Misplaced Pages

#483516

130-765: Augustin Barruel was born at Villeneuve de Berg ( Ardèche ). He entered the Society of Jesus , commonly known as the Jesuits, in 1756, and taught grammar at Toulouse from 1762. The storm against the Jesuits in France drove him from his country and he was occupied in college work in Moravia and Bohemia until the suppression of the order in 1773. He then returned to France and his first literary work appeared in 1774: Ode sur le glorieux avenement de Louis Auguste au trone . (Ode to

260-440: A bicameral legislature , intended to slow down the legislative process, ending the wild swings of policy under the previous unicameral systems. Deputies were chosen by indirect election, a total franchise of around 5 million voting in primaries for 30,000 electors, or 0.5% of the population. Since they were also subject to stringent property qualification, it guaranteed the return of conservative or moderate deputies. The Directory

390-471: A separation of powers ; the Directors had no voice in legislation or taxation, nor could Directors or Ministers sit in either house. To assure that the Directors would have some independence, each would be elected by one portion of the legislature, and they could not be removed by the legislature unless they violated the law. Under the new Constitution of 1795 , to be eligible to vote in the elections for

520-597: A European congress to settle borders, but the Directory refused, demanding direct negotiations with Austria instead. Under British pressure, Austria agreed to continue the war against France. Lazare Carnot , the Director who oversaw military affairs, planned a new campaign against Austria, using three armies: General Jean-Baptiste Jourdan 's Army of Sambre-et-Meuse on the Rhine and General Jean Victor Moreau 's Army of

650-543: A Freemason. Barruel accused the Knight Templars that they secretly survived and they have infiltrated Freemasonry in order to destroy Christianity. Barruel's original idea was to depict Jews as engaged in a global conspiracy, a driving force of world history (till then the general consensus was that the Jews are too powerless to do that). Later, Barruel refrained from republishing his book "fearing that it would lead to

780-587: A conspiracy among the Jews of Florence , Italy in coalition with the Illuminati. Barruel never published the letter's contents openly, although he likely circulated copies privately and the letter ended up being published in France's Le Contemporain in the 1870's. . His last important controversy was his defense of the Holy See in its deposition of the French bishops , which he said had been necessitated by

910-462: A day. Another major problem faced by the Directory was the enormous public debt, the same problem that had led to the Revolution in the first place. In September–December 1797, the Directory attacked this problem by declaring bankruptcy on two-thirds of the debt, but assured payment on the other third. This resulted in the ruin of those who held large quantities of government bonds, but stabilized

1040-577: A disciple of Polycarp , is supposed to have evangelized the Vivarais during the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus , and was supposedly martyred in 208. Legend tells of Andéol's burial by Amycia Eucheria Tullia. In 430, Auxonius transferred the see to Viviers as a result of the problems suffered at its previous site in Alba Augusta. The Vivarais area suffered greatly in the 9th century with raids by Hungarians and Saracen slavers operating from

1170-493: A favorite place for canoe and kayak enthusiasts from around the world. The Ardèche contains part of Cévennes National Park . The area is well known for sport climbing , with many well-managed limestone and granite crags. Each year the Ardeche hosts one of France's biggest road cycling events, L'Ardéchoise, with 16,000 entrants participating in 2011. The Ardèche department is known for the speciality of Sweet Chestnuts , with

1300-701: A general of second rank in the Army of the Interior , was ordered to defend the government buildings on the right bank. The armed royalist insurgents planned a march in two columns along both the right bank and left bank of the Seine toward the Tuileries. There on 5 October 1795, the royalists were met by the artillery of sous-lieutenant Joachim Murat at the Sablons and by Bonaparte's soldiers and artillery in front of

1430-465: A hat of blue velour , while members of the Ancients wore a robe of blue-violet, a scarlet sash, a white mantle, and a violet hat. The new Director overseeing financial affairs, La Réveillière-Lépeaux, gave a succinct description of the financial state of France when the Directory took power: "The national Treasury was completely empty; not a single sou remained. The assignats were almost worthless;

SECTION 10

#1732765261484

1560-778: A massacre of the Jews." The storm of the French Revolution had in the meantime forced Barruel to seek refuge in England, where he became almoner to the refugee Prince of Conti . Here he wrote in 1793 the Histoire du Clergé pendant la Revolution Française ("History of the Clergy during the French Revolution"). He dedicated the work to the English nation in recognition of the hospitality that it had showed toward

1690-713: A prominent general, Jean-Charles Pichegru , the Jacobins took charge of the new Councils and hardened the measures against the Church and émigrés. They took two additional seats in the Directory, hopelessly dividing it. In 1799, after several defeats, French victories in the Netherlands and Switzerland restored the French military position, but the Directory had lost all the political factions' support, including some of its Directors. Bonaparte returned from Egypt in October, and

1820-481: A refutation of a book by Hennet. From 1788 to 1792 he edited the famous Journal Ecclesiastique founded by Joseph Dinouart in 1760. In this periodical was published Barruel's La Conduite du. S. Siège envers la France , a vigorous defense of Pope Pius VI . He likewise wrote a number of pamphlets against the civil oath demanded from ecclesiastics and against the new civil constitution during 1790 and 1791. He afterward gathered into one Collection Ecclésiastique all of

1950-510: A term of three years, with one-third of the members renewed every year. The Ancients could not initiate new laws, but could veto those proposed by the Council of Five Hundred. The Constitution established a unique kind of executive, a five-man Directory chosen by the legislature. It required the Council of Five Hundred to prepare, by secret ballot, a list of candidates for the Directory. The Council of Ancients then chose, again by secret ballot,

2080-529: A trend followed by some later reactionary thinkers and even contemporary intellectual historians. It inspired John Robison, who had been working independently on his own conspiracy theory, to extend his book Proofs of a Conspiracy Against all the Religions and Governments of Europe and include several quotations from Barruel. Barruel and Robison were friends. On the fall of the Directory in 1799, Barruel

2210-458: A wordy war. Blanchard published in London no fewer than three refutations. He had promised to compose two works that never appeared: Historie des Sociétés Secrètes au Moyen-Age and Dissertation sur la Croisade contre les Albigeois . In regard to the latter work, Barruel stated his object would be to defend the Church against the reproach of having deposed kings and having freed their subjects from

2340-724: Is a department in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes , Southeastern France. It is named after the river Ardèche and had a population of 328,278 as of 2019. Its prefecture is in Privas , but its largest city is Annonay . Humans have inhabited the area at least since the Upper Paleolithic , as attested by the famous cave paintings at Chauvet Pont d'Arc . The Ardèche river plateau has extensive standing stones (mainly dolmens and some menhirs ), erected thousands of years ago. The river has one of Europe's largest canyons, and

2470-579: Is bordered to the east by the length of the Rhône valley for 140 km and to the west by the high plateaus of the Massif Central . At its widest, the department does not exceed 75 km. It covers an area of 5,550 square kilometres, a size that hides its great diversity in terms of relief, the absence of access to rapid transport (unique in France), and the difficulties in transport from one part of

2600-714: Is completely surrounded to the north by the valleys of the Ouvèze and the Payre, to the south by the valley of the Escoutay, and to the west by the Col of the Escrinet and the valley of Vesseaux. It is built of basalt that extends in length 18 km in the direction of the Rhône, and at its widest is a maximum 11 km. The climate here is also fairly extreme: snow, without being thick, is frequent, variations of temperature accentuated by

2730-621: Is divided into three arrondissements . The President of the Departmental Council has been Olivier Amrane of The Republicans (LR) since 2021. The department elected three members of the National Assembly in the 2017 legislative election : Representing Ardèche in the Senate are Michel Teston and Yves Chastan . Population development since 1791: The department's inhabitants are called Ardéchois . As one of

SECTION 20

#1732765261484

2860-479: Is part of the current region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and is surrounded by the departments of Drôme , Vaucluse , Gard , Lozère , Haute-Loire , Loire and Isère . It is a land of great contrasts: at the lowest it is at a mere 40 metres of elevation above sea level at the point at which the Ardèche river flows into the Rhône (in the southeast of the department) up to 1,754 metres at Mont Mézenc (centre-west), it

2990-456: Is practically nonexistent, as Ardèche-born inhabitants have an above average median age and thus also an above average death rate . Ardèche has few foreign-born immigrants, found almost exclusively in the tourist locations of Largentière, Le Pouzin, and Bourg-Saint-Andéol. They number about 11,000, 4% of the population. During the summer, many European tourists visit the Ardèche, principally Dutch and Germans staying at camping sites. Some 50% of

3120-649: The Atlantic . Here the Loire has its source. Within a few kilometres is the volcanic lake of Issarlès (92 ha, 5 km in circumference, 108 m in depth). The climate is extreme: snow for many months, very violent winds in autumn and winter (known locally as "la burle "), frequent fogs in the valleys, extreme temperature changes between the seasons, with heavy rains (1,500 mm per year in average) concentrated in September and October. The transition zone descending from

3250-695: The Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II in 1032. Locally throughout this period, the Church played an important role. John II (Giovanni of Siena), Cardinal and Bishop of Viviers (1073–1095), accompanied Pope Urban II to the Council of Clermont . It was later held in fief by the Counts of Toulouse , who lost it to the French crown in 1229. In 1284, with the Cistercian Abbey of Marzan, Philip IV established Villeneuve de Berg, and by

3380-469: The Jacobin Reign of Terror ; mass executions stopped, and measures taken against exiled priests and royalists were relaxed. The Jacobin political club was closed on 12 November 1794 and the government crushed an armed uprising planned by the Jacobins and an early socialist revolutionary, François-Noël Babeuf , known as " Gracchus Babeuf". But after the discovery of a royalist conspiracy including

3510-537: The Jacobins , the Convention had strictly regulated grain distribution and set maximum prices for bread and other essential products. As the value of the currency dropped, the fixed prices soon did not cover the cost of production, and supplies dropped. The Convention was forced to abolish the maximum on 24 December 1794, but it continued to buy huge quantities of bread and meat which it distributed at low prices to

3640-632: The Kingdom of Naples , Russia and the Ottoman Empire . It annexed Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine , while Bonaparte conquered a large part of Italy. The Directory established 29 short-lived sister republics in Italy, Switzerland and the Netherlands . The conquered cities and states were required to send France huge amounts of money, as well as art treasures, which were used to fill

3770-849: The Rhine and the Alps , the borders of Gaul at the time of the Roman Empire . In 1795, Prussia , Spain and the Dutch Republic quit the War of the First Coalition and made peace with France, but Great Britain refused to accept the French annexation of the Austrian Netherlands . Beside Britain and Austria, the only enemies remaining for France were the Kingdom of Sardinia and several small Italian states. Austria proposed

3900-469: The "knights of the guillotine". Young men known as Muscadins , largely from middle-class families, attacked the Jacobin and radical clubs. The new freedom of the press saw the appearance of a host of new newspapers and pamphlets from the left and the right, such as the royalist L'Orateur du peuple edited by Stanislas Fréron , an extreme Jacobin who had moved to the extreme right, and at the opposite end of

4030-629: The Agrarian Law, an agrarian reform preconized by the ancient Roman brothers, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus , of sharing goods in common , as means of achieving economic equality. By the time of the fall of Robespierre , he had abandoned this as an impractical scheme and was moving towards a more complex plan. Babeuf did not call for the abolition of private property, and wrote that peasants should own their own plots of land, but he advocated that all wealth should be shared equally: all citizens who were able would be required to work, and all would receive

Augustin Barruel - Misplaced Pages Continue

4160-521: The Annonay region, close to the main axes of communication (highways and the TGV railway), are the department's most urbanised areas. Here the natural growth in population is everywhere positive. Annonay, Tournon-sur-Rhône, and Guilherand-Granges benefit from the proximity of the nearby town of Valence and the economically more advanced department of la Drôme. In the southern interior with the town of Aubenas and

4290-466: The Ardeche to another, especially in winter. Privas shares this inaccessibility, being by road 589 km from Paris, 574 km from Strasbourg, 215 km from Marseille, 211 km from Annecy, 162 km from Chambéry, 147 km from Nîmes, 140 km from Lyon, 135 km from Grenoble, and 127 km from Saint-Étienne. There are five natural regions of the Ardèche: They border

4420-637: The Ardèche. During the Hundred Years War , the area maintained its loyalty to the French crown despite frequent attacks from the west. As a result of the reformation of John Calvin in Geneva , the Vivarais Ardèche was one of the areas that strongly embraced Protestantism partly as a result of Jacques Valery's missionary activity in 1534. During the Wars of Religion (1562–1598), the Ardèche

4550-586: The Committee of Public Safety, the committee that had been led by Robespierre, were arrested, with the exception of Carnot and two others. Six of the deputies who had participated in the uprising and had been sentenced to death committed suicide before they were taken to the guillotine. On 23 June 1795, the Chouans , royalist and Catholic rebels in Brittany , formed an army of 14,000 men near Quiberon . With

4680-670: The Conspiracy only via trusted intermediaries. This conspiratorial structure was later adopted by Marxist movements. Despite his precautions, the Directory infiltrated an agent into the conspiracy, and was fully informed of what he was doing. Bonaparte, the newly named commander of the Army of the Interior , was ordered to close the Panthéon Club , the major meeting place for the Jacobins in Paris, which he did on 27 February 1796. The Directory took other measures to prevent an uprising;

4810-466: The Convention formally proclaimed the freedom of religion and the separation of church and state. Between July 1794 and the October 1795 elections for the new-style Parliament, the government tried to obtain international peace treaties and secure French gains. In January 1795 General Pichegru took advantage of an extremely cold winter and invaded the Dutch Republic . He captured Utrecht on 18 January, and on 14 February units of French cavalry captured

4940-471: The Councils, voters were required to meet certain minimum property and residency standards. In towns with over six thousand population, they had to own or rent a property with a revenue equal to the standard income for at least one hundred fifty or two hundred days of work, and to have lived in their residence for at least a year. This ruled out a large part of the French population. The greatest victim under

5070-400: The Directors from that provided list. The Constitution required that Directors be at least forty years old. To assure gradual but continual change, one Director, chosen by lot, was replaced each year. Ministers for the various departments of State aided the Directors. These ministers did not form a council or cabinet and had no general powers of government. The new Constitution sought to create

5200-532: The Directory brought about a relative stability of finances which continued through the Directory and Consulate. The food supply for the population, and particularly for the Parisians, was a major economic and political problem before and during the Revolution; it had led to food riots in Paris and attacks on the Convention . To assure the supply of food to the sans-culottes in Paris, the base of support of

5330-632: The Directory were the following: The following day, the members of the new government took over their offices in the Luxembourg Palace , which had previously been occupied by the Committee of Public Safety. Nothing had been prepared, and the rooms had no furniture: they managed to find firewood to heat the room, and a table in order to work. Each member took charge of a particular sector: Rewbell diplomacy; Carnot and Le Tourneur military affairs, La Révellière-Lépeaux religion and public instruction, and Barras internal affairs. The Council of Ancients

Augustin Barruel - Misplaced Pages Continue

5460-458: The Directory. At the beginning, the treasury was empty; the paper money, the Assignat , had fallen to a fraction of its value, and prices soared. The Directory stopped printing assignats and restored the value of the money, but this caused a new crisis; prices and wages fell, and economic activity slowed to a standstill. In its first two years, the Directory concentrated on ending the excesses of

5590-690: The Directory. Bonaparte faced the combined armies of Austria and Sardinia, which numbered seventy thousand men. Bonaparte slipped his army between them and defeated them in a series of battles, culminating at the Battle of Mondovi where he defeated the Sardinians on 22 April 1796, and the Battle of Lodi , where he defeated the Austrians on 10 May. King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia was forced to make peace in May 1796 and ceded Nice and Savoy to France. At

5720-569: The Dutch fleet, which was trapped in the ice at Den Helder . The Dutch government asked for peace, conceding Dutch Flanders , Maastricht and Venlo to France. On 9 February, after a French offensive in the Alps, Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany signed a treaty with France. Soon afterwards, on 5 April, France signed a peace treaty, the Peace of Basel , with Prussia , where King Frederick William II

5850-416: The French Revolution. Between 12 and 21 October 1795, immediately after the suppression of royalist uprising in Paris, the elections for the new Councils decreed by the new Constitution took place. 379 members of the old Convention, for the most part moderate republicans, were elected to the new legislature. To assure that the Directory did not abandon the Revolution entirely, the Council required that all of

5980-455: The History of Jacobinism . His basic idea was that of a conspiracy with the aim of overthrowing Christianity —or more to the point, any and all forms of political and social organization based on conformity to the moral teachings of the Roman Catholic Church . Barruel's conspiracy is notable for suggesting an association between the Occult , the French Enlightenment , and Freemasons. He thereby associated Paganism with Enlightenment thought,

6110-432: The Jacobins attempted to seize power in Paris. Following the model of Danton's seizure of the National Assembly in June 1792, a mob of sans-culottes invaded the meeting hall of the Convention at the Tuileries Palace , killed one deputy, and demanded that a new government be formed. This time the army moved swiftly to clear the hall. Several deputies who had taken the side of the invaders were arrested. The uprising continued

6240-446: The Legion of Police ( légion de police ), a local police force dominated by Jacobins, was forced to become a part of the Army, and the Army organized a mobile column to patrol the neighborhoods and stop uprisings. Before Babeuf and his conspiracy could strike, he was betrayed by a police spy and arrested in his hiding place on 10 May 1796. Though he was a talented agitator, he was a very poor conspirator; with him in his hiding place were

6370-412: The Midi. These influences climb the length of the valleys to the summit of the high plateau, which resists their passage, not letting them penetrate. The high and the low are thus opposed, such is the character of the Ardèche personality." The most populous commune is Annonay ; the prefecture Privas is the sixth-most populous. As of 2019, there are 8 communes with more than 5,000 inhabitants: Ardèche

6500-422: The Napoleonic period, the Ardèche entered a period of increasingly prosperous inconspicuousness. After a period of eclipse, Viviers was reestablished in 1822 as the site of the see of the bishops of Ardèche, where it remains to this day. During the 19th century, modest economic growth took place. The population grew from 273,000 in 1793 to 388,500 in 1861. The silkworm industry boomed until 1855, when disease affected

6630-403: The Parisians. This Paris food distribution cost a large part of the national budget, and was resented by the rest of the country, which did not have that benefit. By early 1796, the grain supply was supplemented by deliveries from Italy and even from Algeria . Despite the increased imports, the grain supply to Paris was not enough. The Ministry of the Interior reported on 23 March 1796 that there

SECTION 50

#1732765261484

6760-497: The People"), were mostly middle-class far-left Jacobins who had been excluded from the new government. However, his popularity increased in the working-class of the capital with the drop in value of the assignats , which rapidly resulted in the decrease of wages and the rise of food prices. Beginning in October 1795, he allied himself with the most radical Jacobins, and on 29 March 1796 formed the Directoire secret des Égaux ("Secret Directory of Equals"), which proposed to "revolutionize

6890-420: The Reign of Terror, were brought back into the Convention on 8 March 1795. The Convention tried to bring a peaceful end to the Catholic and royalist uprising in the Vendée . The Convention signed an amnesty agreement, promising to recognize the freedom of religion and allowing territorial guards to keep their weapons if the Vendéens would end their revolt. On a proposal from Boissy d'Anglas, on 21 February 1795

7020-399: The Rhine and Moselle on the Danube would march to Vienna and dictate a peace. A third army, the Army of Italy under General Bonaparte, who had risen in rank with spectacular speed due to his defense of the government from a royalist uprising, would carry out a diversionary operation against Austria in northern Italy. Jourdan's army captured Mayence and Frankfurt , but on 14 August 1796

7150-430: The Rhône valley. The mountainous areas are much less densely populated, with only 6 to 7 inhabitants per km in the cantons of Saint-Étienne-de-Lugdarès and Valgorge. As the mountains and the plateau continue to depopulate, those of the Rhône valley, Bas-Vivarais and lower Ardèche are continuing to grow, but the population situation, whilst better than in the past, still remains an issue for the region. The Rhône valley and

7280-421: The Rhône, following a generally southeasterly course. This Karst region is formed of calcareous limestones , where the streams flow in steep-sided valleys separated by sharp crests. With a generally low altitude the Bas-Vivarais enjoys a warm, dry, almost Mediterranean climate. Skies are wide and bright, temperatures more elevated (3 or 4 °C in January). The winds from the northeast are dominant, but those of

7410-472: The Vivarais towns a certain independence of thinking, and with the support of powerful Protestant Huguenots (the Comte de Crussol and Olivier de Serres ), the Vivarais became a Protestant stronghold. As a result, it suffered many attacks and eight pitched battles between 1562 and 1595. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes put an end to these struggles. At that time, the Vivarais had over 75 Protestant churches and five fortified strongholds with permanent garrisons. But

7540-418: The Year III was officially proclaimed in force on 23 September 1795, but the new Councils had not yet been elected, and the Directors had not yet been chosen. The leaders of the royalists and constitutional monarchists chose this moment to try to seize power. They saw that the vote in favor of the new Constitution was hardly overwhelming. Paris voters were particularly hostile to the idea of keeping two-thirds of

7670-404: The area's problems were not over. In 1629, Paule de Chambaud, daughter of the Huguenot lord of Privas, chose instead to marry a Catholic, the Vicomte de l'Estrange, who supported Cardinal Richelieu 's persecution of Protestants. With a majority of the population Protestant, Privas refused to submit, and as a centre of the revolt of the Benjamin de Rohan, duc de Soubise , was burned to the ground by

7800-486: The arrest of any suspected "enemies of freedom"; on 10 October, the National Convention recognised the Committee of Public Safety under Maximilien Robespierre as the supreme authority , and suspended the Constitution until "peace was achieved". According to archival records, from September 1793 to July 1794 some 16,600 people were executed on charges of counter-revolutionary activity; another 40,000 may have been summarily executed or died awaiting trial. At its peak,

7930-434: The assistance of the British navy, a force of two thousand royalists was landed at Quiberon . The French army under General Lazare Hoche reacted swiftly, forcing the royalists to take refuge on the peninsula and then to withdraw. They surrendered on 21 July; 748 of the rebels were executed by firing squad. The new Constitution of the Year III was presented to the Convention and debated between 4 July – 17 August 1795, and

SECTION 60

#1732765261484

8060-437: The caves that dot the cliffs—which go as high as 300 metres (1,000 feet)—are known for signs of prehistoric inhabitants (arrowheads and flint knives are often found). The Vivarais, as the Ardèche is still called, takes its name and coat of arms from Viviers , which was the capital of the Gaulish tribe of Helvii , part of Gallia Narbonensis , after the destruction of their previous capital at Alba-la-Romaine . Saint Andéol,

8190-413: The church of Saint-Roch . Over the next two hours, the " whiff of grapeshot " of Bonaparte's cannons and gunfire of his soldiers brutally mowed down advancing columns, killing some four hundred insurgents, and ending the rebellion. Bonaparte was promoted to General of Division on 16 October, and General in Chief of the Army of the Interior on 26 October. It was the last uprising to take place in Paris during

8320-756: The cities if they did not pay. These measures reduced the rate of inflation. On 19 February 1796, the government held a ceremony in the Place Vendôme to destroy the printing presses which had been used to produce huge quantities of assignats . This success produced a new problem: the country was still flooded with more than two billion four hundred million (2.400.000.000) assignats , claims on confiscated properties, which now had some value. Those who held assignats were able to exchange them for state mandates, which they could use to buy châteaux, church buildings and other biens nationaux (state property) at extremely reduced prices. Speculation became rampant, and property in Paris and other cities could change hands several times

8450-534: The coast of Provence resulting in an overall depopulation of the region. In the early 10th century, economic recovery saw the building of many Romanesque churches in the region, including Ailhon, Mercuer, Saint Julien du Serre, Balazuc, Niègles, and Rochecolombe. The medieval county of Viviers or Vivarais at this time was administratively a part of the Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles , formed in 933 by Rudolph II of Burgundy 's fusion of Provence and Burgundy and bequeathed by its last monarch Rudolph III of Burgundy to

8580-403: The complete records of the conspiracy, with all of the names of the conspirators. Despite this setback, the conspiracy went ahead with its plans. On the night of 9–10 September 1796, between 400 and 700 Jacobins went to the 21st Regiment of Dragoons ( 21e régiment de dragons ) army camp at Grenelle and tried to incite an armed rebellion against the Directory. At the same time a column of militants

8710-428: The creation of the real one. They were concerned about the National Guard members from western Paris, and were unsure about the military commander of Paris, General Jacques-François Menou . Barras decided to turn to military commanders in his entourage who were known republicans, particularly Napoleon Bonaparte , whom he had known when Bonaparte was successfully fighting the British in Toulon . Bonaparte, at this point

8840-420: The currency. To keep the treasury full, the Directory also imposed new taxes on property owners, based on the number of fireplaces and chimneys, and later on the number of windows, of their residences. It refrained from adding more taxes on wine and salt, which had helped cause the 1789 revolution, but added new taxes on gold and silver objects, playing cards, tobacco, and other luxury products. Through these means,

8970-447: The downfall of Robespierre, was resumed on this occasion. Despite his arrest, Babeuf, in jail, still felt he could negotiate with the government. He wrote to the Directory: "Citizen Directors, why don't you look above yourselves and treat with me as with an equal power? You have seen now the vast confidence of which I am the center... this view makes you tremble." Several attempts were made by Babeuf's followers to free him from prison. He

9100-404: The early 19th century the Ardèche included only 34,000 Protestants out of a population of 290,000. Named after the river of the same name, the Ardèche was one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. The support of Count François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas representing the Third Estate of the Vivarais in the States General, the freeing of the serfs, and

9230-440: The end of 1796, Austria sent two new armies to Italy to expel Bonaparte, but Bonaparte outmaneuvered them both, winning a first victory at the Battle of Arcole on 17 November 1796, then at the Battle of Rivoli on 14 January 1797. He forced Austria to sign the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797), whereby Emperor Francis II ceded Lombardy and the Austrian Netherlands to the French Republic in exchange for Venice and urged

9360-455: The end of October a legislature consisting of the Council of 500 was created, responsible for drafting legislation, and Council of Ancients , an upper house containing 250 men over the age of 40, who would review and approve it. Executive power was in the hands of five Directors, selected by the Council of Ancients from a list provided by the lower house, with a five-year mandate. This was intended to prevent executive power being concentrated in

9490-538: The famous "châtaigne d'Ardèche" granted the appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) in 2006. The cuisine of Ardèche is very similar to that of Corsica , with liberal use of chestnuts. French Directory The Directory (also called Directorate ; French : le Directoire [diʁɛktwaʁ] ) was the governing five-member committee in the French First Republic from 26 October 1795 (4 Brumaire an IV) until November 1799, when it

9620-532: The first weekend in June a large hot air balloon gathering celebrates the first journey. At the 200th anniversary in 1983, some 50 hot air balloons took part with the first historic flight reenacted with people dressed in period costume. At the beginning of the French Revolution, the 1789 Declaration of Human Rights at last recognised Ardèche Protestants as citizens in their own right, free at last to practise their faith. Catholicism nonetheless continued to expand, and by

9750-528: The following day, as the sans-culottes seized the Hôtel de Ville as they had done in earlier uprisings, but with little effect; crowds did not move to support them. On the third day, 22 May, the army moved into and occupied the working-class neighborhood of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine . The sans-culottes were disarmed and their leaders were arrested. In the following days the surviving members of

9880-461: The following months, the Directory and Councils gradually turned away from the royalist right and tried to find new allies on the left. The major preoccupation of the Directory during its existence was the war against the coalition of Britain and Austria . The military objective set by the Convention in October 1795 was to enlarge France to what were declared its natural limits: the Pyrenees ,

10010-612: The following years and the food supplies improved considerably, but the supply was still precarious in the north, the west, the southeast, and the valley of the Seine. In 1795, the Directory faced a new threat from the left, from the followers of François Noël Babeuf , a talented political agitator who took the name Gracchus and was the organizer of what became known as the Conspiracy of the Equals . Babeuf had, since 1789, been drawn to

10140-666: The forces of Louis XIII , sent to support the Vicomte de l'Estrange. As a result, one-fifth of the Vivarais Protestant population emigrated. The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, which outlawed Protestantism, led the peasant family of Marie and Pierre Durand to revolt against royal authority. This led to the Camisard revolt of the Ardèche prophets. Louis XIV responded by dispatching Dragoons , who brutalised

10270-591: The glorious advent to the throne of Louis Auguste). That same year he became a collaborator of the Année littéraire , edited by Fréron . His first important work was Les Helveiennes, ou Lettres Provinciales philosophiques (The Helveiennes or philosophical Provincial Letters) published in 1781. In the meantime, national affairs in France were growing more and more turbulent, but Barruel continued his literary activity, which from now on occupied itself specially with public questions. In 1789 appeared Lettres sur le Divorce ,

10400-536: The government began minting more coins of gold and silver, which had real value; the government had little gold but large silver reserves, largely in the form of silverware, candlesticks and other objects confiscated from the churches and the nobility. It minted 72 million écus , and when this silver supply ran low, it obtained much more gold and silver through military campaigns outside of France, particularly from Bonaparte's army in Italy . Bonaparte demanded gold or silver from each city he conquered, threatening to destroy

10530-535: The hands of one man. D'Anglas wrote to the Convention: We propose to you to compose an executive power of five members, renewed with one new member each year, called the Directory. This executive will have a force concentrated enough that it will be swift and firm, but divided enough to make it impossible for any member to even consider becoming a tyrant. A single chief would be dangerous. Each member will preside for three months; he will have during this time

10660-464: The influence of the "Midi" to the south. The narrow plains are very fertile and favourable to orchards (peaches and apricots). On the slopes the vines dominate. Maps of different types of agricultural products translate clearly into these five regions. According to A. Siegfried, "The true character of the Ardèche is of a slope turning towards the Mediterranean, open to the influences coming from

10790-542: The leaders of the still ruling National Convention tried to meet challenges from both neo-Jacobins on the left and royalists on the right. On 21 September 1794, the remains of Jean-Paul Marat , whose furious articles had promoted the Reign of Terror, were placed with great ceremony in the Panthéon , while on the same day, the moderate Convention member Merlin de Thionville described the Jacobins as "A hangout of outlaws" and

10920-402: The little value which remained drained away each day with accelerated speed. One could not print enough money in one night to meet the most pressing needs of the next day.... The public revenues were nonexistent; citizens had lost the habit of paying taxes. [...] All public credit was dead and all confidence lost. [...] The depreciation of the assignats , the frightening speed of the fall, reduced

11050-415: The members of the Directory be former members of the Convention and regicides , those who had voted for the execution of Louis XVI . Due to the rules established by the Convention, a majority of members of the new legislature, 381 of 741 deputies, had served in the Convention and were ardent republicans, but a large part of the new deputies elected were royalists, 118 versus 11 from the left. The members of

11180-426: The mountains (1,200 m) to the valley of the Rhône (300 to 400 m), is the plateau region. The plateau's medium altitude is one of green forested crests separated by wild and uncrossable gorges . Hydrographic resources are dominated by these torrential streams and rainfall is characterised by frequent summer showers, with the climate much less extreme than that of the mountains to the west. The Ardèche river flows into

11310-671: The new Louvre museum in Paris. An army led by Bonaparte tried to conquer Egypt and marched as far as Saint-Jean-d'Acre in Syria . The Directory defeated a resurgence of the War in the Vendée , the royalist-led civil war in the Vendée region, but failed in its venture to support the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and create an Irish Republic. The French economy was in continual crisis during

11440-644: The new order of things in France established by the Concordat of 1801 . His book appeared also in English: The Papal Power, or an historical essay on the temporal power of the Pope. Many attacked the work, but as usual, the author did not suffer an antagonist to go unanswered. His new work involved him in a very extended controversy, for his work was translated into all the principal European languages. His friends and foes alike became involved in

11570-459: The new system was the City of Paris, which had dominated events in the first part of the Revolution. On 24 August 1794, the committees of the sections of Paris, bastions of the Jacobins which had provided most of the manpower for demonstrations and invasions of the Convention, were abolished. Shortly afterwards, on 31 August, the municipality of Paris, which had been the domain of Danton and Robespierre,

11700-689: The oath of allegiance. He contended that objections on this score arose only from an ignorance of history. At the time of his death, Barruel was engaged on a refutation of the philosophical system of Immanuel Kant , but never completed his work. He died in Paris in 1820. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). " Augustin Barruel ". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Ard%C3%A8che Ardèche ( French pronunciation: [aʁdɛʃ] ; Occitan : Ardecha , pronounced [aɾˈdet͡ʃɔ] ; Arpitan : Ardecha )

11830-493: The old Convention would remain in place until the next elections. A national referendum of eligible voters was then held. The total number of voters was low; of five million eligible voters, 1,057,390 electors approved the Constitution, and 49,978 opposed it. The proposal that two thirds of members of the old Convention should remain in place was approved by a much smaller margin, 205,498 to 108,754. The new Constitution of

11960-498: The old members of the Convention in the new Councils. A central committee was formed, with members from the wealthier neighborhoods of Paris, and they began planning a march on the center of the city and on the Tuileries, where the Convention still met. The members of the Convention, very much experienced with conspiracies, were well aware that the planning was underway. A group of five republican deputies, led by Paul Barras , had already formed an unofficial directory, in anticipation of

12090-432: The other branches of government. The new legislature had two houses, a Council of Five Hundred and a Council of Ancients with two hundred fifty members. Electoral assemblies in each canton of France , which brought together a total of thirty thousand qualified electors, chose representatives to an electoral assembly in each department , which then elected the members of both houses. The members of this legislature had

12220-591: The people" through pamphlets and placards, and eventually to overthrow the government. He formed an alliance of utopian socialists and radical Jacobins, including Félix Lepeletier , Pierre-Antoine Antonelle , Sylvain Marechal , Jean-Pierre-André Amar and Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet . The Conspiracy of Equals was organized in a novel way: in the center was Babeuf and the Secret Directory, who hid their identities, and shared information with other members of

12350-440: The poorer districts in France, emigration from the Ardèche exceeded immigration for a long time, although this has recently changed. In 1990, Ardèche reached the population level it had 50 years earlier. Today, the population numbers 309,000 (compared to 390,000 in 1860). Despite this demographic recovery, the area remains marked by a rural exodus that minimises the effects of an above average birth rate . The rate of natural increase

12480-419: The population by " dragonnades ", destroying a number of communities. The brutality of those years was enormous and peace was restored only in 1715. As a result of brutality on both sides, another 50,000 Archèche Protestants fled France, many for Switzerland, whilst others were forced into abjuration (conversion). In the next century, despite the growth of the community of Annonay, increasing polarisation between

12610-461: The population of the department lives in rural communities, compared to a national average of 75% of the French population living in urban areas. The Ardèche has an average population density of 52 per km , compared to 122 per km for the Rhône-Alpes region and 104 per km in France. Population density is highest in the regions around the two towns of Annonay and Aubenas and along the edge of

12740-411: The press, and freedom of labour, but forbade armed assemblies and even public meetings of political societies. Only individuals or public authorities could tender petitions. The judicial system was reformed, and judges were given short terms of office: two years for justices of the peace, five for judges of department tribunals. They were elected, and could be re-elected, to assure their independence from

12870-405: The prosperous Rhône valley and the relatively poor and mountainous Haut Vivarais on the department's western side. Sheep farming did not lead to the prosperity hoped for and wine growing, badly hit by the phylloxera crisis during the last decades of the 19th century, has had to compete with other more established areas of France. The department, corresponding to the ancient province of Vivarais ,

13000-443: The salary of all public employees and functionaries to a value which was purely nominal." The drop in value in the money was accompanied by extraordinary inflation. The Louis d'or (gold coin), which was worth 2,000 ₶. in paper money at the beginning of the Directory, increased to 3,000₶. and then 5,000₶. The price of a liter of wine increased from 2₶.10 s. in October 1795 to 10₶. and then 30₶. A measure of flour worth 2₶. in 1790

13130-458: The same income. Babeuf did not believe that the mass of French citizens was ready for self-government; accordingly, he proposed a dictatorship under his leadership until the people were educated enough to take charge. "People!", Babeuf wrote. "Breathe, see, recognize your guide, your defender.... Your tribune presents himself with confidence." At first, Babeuf's following was small; the readers of his newspaper, Le Tribun du peuple ("The Tribune of

13260-568: The signature and seal of the head of state. By the slow and gradual replacement of members of the Directory, you will preserve the advantages of order and continuity and will have the advantages of unity without the inconveniences. The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was attached as a preamble, declaring "the Rights of Man in society are liberty, equality, security, and property". It guaranteed freedom of religion, freedom of

13390-425: The slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts could place one under suspicion, and even his supporters began to fear their own survival depended on removing Robespierre. On 27 July, he and his allies were arrested and executed the next day. In July 1794, the Convention established a committee to draft what became the 1795 Constitution . Largely designed by Pierre Daunou and Boissy d'Anglas , it established

13520-500: The south (known as the "vent du midi") and west are full of humidity, bringing heavy precipitation for a few days at a time. The few rivers, the Lavezon, Escoutay, and Frayol, provide less of a hydrological resource than one sees in the crysaline granitic areas to the north. This is a country of wine, shrubland, cereals, and extensive fruit trees (this is the region of Aubenas and of Joyeuse ). This plateau, 800 metres above sea level,

13650-593: The spectrum, the Tribun du peuple , edited by Gracchus Babeuf , a former priest who advocated an early version of socialism . On 5 February 1795, the semi-official newspaper Le Moniteur Universel ( Le Moniteur ) attacked Marat for encouraging the bloody extremes of the Reign of Terror . Marat's remains were removed from the Panthéon two days later. The surviving Girondin deputies, whose leaders had been executed during

13780-461: The strong, cold winds. The soil is rich and fertile. Farming is dominated by wheat, oats, and potatoes, with the raising of goats and cattle. On the slopes are vines and fruit trees. The Rhône corridor is very straight on the right bank, which runs almost at the foot of the Vivarais plateaus, leaving tiny plains where the rivers from the Vivarais descend to the Rhône. Here the strong north wind (the mistral ) dominates, but temperatures are moderated by

13910-537: The support of the lesser clergy of the church ensured that the Ardèchois supported the early revolution, but they withdrew support when things became more radical. During the Reign of Terror , in 1794, the guillotine at Privas was kept busy with the execution of the former moderate supporters of the revolution. Under the Directory , bands of Chouans took to the Cevennes to escape and support former émigrés . In

14040-575: The treaty of 10 July 1305 Philip IV of France obliged the bishops of Vivarais to admit the sovereignty of the kings of France over all their temporal domain. The realm was largely ignored by the Emperors and was finally granted to France as part of the domain of the Dauphin , the future Charles VII of Valois in 1308. During this period, the Maillard family, as Counts of Tournon, were influential in

14170-589: The unfortunate French ecclesiastics. It has been translated into German, Italian, Spanish, Polish, and English. The English version went through several editions and did much to strengthen the British nation in its opposition to French revolutionary principles. While in London, Barruel published an English work, A Dissertation on Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction in the Catholic Church. But none of his works attracted so much attention as his Memoirs Illustrating

14300-495: The upper house, the Council of Ancients, were chosen by lot from among all of the deputies. On 31 October 1795, the Council of Ancients chose the first Directory from a list of candidates submitted by the Council of Five Hundred. One person elected, the Abbé Sieyès , refused to take the position, saying it didn't suit his interests or personality. A new member, Lazare Carnot , was elected in his place. The members elected to

14430-492: The upper nobility families such as Rohan Soubise, and Vogue, Count of Aubenas, possessing huge financial fortunes, and the lesser nobility, the village clergy and the bourgeoisie of the Vivarais paralleled developments elsewhere in France. Despite this, the sons of a local Annonay paper-maker, Joseph and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier , ascended in the first hot air balloon over the town on 4 June 1783. The firm of Canson Mongolfier continues making paper to this day and every year on

14560-474: The valley of the Ardèche river, the population of the cantons of Villeneuve-de-Berg and of Vallon-Pont-d'Arc grows at four times the speed of the departmental average. The high plateau and the mountainous areas as far as Privas continue to lose its young population (the median age of the population as a whole is increasing as a result of the weakness of the power of this region to attract new permanent inhabitants). With its rivers and streams, Ardèche has become

14690-585: The western frontier of the department with an average altitude of 1,100 metres. They are of largely granitic composition, split by the Velay Basalts of the Massif of Mézenc , and the Forez mountains , centred upon volcanic cones of ash, lava plugs and numerous magma flows (Mézenc: 1,754 metres; Gerbier de Jonc : 1,551 m). Their inclination slopes gently westward, leading to a westerly flow of water to

14820-460: The works relative to the clergy and civil constitution. Defunct Defunct Barruel, a Jesuit exiled from France, using some ideas plagiarized from John Robison , peddled a conspiracy theory that Jews, Freemasons and Illuminati want to demolish all monarchies plus the Vatican, in order to establish a World Republic. But Barruel did not accuse all Freemasons, and considered himself to be

14950-409: The worms and competition with China undermined the industry's profitability. Mining at Privas saw the exploitation of local iron ore, which was quickly depleted. As a result, six blast furnaces were established, but they were only moderately profitable, the last closing at Pouzain in 1929. The scientific pioneer Marc Seguin , whose inventions played a key role in the development of early locomotives,

15080-556: Was abolished, and the city placed under direct control of the national government. When the Law of 19 Vendémiaire Year IV (11 October 1795), in application of the new Constitution , created the first twelve arrondissements of Paris, it established twelve new committees, one for each arrondissement . The city became a new department , the Department of the Seine , replacing the former Department of Paris created in 1790. Meanwhile,

15210-646: Was attributed the building at the Tuileries Palace formerly occupied by the Convention, while the Council of Five Hundred deliberated in the Salle du Manège , the former riding school west of the palace in the Tuileries Garden . One of the early decisions of the new parliament was to designate uniforms for both houses: the Five Hundred wore long white robes with a blue belt, a scarlet cloak and

15340-429: Was born in the department. But Seguin located his business upstream, near Lyon , and industrial development in the Ardèche remained relatively small-scale. No large towns appeared in the department during the years of France's industrialisation, and its official population total of 388,500, reached in 1861, turned out to be a peak that has not since been matched. Since the 1860s, the Ardèche economy has been split between

15470-414: Was considered a strategically important location between Protestant Geneva, Lyon, and Catholic Languedoc. The region had prospered with the introduction of tobacco growing from America, and the agrarian experiments of Olivier de Serres , father of modern French agriculture. The influence of Protestant Lyon, and the growth of the silk industry, thanks to the planting of mulberry trees, gave the burghers of

15600-479: Was defeated by the Austrians at the Battle of Amberg and again on 3 September 1796 at the Battle of Würzburg , and had to retreat back to the Rhine. General Moreau, without the support of Jourdan, was also forced to retreat. The story was very different in Italy. Bonaparte, though he was only twenty-eight years old, was named commander of the Army of Italy on 2 March 1796, through the influence of Barras, his patron in

15730-526: Was enabled to return to France. He fully accepted and persuaded many other clergymen to accept the new political order of things in his native country and he wrote several books to defend his opinions. When the Concordat was made in 1801 between Pius VII and Napoleon , Barruel wrote: Du Pape et de ses Droits Religieux. In 1806, he was the recipient of the Simonini letter , which claimed to document

15860-531: Was engaged by Abbé Sieyès and others to carry out a parliamentary coup d'état on 9–10 November 1799. The coup abolished the Directory and replaced it with the French Consulate led by Bonaparte. The period known as the Reign of Terror began as a way of harnessing revolutionary fervour, but quickly degenerated into the settlement of personal grievances. On 17 September 1793, the Law of Suspects authorised

15990-683: Was established after the Constitution of Year III which was adopted by a referendum on 24 September 1795, and constituted after the first elections which were held from 12–21 October 1795. On 25 October the National Convention held its last meeting; the Committee of Public Safety was dissolved or rather disappeared before the end of the month. On 31 October, in addition to Paul Barras , Jean-François Reubell , Louis-Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux , Étienne-François Le Tourneur and Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès were chosen as Directors. At

16120-646: Was finally moved to Vendôme for trial. The Directory did not tremble. The accused Jacobins were tried by military courts between 19 September and 27 October. Thirty Jacobins, including three former deputies of the Convention, were convicted and guillotined. Babeuf and his principal followers were tried in Vendôme between 20 February and 26 May 1797. The two principal leaders, Babeuf and Augustin Alexandre Darthé , were convicted. They both attempted suicide, but failed and were guillotined on 27 May 1797. However, in

16250-433: Was formally adopted on 22 August 1795. It was a long document, with 377 articles, compared with 124 in the first French Constitution of 1793 . Even before it took effect, however, the members of the Convention took measures to assure they would still have dominance in the legislature over the government. They required that in the first elections, two hundred and fifty new deputies would be elected, while five hundred members of

16380-669: Was formed in the working-class neighborhoods of Paris to march on the Luxembourg Palace, headquarters of the Directory. Director Carnot had been informed the night before by the commander of the camp, and a unit of dragoons was ready. When the attack began at about ten o'clock, the dragoons appeared suddenly and charged. About twenty Jacobins were killed, and the others arrested. The column of militants, learning what had happened, disbanded in confusion. The widespread arrest of Babeuf's militants and Jacobins followed. The practice of arresting suspects at their homes at night, stopped after

16510-477: Was only enough wheat to make bread for five days, and there were shortages of meat and firewood. The Directory was forced to resume deliveries of subsidized food to the very poor, the elderly, the sick, and government employees. The food shortages and high prices were one factor in the growth of discontent and the Gracchus Babeuf 's uprising, the Conspiracy of the Equals , in 1796. The harvests were good in

16640-570: Was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Coup of 18 Brumaire and replaced by the Consulate . In mainstream historiography, the term Directoire is also used to refer to the period (i.e. from the dissolution of the National Convention on 26 October 1795 to Napoleon's coup d'état), coinciding with the final four years of the French Revolution . The Directory was continually at war with foreign coalitions, including Britain , Austria , Prussia ,

16770-621: Was tired of the war; Prussia recognized the French occupation of the western bank of the Rhine . On 22 July 1795, a peace agreement, the "Treaty of Basel", was signed with Spain, where the French Revolutionary Army had marched as far as Bilbao in the War of the Pyrenees . By the time the Directory was chosen, the coalition against France was reduced to Britain and Austria , which hoped that Russia might be brought in on its side. On 20 May 1795 (1 Prairial Year III),

16900-576: Was worth 225₶. in October 1794. The new government continued to print assignats , which were based on the value of property confiscated from the Church and the aristocracy, but it could not print them fast enough; even when it printed one hundred million in a day, it covered only one-third of the government's needs. To fill the treasury, the Directory resorted in December 1795 to a forced loan of 600 million-₶. from wealthy citizens, who were required to pay between 50₶. and 6,000₶. each. To fight inflation,

#483516