Early Triballian (800–600 BC), Triballian (600–335 BC) and period from 335 BC until Roman conquest. The term "Triballians" appears frequently in Byzantine and other European works of

452-413: A bad erastes to Aristarchus so as not even to deserve the name. His crime, according to Aeschines, was to have betrayed his eromenos by pillaging his estate, allegedly pretending to be in love with the youth so as to get his hands on the boy's inheritance. Nevertheless, the story of Demosthenes' relations with Aristarchus is still regarded as more than doubtful, and no other pupil of Demosthenes

565-515: A complete absence of proof; as J. H. Vince states "there was no room for chivalry in Athenian political life". Such rivalry enabled the demos ("citizen-body") to reign supreme as judge, jury and executioner. Demosthenes was to become fully engaged in this kind of litigation and he was also to be instrumental in developing the power of the Areopagus to indict individuals for treason, invoked in

678-509: A disordered fashion. Demosthenes undertook a disciplined programme to overcome his weaknesses and improve his delivery, including diction, voice and gestures. According to one story, when he was asked to name the three most important elements in oratory, he replied "Delivery, delivery and delivery!" It is unknown whether such vignettes are factual accounts of events in Demosthenes' life or merely anecdotes used to illustrate his perseverance and determination. To make his living, Demosthenes became

791-595: A focus and a raison d'être . Demosthenes saw the King of Macedon as a menace to the autonomy of all Greek cities and yet he presented him as a monster of Athens's own creation; in the First Philippic he reprimanded his fellow citizens as follows: "Even if something happens to him, you will soon raise up a second Philip [...]". The theme of the First Philippic (351–350 BC) was preparedness and

904-480: A large mirror. As soon as Demosthenes came of age in 366 BC, he demanded his guardians render an account of their management. According to Demosthenes, the account revealed the misappropriation of his property. Although his father left an estate of nearly fourteen talents (equivalent to about 220 years of a labourer's income at standard wages, or 11 million dollars in terms of median U.S. annual incomes). Demosthenes asserted his guardians had left nothing "except

1017-530: A leading part in his city's uprising. According to Aeschines, "it was but the seventh day after the death of his daughter, and though the ceremonies of mourning were not yet completed, he put a garland on his head and white raiment on his body, and there he stood making thank-offerings, violating all decency." Demosthenes also sent envoys to Attalus , whom he considered to be an internal opponent of Alexander. Nonetheless, Alexander moved swiftly to Thebes, which submitted shortly after his appearance at its gates. When

1130-500: A means to attack him. In the case of Aristion, a youth from Plataea who lived for a long time in Demosthenes' house, Aeschines mocks the "scandalous" and "improper" relation. In another speech, Aeschines brings up the pederastic relation of his opponent with a boy called Cnosion. The slander that Demosthenes' wife also slept with the boy suggests that the relationship was contemporary with his marriage. Aeschines claims that Demosthenes made money out of young rich men, such as Aristarchus,

1243-438: A more activist foreign policy, wherever opportunity might provide. Although his early orations were unsuccessful and reveal a lack of real conviction and of coherent strategic and political prioritisation, Demosthenes established himself as an important political personality and broke with Eubulus' faction, of which a prominent member was Aeschines. He thus laid the foundations for his future political successes and for becoming

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1356-421: A plain near Chaeronea , where he defeated them. Demosthenes fought as a mere hoplite . Such was Philip's hatred for Demosthenes that, according to Diodorus Siculus , the King after his victory sneered at the misfortunes of the Athenian statesman. However, the Athenian orator and statesman Demades is said to have remarked: "O King, when Fortune has cast you in the role of Agamemnon , are you not ashamed to act

1469-418: A political quid pro quo , whereby Apollodorus secretly pledged support for unpopular reforms that Demosthenes was pursuing in the greater, public interest (i.e. the diversion of Theoric Funds to military purposes). Demosthenes was admitted to his dêmos ( δῆμος ) as a citizen with full rights probably in 366 BC, and he soon demonstrated an interest in politics. In 363 and 359 BC, he assumed

1582-494: A portion of his inheritance. According to Pseudo-Plutarch , Demosthenes was married once. The only information about his wife, whose name is unknown, is that she was the daughter of Heliodorus, a prominent citizen. Demosthenes also had a daughter, "the only one who ever called him father", according to Aeschines in a trenchant remark. His daughter died young and unmarried a few days before Philip II's death. In his speeches, Aeschines uses pederastic relations of Demosthenes as

1695-583: A professional litigant, both as a " logographer " ( λογογράφος , logographos ), writing speeches for use in private legal suits, and as an advocate ( συνήγορος , sunégoros ) speaking on another's behalf. He seems to have been able to manage any kind of case, adapting his skills to almost any client, including wealthy and powerful men. It is not unlikely that he became a teacher of rhetoric and that he brought pupils into court with him. However, though he probably continued writing speeches throughout his career, he stopped working as an advocate once he entered

1808-498: A reed, pretending he wanted to write a letter to his family. When Demosthenes felt that the poison was working on his body, he said to Archias: "Now, as soon as you please you may commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out this body of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and the Macedonians have not left so much as

1921-413: A school of rhetoric he had opened and instead devote himself wholly to Demosthenes, his new pupil. Another version credits Isaeus with having taught Demosthenes without charge. According to Sir Richard C. Jebb , a British classical scholar, "the intercourse between Isaeus and Demosthenes as teacher and learner can scarcely have been either very intimate or of very long duration". Konstantinos Tsatsos ,

2034-616: A special Athenian embassy led by Phocion , an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to relent. According to ancient writers, Demosthenes called Alexander "Margites" ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Μαργίτης ) and a boy. Greeks used the word Margites to describe foolish and useless people, on account of the Margites . Despite the unsuccessful ventures against Philip and Alexander, most Athenians still respected Demosthenes, because they shared his sentiments and wished to restore their independence. In 336 BC,

2147-400: A speech for Phormion (350 BC), a wealthy banker, and then communicated it to Apollodorus, who was bringing a capital charge against Phormion. Plutarch much later supported this accusation, stating that Demosthenes "was thought to have acted dishonourably" and he also accused Demosthenes of writing speeches for both sides. It has often been argued that the deception, if there was one, involved

2260-765: A war in Euboea against Philip, which ended in a stalemate. In 348 BC a peculiar event occurred: Meidias , a wealthy Athenian, publicly slapped Demosthenes, who was at the time a choregos at the Greater Dionysia , a large religious festival in honour of the god Dionysus . Meidias was a friend of Eubulus and supporter of the unsuccessful excursion in Euboea. He also was an old enemy of Demosthenes; in 361 BC he had broken violently into his house, with his brother Thrasylochus, to take possession of it. Demosthenes decided to prosecute his wealthy opponent and wrote

2373-436: Is considered to be the best of his political orations. Using all the power of his eloquence, he demanded resolute action against Philip and called for a burst of energy from the Athenian people. He told them that it would be "better to die a thousand times than pay court to Philip". Demosthenes now dominated Athenian politics and was able to considerably weaken the pro-Macedonian faction of Aeschines. In 341 BC Demosthenes

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2486-571: Is criticised for having overrated Athens's capacity to revive and challenge Macedon. His city had lost most of its Aegean allies, whereas Philip had consolidated his hold over Macedonia and was master of enormous mineral wealth. Chris Carey, a professor of Greek in UCL , concludes that Demosthenes was a better orator and political operator than strategist. Nevertheless, the same scholar underscores that "pragmatists" like Aeschines or Phocion had no inspiring vision to rival that of Demosthenes. The orator asked

2599-482: Is illustrated by the inscription his countrymen engraved on the base of his statue: Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were, the Macedonian would not have conquered her. George Grote notes that already thirty years before his death, Demosthenes "took a sagacious and provident measure of the danger which threatened Grecian liberty from the energy and encroachments of Philip." Throughout his career "we trace

2712-409: Is known by name. Between his coming of age in 366 BC and the trials that took place in 364 BC, Demosthenes and his guardians negotiated acrimoniously but were unable to reach an agreement, for neither side was willing to make concessions. At the same time, Demosthenes prepared himself for the trials and improved his oratory skill. According to a story repeated by Plutarch , when Demosthenes

2825-436: Is probable that Demosthenes actually suffered from rhotacism , mispronouncing ρ (r) as λ (l). Aeschines taunted him and referred to him in his speeches by the nickname "Batalus", apparently invented by Demosthenes' pedagogues or by the little boys with whom he was playing —which corresponded to how someone with that variety of rhotacism would pronounce " Battaros ," the name of a legendary Libyan king who spoke quickly and in

2938-547: Is used as a synonym for Bulgarians. In Romania , "Tribalia" refers to the Timok Valley region split between Serbia and Bulgaria in which the Romanian-speaking Vlachs live. Demosthenes Demosthenes ( / d ɪ ˈ m ɒ s . θ ə n iː z / ; Greek : Δημοσθένης , romanized :  Dēmosthénēs ; Attic Greek : [dɛːmostʰénɛːs] ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC)

3051-655: The Amphictyonic Council . During a meeting of the council, Philip accused the Amfissian Locrians of intruding on consecrated ground. The presiding officer of the council, a Thessalian named Cottyphus, proposed the convocation of an Amphictyonic Congress to inflict a harsh punishment upon the Locrians. Aeschines agreed with this proposition and maintained that the Athenians should participate in

3164-529: The Classical period : by Aristophanes in his play Birds (414 BC) in which Triballos, a barbarian Triballian god of Thrace, accompanies Poseidon and Herakles as a diplomatic embassy, who are quite starving, meant to persuade the play's hero, Peisetairos, to end his blockade ( Nephelokokkygia ) preventing sacrifices – the sustenance of gods – from reaching them on Olympos ; by Aristotle and Demosthenes , both of whom lived in

3277-546: The Getae , however, induced the Triballi to sue for peace. About 279 BC, a host of Gauls ( Scordisci ) under Cerethrius defeated the Triballi with an army of 3,000 horsemen and 15,000 foot soldiers. The defeat pushed the Triballi further to the east. Nevertheless, they continued to cause trouble to the Roman governors of Macedonia for fifty years (135 BC–84 BC). Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) registers them as one of

3390-579: The League of Corinth , a confederation of Greek states under his leadership, and returned to Pella. In 336 BC, Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter, Cleopatra of Macedon , to King Alexander of Epirus . The Macedonian citizens swiftly proclaimed Alexander III of Macedon , then twenty years old, as the new King of Macedon. Greek cities like Athens and Thebes saw in this change of leadership an opportunity to regain their full independence. Demosthenes celebrated Philip's assassination and played

3503-453: The Odrysae , who was defeated and lost his life in the engagement. They were pushed to the east by the invading Autariatae , an Illyrian tribe; the date of this event is uncertain. In 376 BC, a large band of Triballi under King Hales crossed Mount Haemus and advanced as far as Abdera ; they had backing from Maroneia and were preparing to besiege the city when Chabrias appeared off

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3616-621: The Peloponnese , to detach as many cities as possible from Macedon's influence, but his efforts were generally unsuccessful. Most of the Peloponnesians saw Philip as the guarantor of their freedom and sent a joint embassy to Athens to express their grievances against Demosthenes' activities. In response, Demosthenes delivered the Second Philippic , a vehement attack against Philip. In 343 BC Demosthenes delivered On

3729-575: The Phocians at the Battle of Crocus Field shook Demosthenes. In 351 BC, Demosthenes felt strong enough to express his view concerning the most important foreign policy issue facing Athens at that time: the stance his city should take towards Philip. According to Jacqueline de Romilly , a French philologist and member of the Académie française , the threat of Philip would give Demosthenes' stances

3842-525: The Serbian Despotate and is recalled in one of Stefan Lazarević 's personal Seals, according to the paper Сабор у Констанци . Pavao Ritter Vitezović also depicts "Triballia" with the same motif in 1701 and Hristofor Zhefarovich again in 1741. Marin Barleti (1450–1513), wrote in his biography of Skanderbeg (published between 1508 and 1510), that father of Skanderbeg's mother Voisava

3955-496: The Triballians . The Thebans and the Athenians rebelled once again, financed by Darius III of Persia , and Demosthenes is said to have received about 300 talents on behalf of Athens and to have faced accusations of embezzlement. Alexander reacted immediately and razed Thebes to the ground. He did not attack Athens, but demanded the exile of all anti-Macedonian politicians, Demosthenes first of all. According to Plutarch ,

4068-657: The ekklesia by a process called ἀπόφασις ( apóphasis ). In 354 BC, Demosthenes delivered his first political oration, On the Navy , in which he espoused moderation and proposed the reform of the symmoriai (boards) as a source of funding for the Athenian fleet. In 352 BC, he delivered For the Megalopolitans and, in 351 BC, On the Liberty of the Rhodians. In both speeches he opposed Eubulus ,

4181-402: The 4th century BC. Among ancient Greeks, the Triballi had a reputation of being a "wild people" and Greek authors write in a similar vein about them. Aristotle writes that among the Triballi "it is honorable to sacrifice one’s life in a battle", while Demosthenes notes the gangs of "lawless youths" of ancient Athens were known as Triballoi . In 424 BC, they were attacked by Sitalkes , king of

4294-582: The Areopagus conducted an inquiry and charged Demosthenes and others with mishandling twenty talents. Among the accused, Demosthenes was the first to be brought to trial before an unusually numerous jury of 1,500. He was found guilty and fined 50 talents. Unable to pay this huge amount, Demosthenes escaped and only returned to Athens nine months later, after the death of Alexander. Upon his return, he "received from his countrymen an enthusiastic welcome, such as had never been accorded to any returning exile since

4407-561: The Athenians learned that Alexander had moved quickly to Boeotia, they panicked and begged the new King of Macedon for mercy. Alexander admonished them but imposed no punishment. In 335 BC Alexander felt free to engage the Thracians and the Illyrians , but, while he was campaigning in the north, Demosthenes spread a rumour—even producing a bloodstained messenger—that Alexander and all of his expeditionary force had been slaughtered by

4520-433: The Athenians to choose that which is just and honourable, before their own safety and preservation. The people preferred Demosthenes' activism and even the bitter defeat at Chaeronea was regarded as a price worth paying in the attempt to retain freedom and influence. According to Professor of Greek Arthur Wallace Pickarde, success may be a poor criterion for judging the actions of people like Demosthenes, who were motivated by

4633-429: The Athenians turn over Demosthenes and Hypereides, among others. Following his order, the ekklesia had no choice but to reluctantly adopt a decree condemning the most prominent anti-Macedonian agitators to death. Demosthenes escaped to a sanctuary on the island of Kalaureia (modern-day Poros ), where he was later discovered by Archias, a confidant of Antipater. He died by suicide before his capture by taking poison out of

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4746-458: The Bor district is as follows: The region is a traditionally energy oriented, as it has the hydroelectric power plants of Đerdap : Iron Gate I and Iron Gate II , and is also rich in copper and gold deposits, especially in the Bor and Majdanpek areas; silver has also been discovered, but is rare. The giant mining company RTB Bor operates in the region. Note: All official material made by

4859-555: The Congress. Demosthenes however reversed Aeschines' initiatives and Athens finally abstained. After the failure of a first military excursion against the Locrians, the summer session of the Amphictyonic Council gave command of the league's forces to Philip and asked him to lead a second excursion. Philip decided to act at once; in the winter of 339–338 BC, he passed through Thermopylae, entered Amfissa and defeated

4972-635: The Council of the League. Demosthenes was among those who adopted a pragmatic approach, and recommended this stance in his oration On the Peace . For Edmund M. Burke, this speech heralds a maturation in Demosthenes' career: after Philip's successful campaign in 346 BC, the Athenian statesman realised that, if he was to lead his city against the Macedonians, he had "to adjust his voice, to become less partisan in tone". In 344 BC Demosthenes travelled to

5085-597: The Danubian island of Peukê , where most of the remnants of the defeated Thracians were exiled. The successful Macedonian attacks terrorized the tribes around the Danube; the autonomous Thracian tribes sent tributes for peace, Alexander was satisfied with his operations and accepted peace because of his greater wars in Asia. They were attacked by Autariatae and Celts in 295 BC. The punishment inflicted by Ptolemy Keraunos on

5198-585: The False Embassy against Aeschines, who was facing a charge of high treason. Nonetheless, Aeschines was acquitted by the narrow margin of thirty votes by a jury which may have numbered as many as 1,501. In 343 BC, Macedonian forces were conducting campaigns in Epirus and, in 342 BC, Philip campaigned in Thrace. He also negotiated with the Athenians an amendment to the Peace of Philocrates. When

5311-574: The Government of Serbia is public by law. Information was taken from the official website . Triballi The Triballi ( Ancient Greek : Τριβαλλοί , romanized :  Triballoí , Latin : Triballi ) were an ancient people who lived in northern Bulgaria in the region of Roman Oescus up to southeastern Serbia , possibly near the territory of the Morava Valley in the late Iron Age. The Triballi lived between Thracians to

5424-713: The Greek states. After Philip's death, Demosthenes played a leading part in his city's uprising against the new king of Macedonia , Alexander the Great . However, his efforts failed, and the revolt was met with a harsh Macedonian reaction. To prevent a similar revolt against his own rule, Alexander's successor in this region, Antipater , sent his men to track Demosthenes down. Demosthenes killed himself to avoid being arrested by Archias of Thurii , Antipater's confidant. The Alexandrian Canon , compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace , called Demosthenes one of

5537-500: The Greeks. The historian maintains that Demosthenes measured everything by the interests of his own city, imagining that all the Greeks ought to have their eyes fixed upon Athens. According to Polybius, the only thing the Athenians eventually got by their opposition to Philip was the defeat at Chaeronea. "And had it not been for the King's magnanimity and regard for his own reputation, their misfortunes would have gone even further, thanks to

5650-532: The Locrians. After this significant victory, Philip swiftly entered Phocis in 338 BC. He then turned south-east down the Cephissus valley, seized Elateia , and restored the fortifications of the city. At the same time, Athens orchestrated the creation of an alliance with Euboea , Megara , Achaea , Corinth , Acarnania and other states in the Peloponnese. However the most desirable ally for Athens

5763-680: The Macedonian army approached Chersonese (now known as the Gallipoli Peninsula ), an Athenian general named Diopeithes ravaged the maritime district of Thrace, thereby inciting Philip's rage. Because of this turbulence, the Athenian Assembly convened. Demosthenes delivered On the Chersonese and convinced the Athenians not to recall Diopeithes. Also in 342 BC, he delivered the Third Philippic , which

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5876-605: The Middle Ages, referring to Serbs , as the Byzantines sought to create an ancient name for the Serbs. Some of these authors clearly explain that "Triballian" is synonym to "Serbian". For example, Niketas Choniates (or Acominatus, 1155–1215 or-16) in his history about Emperor Ioannes Komnenos: " ... Shortly after this, he campaigned against the nation of Triballians (whom someone may call Serbians as well) ... " or

5989-417: The Roman biographer Hermippus, he was a student of Plato . Lucian , a Roman-Syrian rhetorician and satirist , lists the philosophers Aristotle , Theophrastus and Xenocrates among his teachers. These claims are nowadays disputed. According to Plutarch, Demosthenes employed Isaeus as his master in rhetoric, even though Isocrates was then teaching this subject, either because he could not pay Isocrates

6102-484: The beginning, to these he kept constant to the end; and was so far from leaving them while he lived, that he chose rather to forsake his life than his purpose". On the other hand, Polybius , a Greek historian of the Mediterranean world , was highly critical of Demosthenes' policies. Polybius accused him of having launched unjustified verbal attacks on great men of other cities, branding them unjustly as traitors to

6215-547: The coast, with the Athenian fleet, and organized a reconciliation. In 339 BC, when Philip II of Macedon was returning from his expedition against the Scythians , the Triballi refused to allow him to pass the Haemus unless they received a share of the booty. Hostilities took place, in which Philip was defeated and wounded by a spear in his right thigh, but the Triballi appear to have been subsequently subdued by him. After

6328-568: The conclusion of the Peace of Philocrates, Philip passed Thermopylae, and subdued Phocis ; Athens made no move to support the Phocians. Supported by Thebes and Thessaly, Macedon took control of Phocis' votes in the Amphictyonic League , a Greek religious organisation formed to support the greater temples of Apollo and Demeter . Despite some reluctance on the part of the Athenian leaders, Athens finally accepted Philip's entry into

6441-680: The days of Alkibiades ." Such a reception, the circumstances of the case, Athenian need to placate Alexander, the urgency to account for the missing funds, Demosthenes' patriotism and wish to set Greece free from Macedonian rule, all lend support to George Grote's view that Demosthenes was innocent, that the charges against him were politically-motivated, and that he "was neither paid nor bought by Harpalus." Mogens Hansen , however, notes that many Athenian leaders, Demosthenes included, made fortunes out of their political activism, especially by taking bribes from fellow citizens and such foreign states as Macedonia and Persia. Demosthenes received vast sums for

6554-649: The death of Philip, Alexander the Great passed through the lands of the Odrysians in 335-334 BC, crossed the Haemus ranges and after three encounters ( Battle of Haemus , Battle at Lyginus River , Battle at Peuce Island ) defeated and drove the Triballians to the junction of the Lyginus at the Danube . 3,000 Triballi were killed, the rest fled. Their king Syrmus ( eponymous to Roman Sirmium ) took refuge on

6667-418: The division between political and military offices was beginning to be strongly marked. Almost no politician, with the exception of Phocion, was at the same time an apt orator and a competent general . Demosthenes dealt in policies and ideas, and war was not his business. This contrast between Demosthenes' intellectual prowess and his deficiencies in terms of vigour, stamina, military skill and strategic vision

6780-410: The east, Illyrians the west and Celts to the north and were influenced by them. As such in contemporary sources, they are variably described as an independent, Thracian, Illyrian or Celtic tribe. Strabo considered the Triballi as a Thracian people. Most ancient sources considered the Triballi as Thracians, while some regarded them as Illyrians. As an existing people, the Triballi are mentioned for

6893-536: The ekklesia had refused to hear him and he was going home dejected, an actor named Satyrus followed him and entered into a friendly conversation with him. As a boy Demosthenes had a speech impairment : Plutarch refers to a weakness in his voice of "a perplexed and indistinct utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking and disjointing his sentences much obscured the sense and meaning of what he spoke." There are problems in Plutarch's account, however, and it

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7006-419: The house, and fourteen slaves and thirty silver minae " (30 minae = ½ talent). At the age of 20 Demosthenes sued his trustees to recover his patrimony and delivered five orations: three Against Aphobus during 363 and 362 BC and two Against Onetor during 362 and 361 BC. The courts fixed Demosthenes' damages at ten talents. When all the trials came to an end, he only succeeded in retrieving

7119-485: The ideals of democracy political liberty. Athens was asked by Philip to sacrifice its freedom and its democracy, while Demosthenes longed for the city's brilliance. He endeavoured to revive its imperilled values and, thus, he became an "educator of the people" (in the words of Werner Jaeger ). The fact that Demosthenes fought at the battle of Chaeronea as a hoplite indicates that he lacked any military skills. According to historian Thomas Babington Macaulay , in his time

7232-453: The importance of the navy, of alliances and of national honour, are prosecutions ( γραφὴ παρανόμων , graphē paranómōn ) against individuals accused of illegally proposing legislative texts. In Demosthenes' time, different political goals developed around personalities. Instead of electioneering, Athenian politicians used litigation and defamation to remove rivals from government processes. Often they indicted each other for breaches of

7345-461: The judicial oration Against Meidias . This speech gives valuable information about Athenian law at the time and especially about the Greek concept of hybris (aggravated assault), which was regarded as a crime not only against the city but against society as a whole. He stated that a democratic state perishes if the rule of law is undermined by wealthy and unscrupulous men, and that the citizens acquire power and authority in all state affairs due "to

7458-455: The last time by Roman historian Appian (2nd century CE). According to Appian, the Triballi were reduced in numbers through their wars against the Scordisci and fled among the Getae , north of the Danube before they went extinct as a distinct people. The Triballi ( Ancient Greek : Τριβαλλοί , romanized :  Triballoí ) are mentioned first in history by ancient Greek authors of

7571-740: The last time during the reign of Diocletian , who dates a letter from Triballis . The research of the Triballi began with Fanula Papazoglu 's book The Central Balkan Tribes in Pre-Roman Times (1968 in Serbian, 1978 in English). Other historians and archaeologists who wrote on the Triballi include Milutin Garašanin  [ sr ] , Dragoslav Srejović , Nikola Tasić, Rastko Vasić, Miloš Jevtić and, especially, Milorad Stojić ( Tribali u arheologiji i istorijskim izvorima , 2017). Based on

7684-572: The leader of his own "party" (the issue of whether the modern concept of political parties can be applied in the Athenian democracy is hotly disputed among modern scholars). Most of Demosthenes' major orations were directed against the growing power of King Philip II of Macedon. Since 357 BC, when Philip seized Amphipolis and Pydna , Athens had been formally at war with the Macedonians . In 352 BC, Demosthenes characterised Philip as

7797-547: The many decrees and laws he proposed. Given this pattern of corruption in Greek politics, it appears likely, writes Hansen, that Demosthenes accepted a huge bribe from Harpalus, and that he was justly found guilty in an Athenian People's Court. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Demosthenes again urged the Athenians to seek independence from Macedon in what became known as the Lamian War . However, Antipater, Alexander's successor, quelled all opposition and demanded that

7910-489: The most powerful Athenian statesman of the period 355 to 342 BC. The latter was no pacifist but came to eschew a policy of aggressive interventionism in the internal affairs of the other Greek cities. Contrary to Eubulus' policy, Demosthenes called for an alliance with Megalopolis against Sparta or Thebes , and for supporting the democratic faction of the Rhodians in their internal strife. His arguments revealed his desire to articulate Athens' needs and interests through

8023-585: The much later Demetrios Chalkokondyles (1423–1511), referring to an Islamized Christian noble: "... This Mahmud, son of Michael, is Triballian, which means Serbian, by his mother, and Greek by his father." or Mehmed the Conqueror when referring to the plundering of Serbia. Mihailo Vojislavljević succeeded as Knez of " Duklja " in 1046, or as his realm was called by contemporary Cedrenus : "Triballorum ac Serborum principatum" . According to George Kedrenos (fl. 1050s) and John Skylitzes (fl. 1057), he

8136-439: The office of the trierarch , being responsible for the outfitting and maintenance of a trireme . He was among the first ever volunteer trierarchs in 357 BC, sharing the expenses of a ship called Dawn , for which the public inscription still survives. In 348 BC, he became a choregos , paying the expenses of a theatrical production . Between 355 and 351 BC, Demosthenes continued practising law privately while he

8249-497: The orator Ctesiphon proposed that Athens honour Demosthenes for his services to the city by presenting him, according to custom, with a golden crown. This proposal became a political issue and, in 330 BC, Aeschines prosecuted Ctesiphon on charges of legal irregularities. In his most brilliant speech, On the Crown, Demosthenes effectively defended Ctesiphon and vehemently attacked those who would have preferred peace with Macedon. He

8362-541: The part of Thersites [an obscene soldier of the Greek army during the Trojan War ]?" Stung by these words, Philip immediately altered his demeanour. After Chaeronea, Philip inflicted a harsh punishment upon Thebes, but made peace with Athens on very lenient terms. Demosthenes encouraged the fortification of Athens and was chosen by the ekklesia to deliver the Funeral Oration . In 337 BC, Philip created

8475-485: The people, he was derided for his strange and uncouth style, "which was cumbered with long sentences and tortured with formal arguments to a most harsh and disagreeable excess". Some citizens, however, discerned his talent. When he first left the ekklesia (the Athenian Assembly) disheartened, an old man named Eunomus encouraged him, saying his diction was very much like that of Pericles . Another time, after

8588-480: The plan called for the creation of a rapid-response force, to be created cheaply with each ὁπλῑ́της ( hoplī́tēs ) to be paid only ten drachmas per month (two obols per day), which was less than the average pay for unskilled labourers in Athens—implying that the hoplite was expected to make up the deficiency in pay by looting. From this moment until 341 BC, all of Demosthenes' speeches referred to

8701-423: The policy of Demosthenes". Paparrigopoulos extols Demosthenes' patriotism, but criticises him as being short-sighted. According to this critique, Demosthenes should have understood that the ancient Greek states could only survive unified under the leadership of Macedon. Therefore, Demosthenes is accused of misjudging events, opponents and opportunities and of being unable to foresee Philip's inevitable triumph. He

8814-534: The political arena. Judicial oratory had become a significant literary genre by the second half of the fifth century, as represented in the speeches of Demosthenes' predecessors, Antiphon and Andocides . Logographers were a unique aspect of the Athenian justice system: evidence for a case was compiled by a magistrate in a preliminary hearing and litigants could present it as they pleased within set speeches; however, witnesses and documents were popularly mistrusted (since they could be secured by force or bribery), there

8927-417: The prescribed fee or because Demosthenes believed Isaeus' style better suited a vigorous and astute orator such as himself. Curtius , a German archaeologist and historian, likened the relation between Isaeus and Demosthenes to "an intellectual armed alliance". It has also been said that Demosthenes paid Isaeus 10,000  drachmae (somewhat over 1½ talents) on the condition that Isaeus withdraw from

9040-477: The reform of the Theoric fund , a mainstay of Eubulus' policy. In his rousing call for resistance, Demosthenes asked his countrymen to take the necessary action and asserted that "for a free people there can be no greater compulsion than shame for their position". He thus provided for the first time a plan and specific recommendations for the strategy to be adopted against Philip in the north. Among other things,

9153-480: The same combination of earnest patriotism with wise and long-sighted policy." Had his advice to the Athenians and other fellow Greeks been followed, the power of Macedonia could have been successfully checked. Moreover, says Grote, "it was not Athens only that he sought to defend against Philip, but the whole Hellenic world. In this he towers above the greatest of his predecessors." The sentiments to which Demosthenes appeals throughout his numerous orations, are those of

9266-482: The same issue, the struggle against Philip. In 349 BC, Philip attacked Olynthus , an ally of Athens. In the three Olynthiacs , Demosthenes criticised his compatriots for being idle and urged Athens to help Olynthus. He also insulted Philip by calling him a "barbarian". Despite Demosthenes' strong advocacy, the Athenians would not manage to prevent the falling of the city to the Macedonians. Almost simultaneously, probably on Eubulus' recommendation, they engaged in

9379-475: The son of Moschus, whom he allegedly deceived with the pretence that he could make him a great orator. Apparently, while still under Demosthenes' tutelage, Aristarchus killed and mutilated a certain Nicodemus of Aphidna. Aeschines accused Demosthenes of complicity in the murder, pointing out that Nicodemus had once pressed a lawsuit accusing Demosthenes of desertion. He also accused Demosthenes of having been such

9492-515: The statute laws ( graphē paranómōn ), but accusations of bribery and corruption were ubiquitous in all cases, being part of the political dialogue. The orators often resorted to "character assassination" tactics ( δῐᾰβολή , diabolḗ ; λοιδορία , loidoría ), both in the courts and in the Assembly. The rancorous and often hilariously exaggerated accusations, satirised by Old Comedy , were sustained by innuendo, inferences about motives, and

9605-551: The strength of the laws". There is no consensus among scholars either on whether Demosthenes finally delivered Against Meidias or on the veracity of Aeschines' accusation that Demosthenes was bribed to drop the charges. In 348 BC, Philip conquered Olynthus and razed it to the ground; then conquered the entire Chalcidice and all the states of the Chalcidic federation that Olynthus had once led. After these Macedonian victories, Athens sued for peace with Macedon. Demosthenes

9718-516: The subjects of the individual rulers, without attaching ethnic meaning to their content. Marin Barleti (1450–1513), wrote in his biography of Skanderbeg (published between 1508 and 1510), that father of Skanderbeg's mother Voisava was a "Triballian nobleman" ( pater nobilissimus Triballorum princeps ). In another chapter, when talking about the inhabitants of Upper Debar that defended Svetigrad, he calls them "Bulgarians or Triballi" ( Bulgari sive Tribali habitant ). In Barleti's work Triballian

9831-507: The temple unpolluted." After saying these words, he passed by the altar, fell down and died. Years after Demosthenes' suicide, the Athenians erected a statue to honour him and decreed that the state should provide meals to his descendants in the Prytaneum . Plutarch lauds Demosthenes for not being of a fickle disposition. Rebutting historian Theopompus , the biographer insists that for "the same party and post in politics which he held from

9944-468: The ten greatest Attic orators and logographers. Longinus likened Demosthenes to a blazing thunderbolt and argued that he had "perfected to the utmost the tone of lofty speech, living passions, copiousness, readiness, speed." Quintilian extolled him as lex orandi ("the standard of oratory"). Cicero said of him that inter omnis unus excellat ("one exceeds among all"), and also praised him as "the perfect orator" who lacked nothing. Demosthenes

10057-470: The treaty, but he delayed the departure of the Athenian envoys, who had yet to receive the oaths from Macedon's allies in Thessaly and elsewhere. Finally, peace was sworn at Pherae , where Philip accompanied the Athenian delegation, after he had completed his military preparations to move south. Demosthenes accused the other envoys of venality and of facilitating Philip's plans with their stance. Just after

10170-592: The tribes of Moesia . In the time of Ptolemy (90–168 AD), their territory was limited to the district between the Ciabrus (Tzibritza) and Utus (Vit) rivers, part of what is now Bulgaria ; their chief town was Oescus. Under Tiberius , mention is made of Triballia in Moesia; and the Emperor Maximinus Thrax (reigned 235–237) had been a commander of a squadron of Triballi. The name occurs for

10283-533: The two names were used as synonyms by some Byzantine sources and certain heraldic inheritance, Serbian official historiography does not equalate the Serbs and the Triballi, nor does it fabricate a cultural continuity between the two. Tribals and Tribalia are often identified in a historical context with Serbs and Serbia, as these interpretations refer only to Laonikos Chalkokondyles of the 15th century, who often resorted to archaisms in his historical writings that have come down to us (Mizi, Illyrians, etc.) to indicate

10396-407: The very worst enemy of his city; his speech presaged the fierce attacks that Demosthenes would launch against the Macedonian king over the ensuing years. A year later he criticised those dismissing Philip as a person of no account and warned that he was as dangerous as the king of Persia . In 352 BC, Athenian troops successfully opposed Philip at Thermopylae , but the Macedonian victory over

10509-653: The work of Fanula Papazoglou, several archeological findings in the Morava Valley ( Great Morava and South Morava ) region in the Iron Age have been linked to the Triballi. In 2005, several possibly Triballi graves were found at the Hisar Hill in Leskovac , southeastern Serbia . In June 2008, a Triballi grave was found together with ceramics (urns) in Požarevac , central-eastern Serbia. A tomb labeled as "Triballian"

10622-579: Was Thebes. To secure their allegiance, Demosthenes was sent by Athens, to the Boeotian city; Philip also sent a deputation, but Demosthenes succeeded in securing Thebes' allegiance. Demosthenes' oration before the Theban people is not extant and, therefore, the arguments he used to convince the Thebans remain unknown. In any case, the alliance came at a price: Thebes' control of Boeotia was recognised, Thebes

10735-472: Was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens . His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide insight into the politics and culture of ancient Greece during the 4th century BC. Demosthenes learned rhetoric by studying the speeches of previous great orators. He delivered his first judicial speeches at the age of 20, in which he successfully argued that he should gain from his guardians what

10848-582: Was a "Triballian nobleman" ( pater nobilissimus Triballorum princeps ). In another chapter, when talking about the inhabitants of Upper Debar that defended Svetigrad, he calls them "Bulgarians or Triballi" ( Bulgari sive Tribali habitant ). With the beginning of the First Serbian Uprising , the Parliament adopted the Serbian coat of arms in 1805, their official seal depicted the heraldic emblems of Serbia and Tribalia. Even though

10961-487: Was also the uncle of the Athenian Orator Demochares. Demosthenes was orphaned at the age of seven. Although his father provided for him well, his legal guardians, Aphobus, Demophon and Therippides, mishandled his inheritance. Demosthenes started to learn rhetoric because he wished to take his guardians to court and because he was of "delicate physique" and could not receive gymnastic education, which

11074-481: Was among those who favoured compromise. In 347 BC, an Athenian delegation, comprising Demosthenes, Aeschines and Philocrates, was officially sent to Pella to negotiate a peace treaty. In his first encounter with Philip, Demosthenes is said to have collapsed from fright. The ekklesia officially accepted Philip's harsh terms, including the renouncement of their claim to Amphipolis . However, when an Athenian delegation arrived at Pella to put Philip under oath, which

11187-399: Was an adolescent, his curiosity was noticed by the orator Callistratus , who was then at the height of his reputation, having just won a case of considerable importance. According to Friedrich Nietzsche , a German philologist and philosopher, and Constantine Paparrigopoulos , a major modern Greek historian, Demosthenes was a student of Isocrates ; according to Cicero , Quintillian and

11300-407: Was becoming increasingly interested in public affairs. During this period, he wrote Against Androtion and Against Leptines , two fierce attacks on individuals who attempted to repeal certain tax exemptions. In Against Timocrates and Against Aristocrates , he advocated eliminating corruption. All these speeches, which offer early glimpses of his general principles on foreign policy, such as

11413-458: Was born in 384 BC, during the last year of the 98th  Olympiad or the first year of the 99th Olympiad. His father—also named Demosthenes—who belonged to the local tribe, Pandionis, and lived in the deme of Paeania in the Athenian countryside, was a wealthy sword-maker. Aeschines , Demosthenes' greatest political rival, maintained that his mother Kleoboule was a Scythian by blood —an allegation disputed by some modern scholars. He

11526-430: Was customary. In Parallel Lives , Plutarch states that Demosthenes built an underground study where he practised speaking and shaving one half of his head so that he could not go out in public. Plutarch also states that he had "an inarticulate and stammering pronunciation " that he overcame by speaking with pebbles in his mouth and by repeating verses when running or out of breath. He also practised speaking in front of

11639-433: Was imprisoned after a proposal of Demosthenes and Phocion, despite the dissent of Hypereides , an anti-Macedonian statesman and former ally of Demosthenes. Additionally, the ekklesia decided to take control of Harpalus' money, which was entrusted to a committee presided over by Demosthenes. When the committee counted the treasure, they found they only had half the money Harpalus had declared he possessed. When Harpalus escaped,

11752-732: Was left of his inheritance. For a time, Demosthenes made his living as a professional speechwriter ( logographer ) and a lawyer , writing speeches for use in private legal suits . Demosthenes grew interested in politics during his time as a logographer, and in 354 BC he gave his first public political speeches. He went on to devote his most productive years to opposing Macedon 's expansion. He idealized his city and strove throughout his life to restore Athens' supremacy and motivate his compatriots against Philip II of Macedon . He sought to preserve his city's freedom and to establish an alliance against Macedon, in an unsuccessful attempt to impede Philip's plans to expand his influence southward, conquering

11865-473: Was little cross-examination during the trial, there were no instructions to the jury from a judge, no conferencing between jurists before voting, the juries were huge (typically between 201 and 501 members), cases depended largely on questions of probable motive, and notions of natural justice were felt to take precedence over written law—conditions that favoured artfully constructed speeches. Since Athenian politicians were often indicted by their opponents, there

11978-501: Was not always a clear distinction between "private" and "public" cases, and thus a career as a logographer opened the way for Demosthenes to embark on his political career. An Athenian logographer could remain anonymous, which enabled him to serve personal interests, even if it prejudiced the client. It also left him open to allegations of malpractice. Thus for example Aeschines accused Demosthenes of unethically disclosing his clients' arguments to their opponents; in particular, that he wrote

12091-619: Was required to conclude the treaty, he was campaigning abroad. He expected that he would hold safely any Athenian possessions that he might seize before the ratification. Being very anxious about the delay, Demosthenes insisted that the embassy should travel to the place where they would find Philip and swear him in without delay. Despite his suggestions, the Athenian envoys, including himself and Aeschines, remained in Pella, until Philip successfully concluded his campaign in Thrace . Philip swore to

12204-547: Was sent to Byzantium , where he sought to renew its alliance with Athens. Thanks to Demosthenes' diplomatic manoeuvres, Abydos also entered into an alliance with Athens. These developments worried Philip and increased his anger at Demosthenes. The Assembly, however, laid aside Philip's grievances against Demosthenes' conduct and denounced the peace treaty; so doing, in effect, amounted to an official declaration of war. In 339 BC Philip made his last and most effective bid to conquer southern Greece, assisted by Aeschines' stance in

12317-506: Was the Prince of Triballians and Serbs (Τριβαλλών και Σέρβων...αρχηγός / Τριβαλλῶν καὶ Σέρβων...ἀρχηγός). In the 15th century, a coat of arms of "Tribalia", depicting a wild boar with an arrow pierced through the head (see Boars in heraldry ), appeared in the supposed coat of arms of Emperor Stefan Dušan 'the Mighty' (r. 1331–1355). The motif had, in 1415, been used as the coat of arms of

12430-440: Was to command solely on land and jointly at sea, and Athens was to pay two thirds of the campaign's cost. While the Athenians and the Thebans were preparing themselves for war, Philip made a final attempt to appease his enemies, proposing in vain a new peace treaty. After a few trivial encounters between the two sides, which resulted in minor Athenian victories, Philip drew the phalanx of the Athenian and Theban confederates into

12543-462: Was unearthed at Ljuljaci , west of Kragujevac , central Serbia. In Bulgaria, a male grave at Vratsa dated to the 4th century BC has been unearthed; the royal tomb contains beautiful goldwork , like pitchers and wreaths. These findings are labeled as "Triballian" in Yugoslav and post-Yugoslav archaeology based on the definitions of Triballian territory by Fanula Papazoglu (1978) who constructed

12656-713: Was unrepentant about his past actions and policies and insisted that, when in power, the constant aim of his policies was the honour and the ascendancy of his country; and on every occasion and in all business he preserved his loyalty to Athens. He finally defeated Aeschines, although his enemy's objections, though politically-motivated, to the crowning were arguably valid from a legal point of view. In 324 BC Harpalus, to whom Alexander had entrusted huge treasures, absconded and sought refuge in Athens. The Assembly had initially refused to accept him, following Demosthenes' and Phocion 's advice, but finally Harpalus entered Athens. He

12769-621: Was worshipped, a relief of Zeus , Heracles and Dionysus found in Bukovo . The Roman site of Selište with a necropolis has been excavated in the village of Rogljevo . Silver and gold fibulae from 250–320 AD have been found at sites in Negotin. The district encompasses the city of Bor and three municipalities: According to the last official census done in 2011, the Bor District has 124,992 inhabitants. The ethnic composition of

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