Misplaced Pages

#423576

161-658: The Byzantine Empire re-established control over parts of Anatolia during the First Crusade , and following the sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade , Anatolia became the heartland of the successor states of the Empire of Nicaea and Empire of Trebizond . Following the retaking of Constantinople in 1261, the region gradually passed out of Byzantine control and into the hands of the Ottoman Turks as

322-1094: A Turkish ambush led by the Seljuk Kilij Arslan I at the Battle of Civetot in October 1096. In what has become known as the Princes' Crusade, members of the high nobility and their followers embarked in late-summer 1096 and arrived at Constantinople between November and April the following year. This was a large feudal host led by notable Western European princes: southern French forces under Raymond IV of Toulouse and Adhemar of Le Puy ; men from Upper and Lower Lorraine led by Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin of Boulogne ; Italo-Norman forces led by Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred ; as well as various contingents consisting of northern French and Flemish forces under Robert Curthose of Normandy, Stephen of Blois , Hugh of Vermandois , and Robert II of Flanders . In total and including non-combatants,

483-566: A campaign against Egypt. Alexander forded the Halys River in the summer of 333 BC, ending up on the border of southeastern Phrygia and Cilicia. He knew well the writings of Xenophon , and how the Cilician Gates had been "impassable if obstructed by the enemy". Alexander reasoned that by force alone he could frighten the defenders and break through, and he gathered his men to do so. In the cover of night, they attacked, startling

644-525: A charismatic priest called Peter the Hermit . Peter was the most successful of the preachers of Urban's message, and developed an almost hysterical enthusiasm among his followers, although he was probably not an "official" preacher sanctioned by Urban at Clermont. It is commonly believed that Peter's followers consisted entirely of a massive group of untrained and illiterate peasants who did not even know where Jerusalem was, but there were also many knights among

805-633: A combined force of French, Aragonese and Catalan knights in the Siege of Barbastro , taking the city that had been in Muslim hands since the year 711. This had the full support of Alexander II, and a truce was declared in Catalonia with indulgences granted to the participants. It was a holy war but differed from the First Crusade in that there was no pilgrimage, no vow, and no formal authorisation by

966-537: A common identity and shared history based on tribe or ethnicity so they frequently united and divided during the 11th and 12th centuries. Although small, all developed an aristocratic military technique and, in 1031, the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba in southern Spain created the opportunity for the territorial gains that later became known as the Reconquista . In 1063, William VIII of Aquitaine led

1127-521: A complex sexual melange involving Michael's mistress Eudokia Ingerina , and his sister Thekla. Michael also appointed, or announced he was going to appoint as co-emperor, Basiliskianos . This so alarmed Basil, in terms of potentially threatening the line of succession of which he was now the direct heir, that he had both Michael and Basiliskianos murdered, and ascended the throne as Basil I (867–886). The last Amorian emperor, Michael III "the Drunkard",

1288-543: A consequence of which Cilicia became a vassal of the Achaemenid empire as from c.  542 BC , and the Cilician rulers became part of the Achaemenid administration. Under early Achaemenid rule, Cilicia maintained a significant degree of autonomy and the native rulers acted as satraps (governors) for the Achaemenid administration, with their authority extending until as far west as Aspendus . Cilicia during

1449-514: A few Paulicians in hiding at Tephrike , which was soon smashed in 879. Basil also campaigned against the Arab emirate of Tarsus in the same year, defeating them at Adana and continuing on to Germanicea and upper Mesopotamia . However, the death of Basil's son Constantine profoundly affected the emperor, who went into a depression. A further attack against Melitene in 882 ended in a defeat. Basil managed to make an alliance with Armenia that brought

1610-447: A large enterprise was continent-wide. Estimates as to the size of the crusader armies have been given as 70,000 to 80,000 on the number who left Western Europe in the year after Clermont, and more joined in the three-year duration. Estimates for the number of knights range from 7,000 to 10,000; 35,000 to 50,000 foot soldiers; and including non-combatants a total of 60,000 to 100,000. But Urban's speech had been well-planned. He had discussed

1771-404: A legation to Patriarch Michael I Cerularius of Constantinople, which ended in mutual excommunication and an East–West Schism . Early Christians were used to the employment of violence for communal purposes. A Christian theology of war inevitably evolved from the point when Roman citizenship and Christianity became linked. Citizens were required to fight against the empire's enemies. Dating from

SECTION 10

#1732764920424

1932-510: A length that had been unseen since 634. The main obstacle to Byzantine expansion was the emir of Aleppo , one Sayf al-Dawla . At first, al-Dawla was able to contain Byzantine forces until a disastrous ambush by the general Leo Phokas the Younger , brother of Nikephoros, routed al-Dawla's armies and almost completely destroyed the Arab forces. Over the next two years, the region of Cilicia

2093-797: A local level, the preaching of the First Crusade ignited the Rhineland massacres perpetrated against Jews. At the end of 1095 and the beginning of 1096, months before the departure of the official crusade in August, there were attacks on Jewish communities in France and Germany. In May 1096, Emicho of Flonheim (sometimes incorrectly known as Emicho of Leiningen) attacked the Jews at Speyer and Worms . Other unofficial crusaders from Swabia, led by Hartmann of Dillingen, along with French, English, Lotharingian and Flemish volunteers, led by Drogo of Nesle and William

2254-462: A long time. In the tenth century, Byzantium gradually began regaining strength it had previously lost. On the eastern frontier, this meant a gradual pushing back of Arab power. The first major blow was struck by John Kourkouas and his sacking of the city of Melitene . In 961, the general Nikephoros Phokas retook the island of Crete for the empire. This was the beginning of an era of reconquest for Byzantium and would extend its eastern frontiers to

2415-682: A major defeat at the Battle of Krasos in Phrygia in 805 and died on a campaign against the Bulgarians . On Nikephoros' death, he was succeeded by his son and coemperor, Staurakios (811). However he was severely wounded in the same battle in which his father died, and after much controversy regarding the succession was persuaded to abdicate later that year by his sister's husband, Michael I (811–813), who succeeded him. Michael I pursued more diplomatic than military solutions, however having survived

2576-576: A measure of safety to the east of Asia Minor. Basil died in 886 and was succeeded by Leo VI. Leo's military record had a fairly unimpressive start. In 897, the emirate of Tarsus was able to sack the headquarters of the Theme of Cappadocia at Çorum . Additionally, the Armenian allies had to deal with a separate Arab invasion that weakened their position against the Arabs. Combined with other difficulties, Leo

2737-539: A metropolitan diocese at Anazarbus and suffragan dioceses for Mopsuestia, Aegae , Epiphania , Irenopolis , Flavias , Castabala , Alexandria , Citidiopolis and Rhosus . Bishops from the various dioceses of Cilicia were well represented at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and at the later ecumenical councils. After the division of the Roman Empire, Cilicia became part of the eastern Roman Empire,

2898-558: A new emotional and personal piety that was not easily harnessed by the ecclesiastical and lay aristocracy. Typically, preaching would conclude with every volunteer taking a vow to complete a pilgrimage to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; they were also given a cross, usually sewn onto their clothes. Cilicia Cilicia ( / s ɪ ˈ l ɪ ʃ ə / ) is a geographical region in southern Anatolia , extending inland from

3059-585: A peace settlement, Heraclius took direct control over the Byzantine army and began to pursue an offensive strategy. Leading his men to Cappadocia , Heraclius engaged and defeated a Persian army under Shahrbaraz, forcing them out of Anatolia and winning a much needed victory. Heraclius was interrupted from continuing by an attack by the Pannonian Avars , who threatened the empire's holding in Thrace . For

3220-505: A pilgrimage, and even so, many died and many more turned back. The pilgrims that survived these extremely dangerous journeys, “returned to the West weary and impoverished, with a dreadful tale to tell.” News of these deadly attacks on pilgrims as well as the persecution of the native Eastern Christians caused anger in Europe. News of these persecutions reached European Christians in the West in

3381-422: A rebellion led by Leontios (695–698) in 695, which deposed and exiled him, precipitating a series of events that led to a prolonged period of instability and anarchy, with seven emperors in twenty-two years. Leontios proved equally unpopular and was in turn overthrown by Tiberios III (698–705). Tiberios managed to bolster the eastern frontier and reinforced the defences of Constantinople, but meanwhile Justinian

SECTION 20

#1732764920424

3542-498: A troublesome time between the two dynasties, Heraclian and Isaurian and reflect a loss of leadership that had occurred under Justinian II, and could equally be dated from his first deposition in 695. Philipikos ' rebellion extended beyond politics to religion, deposing the patriarch, reestablishing monothelitism and overturning the Sixth Ecumenical Council , which in turn alienated the empire from Rome. Militarily

3703-911: Is a rugged mountain district formed by the spurs of Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with small sheltered harbours, features which, in classical times, made the coast a string of havens for pirates and, in the Middle Ages, outposts for Genoese and Venetian traders. The district is watered by the Calycadnus and was covered in ancient times by forests that supplied timber to Phoenicia and Egypt . Cilicia lacked large cities. Plain Cilicia ( Ancient Greek : Κιλικια Πεδιας , romanized :  Kilikia Pedias ; Latin : Cilicia Campestris ; Neo-Assyrian Akkadian : 𒆳𒋡𒀀𒌑𒂊 , romanized:  Que ; Neo-Babylonian Akkadian : 𒆳𒄷𒈨𒂊 , romanized:  Ḫuwê ), to

3864-472: Is clear that the response to the speech was much greater than even the Pope, let alone Alexios, expected. On his tour of France, Urban tried to forbid certain people (including women, monks, and the sick) from joining the crusade, but found this nearly impossible. In the end, most who took up the call were not knights, but peasants who were not wealthy and had little in the way of fighting skills, in an outpouring of

4025-626: Is unknown. The earliest known ruler, and possibly the founder, of the kingdom of Cilicia was Syennesis I, who, according to the Ancient Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus, mediated in 585 BC the peace treaty which followed the end of the conflict which had opposed the Lydian and Median empires. Herodotus of Halicarnassus also claimed that the Cilicians and the Lycians were

4186-592: Is watered by the three great rivers, the Cydnus (Tarsus Çay Berdan River ), the Sarus ( Seyhan ), and the Pyramus ( Ceyhan River ), each of which brings down much silt from the deforested interior and which fed extensive wetlands. The Sarus now enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are clear indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus, and that the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Through

4347-523: Is worse still and yet more distressing, clerics and monks and woe of unprecedented woes, even bishops are defiled with the sin of sodomy and it is now trumpeted abroad that one bishop has succumbed to this abominable sin. The emperor warned that if Constantinople fell to the Turks, not only would thousands more Christians be tortured, raped and murdered, but “the most holy relics of the Saviour,” gathered over

4508-646: The Battle of Chrysopolis , but on the whole the region would see little of the chaos that wracked other parts of the Empire during the next few centuries. The first major disruption of this peace was the Anastasian War during the reign of Anastasius I Dicorus . The border city of Theodosiopolis was sacked by the forces of the Sassanid Empire under Kavad I . Several other cities such as Amida and Martyropolis were also sacked during this time, but

4669-563: The Battle of Versinicia (813) in which the Byzantines under Michael I were routed by the Bulgarians. Leo had already played a checkered role in imperial politics, rewarded by Nikephoros I for switching sides in the 803 civil war , and possibly later punished for a subsequent transgression, he had been appointed Governor of the Anatolic theme from which he was able to orchestrate Michael's downfall and his own succession. Leo's first task

4830-604: The Byzantine Empire . In the 7th century Cilicia was invaded by the Muslim Arabs. The area was for some time an embattled no-man's land. The Arabs succeeded in conquering the area in the early 8th century. Under the Abbasid Caliphate , Cilicia was resettled and transformed into a fortified frontier zone ( thughur ). Tarsus, re-built in 787/788, quickly became the largest settlement in the region and

4991-696: The Hellenistic era, numerous cities were established in Cilicia, which minted coins showing the badges (gods, animals, and objects) associated with each polis. Cilicia Trachea became the haunt of pirates , who were subdued by Pompey in 67 BC following a Battle of Korakesion (modern Alanya ), and Tarsus was made the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia. Cilicia Pedias became Roman territory in 103 BC first conquered by Marcus Antonius Orator in his campaign against pirates, with Sulla acting as its first governor, foiling an invasion of Mithridates , and

Byzantine Anatolia - Misplaced Pages Continue

5152-657: The Levant , there were no further substantive attempts to recover the Holy Land. Christian and Muslim states had been in conflict since the latter's founding in the 7th century. During the century following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632, Muslim forces captured Jerusalem and the Levant , North Africa , and most of the Iberian Peninsula , all of which had previously been under Christian rule. By

5313-670: The Limonlu River ) and Cilicia Pedias ( Latin : Cilicia Campestris , east of the Limonlu). Salamis , the city on the east coast of Cyprus, was included in the Roman province of Cilicia from 58 BC until 27 BC. Cilicia consisted of two main contrasting regions: Rough Cilicia ( Ancient Greek : Κιλικια Τραχεια , romanized :  Kilikia Trakheia ; Latin : Cilicia Aspera ; Neo-Assyrian Akkadian : 𒆳𒄭𒋃𒆪 , romanized:  Ḫilakku ; Neo-Babylonian Akkadian : 𒆳𒉿𒊑𒅔𒁺 , romanized:  Pirindu )

5474-599: The Mediterranean coast east from Pamphylia to the Nur Mountains , which separate it from Syria . North and east of Cilicia stand the rugged Taurus Mountains , which separate it from the high central plateau of Anatolia , and which are pierced by a narrow gorge called in antiquity the Cilician Gates . Ancient Cilicia was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachea ( Latin : Cilicia Aspera , west of

5635-531: The Slavs or Western Christians. Normans in Italy; Pechenegs , Serbs and Cumans to the north; and Seljuk Turks in the east all competed with the Empire, and to meet these challenges the emperors recruited mercenaries, even on occasion from their enemies. The Islamic world also experienced great success since its foundation in the 7th century, with major changes to come. The first waves of Turkic migration into

5796-658: The atabeg of Mosul . Egypt and much of Palestine were controlled by the Fatimids. The Fatimids, under the nominal rule of caliph al-Musta'li but actually controlled by vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah , lost Jerusalem to the Seljuks in 1073 but succeeded in recapturing the city in 1098 from the Artuqids , a smaller Turkish tribe associated with the Seljuks, just before the arrival of the crusaders. According to historian Jonathan Riley-Smith and Rodney Stark , Muslim authorities in

5957-581: The pretorian prefecture also called Oriens ('the East', also including the dioceses of Asiana and Pontica , both in Anatolia, and Thraciae in the Balkans), the rich bulk of the eastern Roman Empire . After the division of the Roman Empire, Cilicia became part of the eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire . Cilicia was one of the most important regions of the classical world and can be considered as

6118-509: The 11th century, Christians were gradually reversing Islamic control of Iberia through the Reconquista , but their ties to the Holy Land had deteriorated. Muslim authorities in the Levant often enforced harsh rules against any overt expressions of the Christian faith. The First Crusade was the response of the Christian world to the expansion of Islam, through the Fatimids and Seljuks, into

6279-426: The 11th century, the population of Europe had increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish. The Catholic Church had become a dominant influence on Western civilization. Society was organized by manorialism and feudalism , political structures whereby knights and other nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors. In

6440-540: The Achaemenid Empire. The Greek designation of Kilikia extended the use of the name of the state of Ḫilakku to the territory of both Ḫilakku and its neighbour Ḫiyawa. It is however uncertain how this naming convention arose, and whether it was the result of political expansion by Ḫilakku or of Greeks first coming into contact with Ḫilakku and using its name for all the Luwian populations of eastern Anatolia

6601-417: The Achaemenid period was inhabited by tribal populations who were led by native chieftains, and it contained fortified strongholds protecting its agricultural land and its inhabitants, as well as various native and Persian cities and towns. Nevertheless, the western pert of Cilicia, corresponding to the later Graeco-Roman Rough Cilicia, probably remained independent of Persian rule and of the administration of

Byzantine Anatolia - Misplaced Pages Continue

6762-495: The Aegean Sea during 396 to 395 BC, and against Cyprus in the 380s BC. During the 390s BC, Camisares was appointed as satrap of Cilicia. Camisares was himself succeeded by his son, Datames , who eventually became the satrap of both Cilicia and Cappadocia until his assassination in c.  362 BC . In the 340s BC, the satrap of Cilicia was Mazaeus , who was also given authority over Syria as reward for his service in

6923-682: The Arabs lifting the siege in 678, and after further setbacks signing another truce which allowed Constantine to concentrate on the Balkan threat. For a long time the Danube in the Balkans had been considered the frontier that must be defended to maintain the integrity of Thrace . Now a new Turkic threat, the Bulgars crossed the Danube and inflicted heavy losses on the Byzantine forces in 681. Faced with

7084-683: The Archbishop of Cologne, did their best to protect the Jews. A decade before, the Bishop of Speyer had taken the step of providing the Jews of that city with a walled ghetto to protect them from Christian violence and given their chief rabbis the control of judicial matters in the quarter. Nevertheless, some also took money in return for their protection. The attacks may have originated in the belief that Jews and Muslims were equally enemies of Christ, and enemies were to be fought or converted to Christianity. The four main crusader armies left Europe around

7245-554: The Asian and European Greeks. Under Darius I's successor, Xerxes I , Cilicia contributed both troops and ships for the Achaemenid conquest of the Aegean Sea: the Cilician ruler Syennesis II led these ships, but was killed in battle. At this time, the ruling dynasty of Cilicia had been linked by marriage bonds with Carian notables. Syennesis II was succeeded by one Xeinagoras of Halicarnassus, who had no previous ties to Cilicia and

7406-558: The Balkans in 855. However the subsequent conversion of the Bulgarians to Christianity and the peace of 864 brought a long lasting lull in the Bulgarian wars . A new threat emerged further north in 860 with the appearance of the Kievan Rus' and subsequent Rus'–Byzantine wars of 860. Basil then arranged to murder Bardas in 866, and was adopted by Michael and crowned co-emperor a few months later. Michael and Basil were entangled in

7567-482: The Bulgars reached the walls of Constantinople, and moving troops to defend the capital allowed the Arabs to make incursions in the east. His reign ended abruptly when an army rebellion deposed him and replaced him with Anastasius II (713–715). Anastasius reversed his predecessor's religious policies and responded to Arab attacks by sea and land, this time reaching as far as Galatia in 714, with some success. However

7728-448: The Bulgars. He in turn faced rebellion from two other themata , Anatolikon and Armeniakon in 717, and chose to resign, being succeeded by Leo III (717–741) bringing an end to the cycle of violence and instability. It was surprising that the Byzantine Empire was able to survive, given its internal conflicts, the speedy collapse of the Sassanid Empire under Arab threat, and it was being threatened simultaneously on two fronts. However

7889-428: The Byzantine Empire was a historic centre of wealth, culture and military power. Under Basil II , the territorial recovery of the empire reached its furthest extent in 1025. The Empire's frontiers stretched east to Iran, Bulgaria and much of southern Italy were under control, and piracy in the Mediterranean Sea had been suppressed. Relations with the Empire's Islamic neighbours were no more quarrelsome than relations with

8050-407: The Byzantine Empire, but would dramatically heighten the importance of Anatolia. Previously, Egypt had been the main source of food and wealth for the empire, mainly due to the fertile lands watered by the Nile River . With Egypt gone, Anatolia would become the main source of money, men, and food for the empire. Anatolia's peace was dealt a mortal blow by these staggering losses. In the late 640s under

8211-409: The Carpenter , as well as many locals, joined Emicho in the destruction of the Jewish community of Mainz at the end of May. In Mainz, one Jewish woman killed her children rather than let the crusaders kill them. Chief rabbi Kalonymus Ben Meshullam committed suicide in anticipation of being killed. Emicho's company then went on to Cologne, and others continued on to Trier, Metz, and other cities. Peter

SECTION 50

#1732764920424

8372-466: The Crusader states in the Levant The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades , initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the Middle Ages . The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic rule . While Jerusalem had been under Muslim rule for hundreds of years, by the 11th century the Seljuk takeover of the region threatened local Christian populations, pilgrimages from

8533-442: The Eastern churches in their time of need. Alexios and Urban had previously been in close contact in 1089 and after, and had discussed openly the prospect of the reunion of the Christian churches. There were signs of considerable cooperation between Rome and Constantinople in the years immediately before the crusade. In July 1095, Urban turned to his homeland of France to recruit men for the expedition. His travels there culminated in

8694-492: The Galatians (1:21). After Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century, Cilicia was included in the territories of the patriarchate of Antioch. The region was divided into two civil and ecclesiastical provinces: Cilicia Prima , with a metropolitan diocese at Tarsus and suffragan dioceses for Pompeiopolis , Sebaste , Augusta  [ cs ; de ; it ; pl ] , Corycus , Adana , Mallus and Zephyrium ; and Cilicia Secunda , with

8855-436: The Hermit also may have been involved in violence against the Jews, and an army led by a priest named Folkmar attacked Jews further east in Bohemia. Coloman of Hungary had to deal with the problems that the armies of the First Crusade caused during their march across his country towards the Holy Land in 1096. He crushed two crusader hordes that had been pillaging the kingdom. Emicho's army eventually continued into Hungary but

9016-451: The Holy Land and Byzantium. In Western Europe, Jerusalem was increasingly seen as worthy of penitential pilgrimages . While the Seljuk hold on Jerusalem was weak (the group later lost the city to the Fatimids), returning pilgrims reported difficulties and the oppression of Christians. The Byzantine need for military support coincided with an increase in the willingness of the western European warrior class to accept papal military command. By

9177-401: The Holy Land often enforced harsh rules "against any open expressions of the Christian faith": In 1026 Richard of Saint-Vanne was stoned to death after he was seen saying Mass. Muslim officials also ignored the constant robberies and massacres of Christian pilgrims, such as an incident in 1064 in which Muslims ambushed four German bishops and a party of several thousand pilgrims as they entered

9338-494: The Holy Land, slaughtering two-thirds of them The persecution of Christians became even worse after the Seljuk Turks invasion. Villages occupied by Turks along the route to Jerusalem began exacting tolls on Christian pilgrims. In principle, the Seljuks allowed pilgrims access to Jerusalem, but they often imposed huge tariffs and condoned local attacks. Many pilgrims were kidnapped and sold into slavery while others were tortured. Soon only large, well-armed groups would dare to attempt

9499-549: The Hungarians and may have captured Belgrade. At Niš , the Byzantine governor tried to supply them, but Peter had little control over his followers and Byzantine troops were needed to quell their attacks. Peter arrived at Constantinople in August, where his army joined with the one led by Walter, which had already arrived, as well as separate bands of crusaders from France, Germany, and Italy. Another army of Bohemians and Saxons did not make it past Hungary before splitting up. Peter's and Walter's unruly mob began to pillage outside

9660-416: The Iron Age, Cilicia was dominated by two main polities: In the 6th century BC, an independent state, called Cilicia ( Ancient Greek : Κιλικια , romanized :  Kilikia ) by the ancient Greeks, was established in southeastern Anatolia under the rule of a native dynasty, with its capital of Cilicia at the city of Tarsus . Cilicia and Cilicians do not appear in any extant list of people ruled by

9821-471: The Isaurian dynasty, from the edict of Leo III to Irene and the Second Council of Nicaea (Seventh Ecumenical Council) in 787. Iconoclasm was then revived by Leo V , and it persisted until 842 in the reign of Michael III (842–867) and regency of Theodora . Constantine V (741–775) had a less successful reign than his father, for no sooner had he ascended the throne than he was attacked and defeated by his brother in law, Artabasdos who proceeded to seize

SECTION 60

#1732764920424

9982-504: The Islamic world disregarded the world beyond, so that, when the First Crusade arrived, it came as a surprise. Malik-Shah was succeeded in the Anatolian Sultanate of Rûm by Kilij Arslan , and in Syria by his brother Tutush I who started a civil war against Berkyaruq to become sultan himself. When Tutush was killed in 1095, his sons Ridwan and Duqaq inherited Aleppo and Damascus , respectively, further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other, as well as Kerbogha ,

10143-412: The Middle East enmeshed Arab and Turkic history from the 9th   century. The status quo in Western Asia was challenged by later waves of Turkish migration, particularly the arrival of the Seljuk Turks in the 10th   century. These were a minor ruling clan from Transoxania. They converted to Islam and migrated to Iran to seek their fortune. In the following two decades they conquered Iran, Iraq and

10304-536: The Near East. The Seljuks and their followers were Sunni Muslims, which led to conflict in Palestine and Syria with the Shi'ite Fatimid Caliphate . The Seljuks were nomads, Turkish-speaking, and occasionally shamanistic, unlike their sedentary, Arabic-speaking subjects. This was a difference that weakened power structures when combined with the Seljuks' habitual governance of territory based on political preferment and competition between independent princes rather than geography. Romanos IV Diogenes attempted to suppress

10465-507: The Neolithic period onwards. Dating of the ancient settlements of the region from Neolithic to Bronze Age is as follows: Aceramic/Neolithic: 8th and 7th millennia BC; Early Chalcolithic : 5800 BC; Middle Chalcolithic (correlated with Halaf and Ubaid developments in the east): c. 5400–4500 BC; Late Chalcolithic: 4500 – c. 3400 BC; and Early Bronze Age IA: 3400–3000 BC; EBA IB: 3000–2700 BC; EBA II: 2700–2400 BC; EBA III A-B: 2400–2000 BC. The area had been known as Kizzuwatna in

10626-417: The Phrygian or Amorian dynasty after Michael II , who like Leo came from Amorium ( Phrygia ), the capital of the Anatolic Theme . No sooner had Michael deposed Leo, than he was confronted with revolt by a fellow military commander, Thomas the Slav , who claimed the throne. The ensuing civil war dragged on until 824, including a siege of Constantinople, when Thomas was defeated and killed. Michael continued

10787-426: The Sasanian forces burnt and sacked several cities in Syria, Cilicia ( Middle Persian : 𐭪𐭫𐭪𐭩𐭠𐭩 ‎ ) and Cappadocia. Under Emperor Diocletian's Tetrarchy (c. 297), Cilicia was governed by a consularis ; with Isauria and the Syrian, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Libyan provinces, formed the Diocesis Orientis (in the late 4th century the African component was split off as Diocese of Egypt ), part of

10948-421: The Seljuks' sporadic raiding, but was defeated at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the only time in history that a Byzantine emperor became the prisoner of a Muslim commander. The battle was a stinging setback that presaged notable Seljuk gains, and contributed to the call for the First Crusade. Key cities such as Nicaea and Antioch were lost in 1081 and 1086 respectively, cities that were especially famous in

11109-414: The West due to their historical significance and would later also be targets of reconquest by the crusader armies. From 1092, the status quo in the Middle East disintegrated following the death of the effective ruler of the Seljuk Empire, Nizam al-Mulk . This was closely followed by the deaths of the Seljuk sultan Malik-Shah and the Fatimid caliph al-Mustansir Billah . Wracked by confusion and division,

11270-507: The West, and the Byzantine Empire itself. The earliest initiative for the First Crusade began in 1095 when Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos requested military support from the Council of Piacenza in the empire's conflict with the Seljuk-led Turks. This was followed later in the year by the Council of Clermont , during which Pope Urban II supported the Byzantine request for military assistance and also urged faithful Christians to undertake an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem . This call

11431-424: The Younger , resulting in the kingdom of Cilicia being abolished and fully integrated into the Achaemenid empire as a province ruled by and appointed by the Achaemenid king of kings, which it would remain until the end of the Achaemenid Empire in 333 BC. Once the revolt of Cyrus the Younger had been suppressed, Cilicia was again used as an assembly point for Achaemenid forces in preparation for military action in

11592-772: The advance of Roman hegemony in the Aegean Sea region. Mithridates VI sought to dominate Asia Minor and the Black Sea region, waging several hard-fought but ultimately unsuccessful wars (the Mithridatic Wars ) to break Roman dominion over Asia and the Hellenic world . He has been called the greatest ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus. Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus by Pompey , brought all of Anatolia under Roman control , except for

11753-652: The appointed time in August 1096. They took different routes to Constantinople , some through Eastern Europe and the Balkans, some crossing the Adriatic Sea. Coloman of Hungary allowed Godfrey and his troops to cross Hungary only after his brother, Baldwin, was offered as a hostage to guarantee his troops' good conduct. They gathered outside the Roman-era Walls of Constantinople between November 1096 and April 1097. Hugh of Vermandois arrived first, followed by Godfrey, Raymond, and Bohemond. Recruitment for such

11914-415: The battle against Krum of Bulgaria that took the lives of his two predecessors, he engaged Krum once more and once more was defeated, severely weakening his position. Aware of a likely revolt he chose to abdicate given the grisly fate of so many prior overthrown emperors, ending the brief dynasty of Nikephoros. The Nikephorian dynasty was overthrown by a general, Leo V (813–820), suspected of treachery in

12075-572: The birthplace of Christianity . Roman Cilicia exported the goats-hair cloth, Cilicium , which was used to make tents. Tarsus was also the birthplace of the early Christian missionary and author St. Paul , likely writer of 13 of the 27 books included in the New Testament . Cilicia had numerous Christian communities and is mentioned six times in the Book of Acts and once in the Epistle to

12236-477: The bulk of the carnage was confined to the easternmost part of Anatolia, as the main focus of the war was Armenia . The Sassanid Empire, the largest opposing power to that of Byzantium in the region, would not make a determined effort to conquer Anatolia until the seventh century. Anatolia would occasionally receive the spillover of wars between Byzantium and Persia such as the Iberian War or Lazican War , but

12397-439: The caliph known as Mu'awiya I , the Arabs launched raids into Anatolia, advancing to Amorium and Cappadocia . This would be the first in a series of raids into Anatolia that would last for hundreds of years. The desperate straits of the empire at this time caused a massive shift in strategic thinking for the Byzantines. For the next two centuries they would cease being an empire of conquest, of which they were largely incapable at

12558-539: The case since 781. A female head of state was not acceptable to the western church who promptly crowned an alternative emperor ( Charlemagne ) in 800 further deepening the rift between east and west. With Irene ended the Isaurian dynasty when she was deposed by a patrician conspiracy. Following the deposition of Irene, there was founded a relatively short-lived dynasty for the era, the Nikephorian dynasty. The empire

12719-476: The centuries, would be lost. “Therefore in the name of God... we implore you to bring this city all the faithful soldiers of Christ... in your coming you will find your reward in heaven, and if you do not come, God will condemn you.” The major ecclesiastical impetuses behind the First Crusade were the Council of Piacenza and subsequent Council of Clermont , both held in 1095 by Pope Urban II , and resulted in

12880-503: The church. Shortly before the First Crusade, Urban II had encouraged the Iberian Christians to take Tarragona , using much of the same symbolism and rhetoric that was later used to preach the crusade to the people of Europe. The Italo-Normans were successful in seizing much of Southern Italy and Sicily from the Byzantines and North African Arabs in the decades before the First Crusade. This brought them into conflict with

13041-466: The city in search of supplies and food, prompting Alexios to hurriedly ferry the gathering across the Bosporus one week later. After crossing into Asia Minor, the crusaders split up and began to pillage the countryside, wandering into Seljuk territory around Nicaea. The far more-experienced Turks massacred most of this group. Some Italian and German crusaders were defeated at the Siege of Xerigordon at

13202-475: The conflict in Byzantine society over icons, raised an iconoclast himself, he married Irene an iconodule, resulting in a more conciliatory policy. Like his predecessors he had to defend his borders against both Arab and Bulgar, and like his father died campaigning against the Bulgars. When Leo died his son, Constantine VI (780–797) was coemperor but only nine years old, and reigned with his mother Irene as regent. An unpopular ruler even after gaining majority, he

13363-442: The crimes being committed against Christians in the east; and about a new kind of war, an armed pilgrimage, and of rewards in heaven, where remission of sins was offered to any who might die in the undertaking. They do not all specifically mention Jerusalem as the ultimate goal. However, it has been argued that Urban's subsequent preaching reveals that he expected the expedition to reach Jerusalem all along. According to one version of

13524-590: The crusade at Piacenza, but the only record of which is by Bernold of St. Blasien in his Chronicon . The five versions of the speech differ widely from one another regarding particulars, but all versions except that in the Gesta Francorum agree that Urban talked about the violence of European society and the necessity of maintaining the Peace of God; about helping the Greeks, who had asked for assistance; about

13685-464: The crusade with Adhemar of Le Puy and Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse , and instantly the expedition had the support of two of southern France's most important leaders. Adhemar himself was present at the council and was the first to "take the cross". During the rest of 1095 and into 1096, Urban spread the message throughout France, and urged his bishops and legates to preach in their own dioceses elsewhere in France, Germany, and Italy as well. However, it

13846-520: The crusaders began the Siege of Antioch , capturing the city in June 1098. Jerusalem, then under the Fatimids , was reached in June 1099 and the Siege of Jerusalem resulted in the city being taken by assault from 7 June to 15 July 1099, during which its residents were ruthlessly massacred. A Fatimid counterattack was repulsed later that year at the Battle of Ascalon , ending the First Crusade. Afterwards,

14007-528: The death of Murshili around 1595 BC, Hurrians wrested control from the Hitties, and Cilicia was free for two centuries. The first king of free Cilicia, Išputahšu , son of Pariyawatri , was recorded as a "great king" in both cuneiform and Hittite hieroglyphs . Another record of Hittite origins, a treaty between Išputahšu and Telipinu , king of the Hittites, is recorded in both Hittite and Akkadian . In

14168-445: The dynastic homeland of Amorium in 838. When he died in 842, he was succeeded by his son Michael III (842–867). Michael III however was only two years old, so effective control fell to his mother, Theodora as regent (842–856). In 856 she was deposed from the regency with at least the acquiescence of Michael, by his uncle Bardas , who became very influential, and was eventually appointed Caesar that year. Another influential figure

14329-600: The earlier Hittite era ( 2nd millennium BC ). The region was divided into two parts, "plain" Cilicia (Uru Adaniya), a well-watered plain, and "rough" Cilicia (Tarza), in the mountainous west. There exists evidence that circa 1650 BC both Hittite kings Hattusili I and Mursili I enjoyed the freedom of movement along the Pyramus River (now the Ceyhan River in southern Turkey ), proving they exerted strong control over Cilicia in their battles with Syria . After

14490-471: The east, included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large coastal plain , with rich loamy soil, known to Greeks such as Xenophon (who passed through with his mercenary group of the Ten Thousand , ) for its abundance ( euthemia ), filled with sesame and millet and olives and pasturage for the horses imported into ancient Israel by King Solomon . Many of its high places were fortified. The plain

14651-582: The empire gradually crumbled. The last Byzantine fortress of Philadelphia fell in 1399, and the last Byzantine presence in the area at Trapezus ended in 1461 with the fall of Trebizond . Mithridates VI Eupator , ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus in northern Anatolia, otherwise known as " Asia Minor " in Classical antiquity , waged war against the Roman Republic in the year 88 BC in order to halt

14812-540: The empire had ceased long ago, giving the Byzantines time to assemble a powerful army. First Crusade In the Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) Period post-First Crusade Second Crusade Period post-Second Crusade Third Crusade Period post-Third Crusade Fourth Crusade Fifth Crusade Sixth Crusade and aftermath Seventh Crusade End of

14973-496: The end of September. Meanwhile, Walter and Peter's followers, who, although for the most part untrained in battle but led by about 50 knights, fought the Turks at the Battle of Civetot in October 1096. The Turkish archers destroyed the crusader army, and Walter was among the dead. Peter, who was absent in Constantinople at the time, later joined the second wave of crusaders, along with the few survivors of Civetot. At

15134-466: The failure to conquer Constantinople and suspected intrigues against Shahrbaraz, eventually brought about the fall of Khosrow II and the elevation of his son, Kavad II in 628 CE. Within a month, Kavad surrendered to the Byzantine Empire and ordered his forces to withdraw from all Byzantine territory, including Anatolia. Heraclius had succeeded in defeating Persia and safeguarding Anatolia, but

15295-445: The few years after the Battle of Manzikert . A Frankish eyewitness says: "Far and wide they [Muslim Turks] ravaged cities and castles together with their settlements. Churches were razed down to the ground. Of the clergyman and monks whom they captured, some were slaughtered while others were with unspeakable wickedness given up, priests and all, to their dire dominion and nuns—alas for the sorrow of it!—were subjected to their lusts." It

15456-416: The forces are estimated to have numbered as many as 100,000. The crusader forces gradually arrived in Anatolia. With Kilij Arslan absent, a Frankish attack and Byzantine naval assault during the Siege of Nicaea in June 1097 resulted in an initial crusader victory. In July, the crusaders won the Battle of Dorylaeum , fighting Turkish lightly armoured mounted archers. After a difficult march through Anatolia,

15617-399: The formation of a new empire in the west under Charlemagne (800–814) in 800. Nikephoros had been the empire's finance minister and on Irene's deposition immediately embarked on a series of fiscal reforms. His administrative reforms included re-organisation of themata. He survived a civil war in 803 and like most of the Byzantine emperors, he found himself at war on three fronts, suffered

15778-547: The guards and sending them and their satrap into full flight, setting their crops aflame as they made for Tarsus . This good fortune allowed Alexander and his army to pass unharmed through the Gates and into Cilicia. During Alexander III's invasion, a lesser officer named Arsames who had fled to Cilicia from the northwest to organise new resistance there defended it against the Macedonian forces. After Alexander's death it

15939-555: The highest average temperature in Cilicia. Mersin also has high annual precipitation (1096 mm) and 85 rainy days in a year. The mountains of Cilicia are formed from ancient limestones, conglomerate , marlstone, and similar materials. The Taurus Mountains are composed of karstic limestone, while its soil is also limestone-derived, with pockets of volcanic soil. The lower plain is the largest alluvial plain in Turkey. Expansion of limestone formations and fourth-era alluvials brought by

16100-459: The iconoclastic policy of Leo. After his death, he was succeeded by his son and coemperor, Theophilos (829–842). Theophilus was now faced with a flare-up of the Byzantine–Arab wars , the Arab forces once again demonstrating their ability to penetrate deep into Anatolia and inflict significant losses on the Byzantine, if short lived, and vice versa. A significant Arab triumph was the sacking of

16261-427: The iconodules and the suppression of monasteries which tended to be the centre of iconophilia. He continued his father's reorganisation of the themata and embarked on aggressive and expensive foreign wars against both the Arabs and Bulgars. He died campaigning against the latter, being succeeded by his son, Leo IV . Leo IV (775–780) also had to put down uprisings, in his case his half-brothers. His marriage epitomised

16422-417: The land, particularly, the eastern plains, fertile. In the coldest month (January), the average temperature is 9 °C, and in the warmest month (August), the average temperature is 28 °C. The mountains of Cilicia have an inland climate with snowy winters. The average annual precipitation in the region is 647 mm and the average number of rainy days in a year is 76. Mersin and surrounding areas have

16583-529: The latter's death. In 646, almost immediately he had to deal with Arab attacks on Amorium in Phrygia and Chalcedon in Bithynia . This was followed by the capture of Cyzicus in Mysia (670), as well as Smyrna and other coastal cities, finally attacking Constantinople in 674. This first siege of Constantinople demonstrated how vulnerable the city was to attack, but also its strengths which ultimately prevailed,

16744-573: The majority of the crusaders returned home. Four Crusader states were established in the Holy Land: the Kingdom of Jerusalem , the County of Edessa , the Principality of Antioch , and the County of Tripoli . The Crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the loss of the last major Crusader stronghold in the Siege of Acre in 1291. After this loss of all Crusader territory in

16905-577: The mobilization of Western Europe to go to the Holy Land. Emperor Alexios, who worried about the advances of the Seljuks into his territory, sent envoys to the Council of Piacenza in March 1095 to ask Urban for aid against the invading Turks. Urban responded favourably, perhaps hoping to heal the East-West Schism of forty years earlier, and to reunite the Church under papal primacy by helping

17066-576: The moment. Constantly menaced by the Arabs to the east, the Bulgars and Pannonian Avars to the north, and by the Lombards in the Italian Peninsula , the Byzantine Empire shifted its armies away from the classical structure of the Roman legions to a new system known as the themata , or "themes" in English. The exact date of this shift is unclear, but seems to have taken place during

17227-405: The next century, the Cilician king Pilliya finalized treaties with both King Zidanta II of the Hittites and Idrimi of Alalakh , in which Idrimi mentions that he had assaulted several military targets throughout Eastern Cilicia. Niqmepa , who succeeded Idrimi as king of Alalakh, went so far as to ask for help from a Hurrian rival, Shaushtatar of Mitanni , to try and reduce Cilicia's power in

17388-768: The next two years, Heraclius retreated to deal with the problem in Thrace. Returning in 624 , Heraclius renewed his offensive campaign by attacking through Armenia into the Sassanid heartland of the Persian Plateau . For the next four years, Heraclius continued to push the offensive against the Persians, not even returning to defend Constantinople when it was attacked by the Pannonian Avars and Persian forces in 626. Heraclius's continued offensives, combined with

17549-534: The northeastern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea . Cilicia has a population ranging over six million, concentrated mostly at the Cilician plain ( Turkish : Çukurova ). The region includes the provinces of Mersin , Adana , Osmaniye , Kilis and Hatay . The name of Cilicia ([Κιλικία] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |translit= ( help ) ) was derived from Ḫilakku ( 𒆳𒄭𒋃𒆪 ), which

17710-527: The observation that the return of image veneration coincided with a period of untimely ends of emperors. He made this official through the Council of Constantinople in 815. His downfall was the jailing of one of his generals, Michael the Amorian , on suspicion of conspiracy. Michael then organised the assassination of Leo, and assumed power as Michael II (820–829). The interlude of Leo V was followed by yet another short-lived dynasty, variously referred to as

17871-566: The only peoples of Anatolia who had not been conquered by the Lydian king Croesus . However, it is unknown whether this means that the Cilicians and Lycians were able to resist the Lydian conquest, or whether Croesus did not find any interest in annexing them. In the mid-6th century BC, the kingdom of Cilicia supported the founding king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire , Cyrus II , in his wars against Croesus of Lydia, as

18032-457: The papacy attempted to mitigate it. Pope Alexander II developed recruitment systems via oaths for military resourcing that Gregory VII further extended across Europe. These were deployed by the Church in the Christian conflicts with Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula and for the Norman conquest of Sicily . Gregory VII went further in 1074, planning a display of military power to reinforce

18193-497: The papacy leading to a campaign against them by Pope Leo IX who they defeated at the Battle of Civitate . Nevertheless, when they invaded Muslim Sicily in 1059, they did so under the papal banner Invexillum sancti Petrior , or banner of St. Peter. Robert Guiscard captured the Byzantine city of Bari in 1071 and campaigned along the Eastern Adriatic coast around Dyrrachium in 1081 and 1085. Since its founding,

18354-593: The peace was illusory. In 633, the Arab Muslim forces under the Rashidun Caliphate began their first attacks against the frontiers of the Byzantine Empire. At first only consisting of minor raids, the Arabs won a major victory at the Battle of Yarmuk in 636. After the battle, Heraclius made the decision to withdraw his armies from Syria into Anatolia via the Taurus Mountains . This opened

18515-514: The peasants, including Walter Sans Avoir , who was lieutenant to Peter and led a separate army. Lacking military discipline, Peter's fledgling army quickly found itself in trouble despite the fact they were still in Christian territory. The army led by Walter plundered the Belgrade and Zemun areas, and arrived in Constantinople with little resistance. Meanwhile, the army led by Peter, which marched separately from Walter's army, also fought with

18676-570: The period from 1050 until 1080, the Gregorian Reform movement developed increasingly more assertive policies, eager to increase its power and influence. This prompted conflict with eastern Christians rooted in the doctrine of papal supremacy . The Eastern church viewed the pope as only one of the five patriarchs of the Church, alongside the patriarchates of Alexandria , Antioch , Constantinople and Jerusalem . In 1054 differences in custom, creed and practice spurred Pope Leo IX to send

18837-534: The pope. However, before long he faced a rebellion led by Philippikos Bardanes (711–713. Justinian was captured and executed as was his son and co-emperor, Tiberius (706–711), thus extinguishing the Heraclian line. Justinian had taken the Byzantine Empire yet further from his origins. He effectively abolished the historical role of consul , merging it with emperor, thus strengthening the emperors' constitutional position as absolute monarch. The years 711 to 717 were

18998-514: The principle of papal sovereignty in a holy war supporting Byzantium against the Seljuks, but was unable to build support for this. Theologian Anselm of Lucca took the decisive step towards an authentic crusader ideology, stating that fighting for legitimate purposes could result in the remission of sins. On the Iberian Peninsula, there was no significant Christian polity. The Christian realms of León , Navarre and Catalonia lacked

19159-504: The region would never be directly threatened. In 602 AD, the Byzantine Emperor Maurice was overthrown by the usurper known as Phocas . Maurice had previously been instrumental in the accession of Khosrow II to the Sassanid throne as Emperor, and upon his usurpation, Khosrow declared war with the casus belli of avenging Maurice. Phocas was successful in keeping the war out of Anatolia. However, in 608, Heraclius ,

19320-423: The region. It was soon apparent, however, that increased Hittite power would soon prove Niqmepa's efforts to be futile, as the city of Kizzuwatna soon fell to the Hittites, threatening all of Cilicia. Soon after, King Sunassura II was forced to accept vassalization under the Hittites, becoming the last king of ancient Cilicia. After the death of Mursili I , which led to a power struggle among rival claimants to

19481-498: The reign of Emperor Constans II . Anatolia was reorganized into several themes. Each theme was governed by a strategos (general) who functioned both as a commander of the Byzantine military forces in the area and a political governor of the geographic area covered by his theme. These thematic troops utilized asymmetric warfare and guerilla warfare tactics to defend against constant Arab raids into Anatolia for hundreds of years. Rather than attempting to defeat Arab armies head on,

19642-458: The remaining parts of Anatolia being divided amongst seven themata . When he died in 668 he was succeeded by his son, Justinian II (685–695, 705–711), co-emperor since 681. Justinian was an ambitious ruler eager to emulate his illustrious ancestor, Justinian I . However his more limited resources and despotic nature ultimately proved his downfall as the last of the Heraclians. Initially he

19803-428: The rich plain of Issus ran the great highway that linked east and west, on which stood the cities of Tarsus (Tarsa) on the Cydnus, Adana (Adanija) on the Sarus, and Mopsuestia (Missis) on the Pyramus. The climate of Cilicia shows significant differences between the mountains and the lower plains. At the lower plains, the climate reflects a typical Mediterranean style; summers are hot while winters are mild, making

19964-414: The rivers Seyhan and Ceyhan formed the plains of the region over the course of time. Akyatan , Akyayan, Salt Lake, Seven lakes at Aladağ, and Karstik Dipsiz lake near Karaisalı are the lakes of the region. The reservoirs in the region are Seyhan, Çatalan, Yedigöze, Kozan and Mehmetli. The major rivers in Cilicia are Seyhan , Ceyhan , Berdan (Tarsus) , Asi and Göksu . Cilicia was settled from

20125-445: The satrap of Tarsus except for the narrow strip of flat land along its coast, due to which the imperial authorities often led repressive measures against these inhabitants of the hilly regions. During the reign of the Achaemenid king of kings Darius I , Cilicia was used as an assembly point for the military forces which Mardonius used to campaign in Europe as well as those which Datis and Artaphernes used to campaign against both

20286-431: The son of a governor of Carthage by the same name, launched a revolt against Phocas, which weakened the eastern frontier. Heraclius was successful in overthrowing Phocas in 610, but in 611, the Persians succeeded in breaking through the Armenian frontier and invading Anatolia proper. Over the next four years, forces under the generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin defeated the Byzantines in several key battles, taking control of

20447-582: The southeastern frontier with the Parthian Empire , which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of military conflicts that culminated in the Roman–Parthian Wars (54 BC – 217 AD). Anatolia's prosperity largely continued during the reign of Constantine the Great and his successors . The Anatolian peninsula would see part of the conflict between Constantine and his rival Licinius at

20608-479: The southeastern part of Anatolia, known as Cilicia and eventually opening the way to lay siege to Chalcedon on the northwestern coast. in 617, Chalcedon itself fell. Rejecting a peace delegation sent by Heraclius, Shahin withdrew from Anatolia for the present to continue the war on other fronts, namely Egypt and Syria. In 622 AD, driven to desperation by shocking failures to hold onto classically Roman provinces such as Egypt as well as Khosrow's refusal to accept

20769-558: The speech, the enthusiastic crowd responded with cries of Deus lo volt !–– God wills it. The great French nobles and their trained armies of knights were not the first to undertake the journey towards Jerusalem. Urban had planned the departure of the first crusade for 15 August 1096, the Feast of the Assumption , but months before this, a number of unexpected armies of peasants and petty nobles set off for Jerusalem on their own, led by

20930-471: The strength of the military organisation within the empire, and factional struggles within the Arab world enabled this situation. Leo III (717–741), a general from Isauria , restored order and stability to the empire, and the dynasty he founded, known as the Isaurians , was to last for nearly a century. Having overthrown Theodosius, the first problem Leo faced was the Arab siege of Constantinople, which

21091-544: The ten-day Council of Clermont, where on 27 November he gave an impassioned sermon to a large audience of French nobles and clergy. There are five versions of the speech recorded by people who may have been at the council ( Baldric of Dol , Guibert of Nogent , Robert the Monk , and Fulcher of Chartres ) or who went on crusade (Fulcher and the anonymous author of the Gesta Francorum ), as well as other versions found in

21252-462: The throne, eventually leading to the collapse of Hittite supremacy, Cilicia appeared to have regained its independence. In the 13th century BC a major population shift occurred as the Sea Peoples overran Cilicia. The Hurrians that resided there deserted the area and moved northeast towards the Taurus Mountains , where they settled in the area of Cappadocia . During the early and middle of

21413-422: The title resulting in civil war between the forces of the two emperors, who had divided the themata between them. However Constantine managed to overcome his adversary by 743. The conflict was at least in part one over icons, Artabasdos being supported by the iconodule faction. Under Constantine, Iconoclasm became further entrenched following the Council of Hieria in 754, followed by a concerted campaign against

21574-425: The troops would often ambush plunder laden Arab raiding parties as they made their way back out of Anatolia in the hope of retaking some plunder and deterring further Arab raids. The empire simply lacked the strength to go on the offensive at this time. Constans's son Constantine IV (668–685 AD) had been made co-emperor in 654, and ruled in the east while his father campaigned in the west (662–668), succeeding him on

21735-425: The uncompromising religious controversy that had perplexed his father he convened another ecumenical council, the sixth ( Third Council of Constantinople ) in 680, which condemned Monotheletism. He also initiated a series of civil and military reform to cope with the shrunken and threatened empire. This was to do away with the original system of provinces with a new administrative structure based on themata (themes),

21896-543: The very army that had placed him on the throne (the Opsikion army) rose against him, proclaimed a new emperor and besieged Constantinople for six months, eventually forcing Anastasius to flee. The troops had proclaimed Theodosius III (715–717) as the new emperor, and once he had overcome Anastasius was almost immediately faced with the Second Arab siege of Constantinople (717–718), forcing him to seek assistance from

22057-556: The way for the forces of the Caliphate to take over Byzantine Syria by the year 638 In 641, the Arabs began the Muslim invasion of Egypt , which they had occupied by 645. The loss of so much territory so quickly caused Heraclius to sink into depression, and he died later that year, becoming, in the judgement of English historian John Julius Norwich , "the man who lived too long." The loss of Egypt and Syria would prove catastrophic for

22218-628: The western district was left independent under native kings or priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, under Tarcondimotus I , was left in the east; but these were finally united to the province by Vespasian , AD 72. Containing 47 known cities, it had been deemed important enough to be governed by a proconsul . In 259 or 250, the Persian Sasanian king of kings Shapur I defeated the Roman Emperor Valerian , whose army included Cilician soldiers. After Valerian's defeat,

22379-475: The whole was organized by Pompey , 64 BC, into a province which, for a short time, extended to and included part of Phrygia . In 51 BC, the Parthian Empire was able to take advantage of the weakness of the Roman Republic to invade Cilicia ( Parthian : 𐭊𐭉𐭋𐭊𐭉𐭀 ‎ ). It was reorganized by Julius Caesar , 47 BC, and about 27 BC became part of the province Syria-Cilicia Phoenice. At first,

22540-406: The works of later historians (such as William of Malmesbury and William of Tyre ). All of these versions were written after Jerusalem had been captured, and it is difficult to know what was actually said versus what was recreated in the aftermath of the successful crusade. The only contemporary records are a few letters written by Urban in 1095. It is also thought that Urban also may have preached

22701-659: The works of the 4th-century theologian Augustine of Hippo , a doctrine of holy war developed. Augustine wrote that aggressive war was sinful, but war could be justified if proclaimed by a legitimate authority such as a king or bishop, it was defensive or for the recovery of lands, and it did not involve excessive violence. The breakdown of the Carolingian Empire in Western Europe created a warrior caste who now had little to do but fight amongst themselves. Violent acts were commonly used for dispute resolution, and

22862-404: Was Basil the Macedonian . Theodora, like her predecessor Irene lost no time in putting an end to the iconoclastic movement once and for all. During his reign important administrative reforms and reconstruction were undertaken. Michael's reign included the usual wins and losses on the Arab front. However, despite Leo V's treaty with the Bulgarians of 815, the empire was once again at war in

23023-399: Was abandoned in 718, Leo having continued his predecessors alliance with the Bulgars. His next pressing task was to consolidate his power to avoid being himself deposed and to restore order in the face of the chaos that had ensued from the years of civil strife. And indeed the need to do so became clear in 719 when the deposed Anastasius II led an unsuccessful rebellion against him. Anastasius

23184-488: Was able to continue his father's successes in the east leaving him free to concentrate on the Balkans where he was also successful. He then returned to the east but was soundly defeated at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692. Theologically he pursued non-orthodox thinking and convened another council in Constantinople. in 692. Domestically he continued the organisation of the themata , however his land and taxation policies met with considerable opposition, eventually provoking

23345-428: Was also defeated by Coloman, at which point, Emicho's followers dispersed. Some eventually joined the main armies, although Emicho himself went home. Many of the attackers seem to have wanted to force the Jews to convert, although they were also interested in acquiring money from them. Physical violence against Jews was never part of the church hierarchy's official policy for crusading, and the Christian bishops, especially

23506-405: Was appointed as satrap of Cilicia by Xerxes I as reward for his service. Cilicia remained under efficient administration, and it would continue to provide troops for the Achaemenid wars in Anatolia, Egypt and Cyprus. In 401 BC, the Achaemenid king of kings Artaxerxes II abolished the autonomy of Cilicia in reaction to the local Cilician ruler Syennesis III's support for the rebellion of Cyrus

23667-416: Was conspiring to make a comeback, and after forming an alliance with the Bulgars succeeded in taking Constantinople and executing Tiberios. Justinian then continued to reign for a further six years (705–711). His treatment of Tiberios and his supporters had been brutal and he continued to rule in a manner that was despotic and cruel. He lost the ground regained by Tiberios in the east, and imposed his views on

23828-487: Was due to several reasons. For one, the Abbasid Caliphate was in a fractured state at the time, facing multiple internal issues and the rise of the rival Fatimid Caliphate. This meant the caliphate was unable to offer a tangible response to Byzantine aggression. Furthermore, once Sayf al-Dawla was defeated, there was no other Arab state in the immediate region to slow the Byzantine efforts. Finally, Arab raids on

23989-536: Was engaged in power struggles with his mother, who had been declared empress. Eventually his mother's supporters deposed him, leaving her as sole empress. Irene (797–802), therefore was empress consort (775–780), empress dowager and regent (780–797) and empress regnant (797–80). As sole empress she was able to officially restore icon veneration during her regency in 787 by means of the Seventh Ecumenical Council , although unofficially this had been

24150-670: Was executed. He then needed to secure the frontiers. In terms of domestic policies he embarked on a series of civil and legal reforms. The latter included a new codification in 726, referred to as the Ecloga , which unlike Justinian's Corpus on which it was based, was in Greek rather than in Latin. Administratively he subdivided a number of the themata, for reasons similar to that of his predecessors, smaller units meant less power to local officials and less threat to central authority. When Leo died he

24311-401: Was in a weaker and more precarious position than it had been for a long time and its finances were problematic. During this era Byzantium was almost continually at war on two frontiers which drained its resources, and like many of his predecessors, Nikephoros (802–811) himself died campaigning amongst the Bulgars to the north. Furthermore, Byzantium's influence continued to wane in the west with

24472-555: Was in this climate that the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos wrote a letter to Robert II of Flanders saying: The holy places are desecrated and destroyed in countless ways. Noble matrons and their daughters, robbed of everything, are violated one after another, like animals. Some [of their attackers] shamelessly place virgins in front of their own mothers and force them to sing wicked and obscene songs until they have finished having their ways with them... men of every age and description, boys, youths, old men, nobles, peasants and what

24633-493: Was long a battleground of the rival Hellenistic monarchs and kingdoms, and for a time fell under Ptolemaic dominion (i.e., Egypt), but finally came to the Seleucids , who, however, never held effectually more than the eastern half. Although no later Persian empire ever regained control of Cilicia, one Seleucid officer named Aribazus and attested as administrator of Cilicia in 246 BC was possibly of Persian descent. During

24794-577: Was met with an enthusiastic popular response across all social classes in western Europe. Mobs of predominantly poor Christians numbering in the thousands, led by Peter the Hermit , a French priest, were the first to respond. What has become known as the People's Crusade passed through Germany and indulged in wide-ranging anti-Jewish activities, including the Rhineland massacres . On leaving Byzantine-controlled territory in Anatolia , they were annihilated in

24955-528: Was murdered by Basil I the Macedonian in 867. Basil's dynasty would be known as Macedonian Dynasty and would see the Empire as a whole enter a new renisance and in particular would bring peace to Anatolia for the first time since the Arab conquests over the next hundred years. The first military success for the new emperor in Anatolia was the defeat of the Paulicians in 873, who had been raiding western cities such as Nicaea and Ancyra. Basil's raid left only

25116-485: Was subjected to multiple campaigns led by Nikephoros. The campaign ended in 962 with the Sack of Aleppo (962) , which dealt a major blow to Sayf al-Dawla. By 965, Cilica was entirely back in Byzantine hands. al-Dawla faced continuous revolts for the rest of his reign that stymied his ability to fight back. The campaign of reconquest continued and culminated in 969 with the retaking of Antioch by Byzantine forces. The reconquest

25277-805: Was succeeded by his son, Constantine V (741–775). One of the most significant influences of Leo III was his involvement with the Iconoclastic movement in about 726. This controversy, the removal and destruction of religious icons in favour of simple crosses, and the persecution of icon worshippers was to have a profound effect on the empire, its religion and culture over most of the next century before being finally laid to rest in 842. Leo's exact role has been debated An opponent of image worship has been referred to as an εἰκονοκλάστης (iconoclast), while those supporting image worship have been variously described as εἰκονολάτραι ( iconolaters ), εἰκονόδουλοι ( iconodules ) or εἰκονόφιλοι (iconophiles). The traditional view

25438-424: Was that Leo III issued an edict ordering the removal of images in 726, followed by prohibiting the veneration of images, but the controversy had existed in the church for some time and received some impetus from the rise of proximity of Islam and its attitude to imagery. The iconoclastic movement in the east considerably exacerbated the rift between it and the western church. The first phase of iconoclasm coincided with

25599-478: Was the name used by the Neo-Assyrian Empire to designate the western part of what would become Cilicia. The English spelling Cilicia is the same as the Latin, as it was transliterated directly from the Greek form Κιλικία. The palatalization of c occurring in Western Europe in later Vulgar Latin ( c.  500–700 ) accounts for its modern pronunciation in English. Cilicia extends along

25760-479: Was to deal with the Bulgarian situation, who now occupied most of Thrace and were blockading Constantinople. Eventually he was able to conclude a peace treaty in 815 , to the long-running Byzantine–Bulgarian wars . In religious matters, despite early evidence of image veneration, he adopted iconoclasm, this precipitating the second phase of the divisive controversy (814–842). He appears to have been motivated by

25921-445: Was unable to make progress in Anatolia until 900, when he launched a new offensive against Tarsus. This campaign was successful, culminating in the capture of the emir of Tarsus and weakening the emirate. The next few years saw more offensives that gradually weakened the Arab presence in the east and allowed the empire to make its first eastern conquests in years. The empire's grip on Anatolia was stronger at Leo's death than it had been in

#423576