109-869: (Redirected from Górnik ) Gornik may refer to one of the following. Gornik, Pleven Province , a village in Chechen Republic April Gornik , an American painter Górnik (means " Miner " in Polish ) is a common name of Polish sports teams: Górnik Konin Górnik Łęczna Stadion Górnika , their stadium Górnik Polkowice Górnik Radlin Górnik Wałbrzych Górnik Wieliczka Górnik Zabrze See also [ edit ] Hirnyk (disambiguation) Gornyak (disambiguation) Topics referred to by
218-538: A shura (council) advising the ruler. Muftis were additionally appointed to other public functions, such as market inspectors . While the office of the mufti was gradually subsumed into the state bureaucracy in much of the Sunni Muslim world, Shia religious establishment followed a different path in Iran starting from the early modern era. During Safavid rule, independent Islamic jurists ( mujtahids ) claimed
327-699: A Salafist jihadist group through its strict adherence to the Sunni Hanbali obedience to the literal interpretation of the Quran and the Sunnah . The Chechen government has been outspoken in its support for the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , where a Chechen military force, the Kadyrovtsy , which is under Kadyrov's personal command, has played a leading role, notably in the Siege of Mariupol . Meanwhile,
436-661: A famine . As a result, many of the Ukrainians settled in Chechen-Ingush ASSR permanently and survived the famine. Although over 50,000 Chechens and over 12,000 Ingush were fighting against Nazi Germany on the front line (including Heroes of the USSR : Abukhadzhi Idrisov , Khanpasha Nuradilov , Movlid Visaitov ), and although Nazi German troops advanced as far as the Ossetian ASSR city of Ordzhonikidze and
545-706: A satellite phone he was using. The widespread demoralisation of the Russian forces in the area and a successful offensive to re-take Grozny by Chechen rebel forces led by Aslan Maskhadov prompted Russian President Boris Yeltsin to declare a ceasefire in 1996, and sign a peace treaty a year later that saw a withdrawal of Russian forces. After the war, parliamentary and presidential elections took place in January 1997 in Chechnya and brought to power new President Aslan Maskhadov, chief of staff and prime minister in
654-783: A state of emergency . Tensions led to open clashes between the Chechen National Guard and Islamist militants, such as the July 1998 confrontation in Gudermes. The War of Dagestan began on 7 August 1999, during which the Islamic International Peacekeeping Brigade (IIPB) began an unsuccessful incursion into the neighboring Russian republic of Dagestan in favor of the Shura of Dagestan which sought independence from Russia. In September,
763-524: A Chechen Naqshbandi ( Sufi ) sheikh—with wavering military support from other North Caucasian tribes. Mansur hoped to establish a Transcaucasus Islamic state under sharia law. He was unable to fully achieve this because in the course of the war he was betrayed by the Ottomans , handed over to Russians, and executed in 1794. Following the forced ceding of the current territories of Dagestan, most of Azerbaijan , and Georgia by Persia to Russia, following
872-664: A court judgement that has already been passed, acting as an informal appeals process, but the extent of this practice and its mechanism varied across history. While in most of the Islamic world judges were not required to consult muftis by any political authority, in Muslim Spain this practice was mandatory, so that a judicial decision was considered invalid without prior approval by a legal specialist. Author-jurists collected fatwas by muftis of high scholarly reputation and abstracted them into concise formulations of legal norms for
981-523: A different approach at the end of the 1860s. They offered Chechens and Ingush to leave the Caucasus for the Ottoman Empire (see Muhajir (Caucasus) ). It is estimated that about 80% of Chechens and Ingush left the Caucasus during the deportation. It weakened the resistance which went from open warfare to insurgent warfare. One of the notable Chechen resistance fighters at the end of the 19th century
1090-402: A fatwa was disregarded, it was usually because another fatwa supporting a different position was judged to be more convincing. If a party in a dispute was not able to obtain a fatwa supporting their position, they would be unlikely to pursue their case in court, opting for informal mediation instead, or abandoning their claim altogether. Sometimes muftis could be petitioned for a fatwa relating to
1199-597: A high life expectancy , one of the highest in Russia. But the pattern of life expectancy is unusual, and in according to numerous statistics, Chechnya stands out from the overall picture. In 2020, Chechnya had the deepest fall in life expectancy, but in 2021 it had the biggest rise. Chechnya has the highest excess of life expectancy in rural areas over cities. (In the territory of modern Chechnya) Practically all Chechen and Ingush people were deported to Central Asia in 1944. They were, however, allowed to return to
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#17327977105141308-408: A major campaign against hostage-takers, and on 25 October 1998, Shadid Bargishev, Chechnya's top anti-kidnapping official, was killed in a remote-controlled car bombing. Bargishev's colleagues then insisted they would not be intimidated by the attack and would go ahead with their offensive. Political violence and religious extremism, blamed on " Wahhabism ", was rife. In 1998, Grozny authorities declared
1417-408: A mufti was not supposed to inquire into the situation beyond the information included in the query, queries regarding contentious matters were often carefully constructed to elicit the desired response. A mufti's understanding of the query commonly depended on their grasp of local customs and colloquial expressions. In theory, if the query was unclear or not sufficiently detailed for a ruling, the mufti
1526-624: A national Islamic identity. Muftis in modern times have increasingly relied on the process of ijtihad , i.e. deriving legal rulings based on an independent analysis rather than conformity with the opinions of earlier legal authorities ( taqlid ). While in the past muftis were associated with a particular school of law ( madhhab ), in the 20th century many muftis began to assert their intellectual independence from traditional schools of jurisprudence. Modern media have facilitated cooperative forms to ifta . Networks of muftis are commonly engaged by fatwa websites, so that queries are distributed among
1635-471: A poor human rights record, widespread use of torture , and a growing cult of personality . Allegations of anti-gay purges in Chechnya were initially reported on 1 April 2017. In April 2009, Russia ended its counter-terrorism operation and pulled out the bulk of its army. The insurgency in the North Caucasus continued even after this date. The Caucasus Emirate had fully adopted the tenets of
1744-469: A population of over 1.5 million residents as of 2021 . It is home to the indigenous Chechens , part of the Nakh peoples , and of primarily Muslim faith. Grozny is the capital and largest city. According to Leonti Mroveli , the 11th-century Georgian chronicler, the word Caucasian is derived from the Nakh ancestor Kavkas . According to George Anchabadze of Ilia State University : The Vainakhs are
1853-579: A question-and-answer format for communicating religious knowledge, and took on its definitive form with development of the classical theory of Islamic law . By the 8th century CE, muftis became recognized as legal experts who elaborated Islamic law and clarified its application to practical issues arising in the Islamic community. The legal theory of the ifta was formulated in the classical texts of usul al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence), while more practical guidelines for muftis were found in manuals called adab al-mufti or adab al-fatwa (etiquette of
1962-425: A school in the town of Beslan , North Ossetia , demanding recognition of the independence of Chechnya and a Russian withdrawal. 1,100 people (including 777 children) were taken hostage. The attack lasted three days, resulting in the deaths of over 331 people, including 186 children. After the 2004 school siege, Russian president Vladimir Putin announced sweeping security and political reforms, sealing borders in
2071-541: A series of apartment bombs that killed around 300 people in several Russian cities, including Moscow, were blamed on the Chechen separatists. Some journalists contested the official explanation, instead blaming the Russian Secret Service for blowing up the buildings to initiate a new military campaign against Chechnya. In response to the bombings, a prolonged air campaign of retaliatory strikes against
2180-479: A significant impact on the development of Islamic law. During the early centuries of Islam, the roles of mufti, author-jurist and judge were not mutually exclusive. A jurist could lead a teaching circle, conduct a fatwa session, and adjudicate court cases in a single day, devoting his night hours to writing a legal treatise. Those who were able to act in all four capacities were regarded as the most accomplished jurists. The basic prerequisite for issuing fatwas under
2289-565: A stand on doctrinal controversies, legitimized government policies or articulated grievances of the population. Traditionally, a mufti was seen as a scholar of upright character who possessed a thorough knowledge of the Quran , hadith and legal literature. Muftis acted as independent scholars in the classical legal system. Over the centuries, Sunni muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, while Shia jurists in Iran progressively asserted an autonomous authority starting from
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#17327977105142398-651: A substantial number of Chechen separatists have allied themselves to the Ukrainian cause and are fighting a mutual Russian enemy in the Donbas . Situated in the eastern part of the North Caucasus in Eastern Europe , Chechnya is surrounded on nearly all sides by Russian Federal territory. In the west, it borders North Ossetia and Ingushetia , in the north, Stavropol Krai , in the east, Dagestan, and to
2507-528: A vision of Islam that is compatible with state law of their country. Although some early theorists argued that muftis should not respond to questions on certain subjects, such as theology, muftis have in practice handled queries relating to a wide range of subjects. This trend continued in modern times, and contemporary state-appointed muftis and institutions for ifta respond to government and private queries on varied issues, including political conflicts, Islamic finance, and medical ethics, contributing to shaping
2616-532: Is a new historical development, and it is found in such settings as boards of Islamic financial institutions and international fatwa councils. There exists no international Islamic authority to settle differences in interpretation of Islamic law. An International Islamic Fiqh Academy was created by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , but its legal opinions are not binding. In the modern era, public "fatwa wars" have reflected political controversies in
2725-528: Is called a fatwa . The person who asks a mufti for a fatwa is known as mustafti . The act of issuing fatwas is called iftāʾ . The term futyā refers to soliciting and issuing fatwas. The origins of muftis and the fatwa can be traced back to the Quran . On a number of occasions, the Quranic text instructs the Islamic prophet Muhammad how to respond to questions from his followers regarding religious and social practices. Several of these verses begin with
2834-623: Is considered the homeland for Terek Cossacks . The Russification policies towards Chechens continued after 1956, with Russian language proficiency required in many aspects of life to provide Chechens better opportunities for advancement in the Soviet system. On 26 November 1990, the Supreme Council of Chechen-Ingush ASSR adopted the "Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Chechen-Ingush Republic". This declaration
2943-647: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Chechen Republic Chechnya , officially the Chechen Republic , is a republic of Russia . It is situated in the North Caucasus of Eastern Europe , between the Caspian Sea and Black Sea . The republic forms a part of the North Caucasian Federal District , and shares land borders with Georgia to its south; with
3052-436: Is divided into 15 districts and three cities of republican significance. According to the 2021 Census , the population of the republic is 1,510,824, up from 1,268,989 in the 2010 Census . As of the 2021 Census, Chechens at 1,456,792 make up 96.4% of the republic's population. Other groups include Russians (18,225, or 1.2%), Kumyks (12,184, or 0.8%) and a host of other small groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of
3161-591: The Battle of the Terek River (see Tokhtamysh–Timur war ). The Chechen tribes built fortresses, castles, and defensive walls, protecting the mountains from the invaders (see Vainakh tower architecture ). Part of the lowland tribes were occupied by Mongols. However, during the mid-14th century a strong Chechen Princedom called Simsim emerged under Khour II , a Chechen king that led the Chechen politics and wars. He
3270-827: The European Parliament recognized the deportation of Chechens and Ingush as an act of genocide . The territory of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was divided between Stavropol Krai (where Grozny Okrug was formed), the Dagestan ASSR , the North Ossetian ASSR , and the Georgian SSR . The Chechens and Ingush were allowed to return to their land after 1956 during de-Stalinisation under Nikita Khrushchev when
3379-724: The Iranian Parliament . Khomeini's most publicized fatwa was the proclamation condemning Salman Rushdie to death for his novel The Satanic Verses . Many militant and reform movements in modern times have disseminated fatwas issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti. A famous example is the fatwa issued in 1998 by Osama bin Laden and four of his associates, proclaiming "jihad against Jews and Crusaders" and calling for killing of American civilians. In addition to denouncing its content, many Islamic jurists stressed that bin Laden
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3488-684: The Northern Caucasus in 1957 by Nikita Khrushchev . See Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush . Sunni Islam is the predominant religion in Chechnya, practiced by 95% of those polled in Grozny in 2010. Most of the population is Sunni and follows either the Shafi'i or the Hanafi schools of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence ). The Shafi'i school of jurisprudence has a long tradition among
3597-635: The Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723 . Russian forces succeeded in taking much of the Caucasian territories from Iran for several years. As the Russians took control of the Caspian corridor and moved into Persian-ruled Dagestan , Peter's forces ran into mountain tribes. Peter sent a cavalry force to subdue them, but the Chechens routed them. In 1732, after Russia had already ceded back most of
3706-485: The Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 and its resultant Treaty of Gulistan , Russia significantly widened its foothold in the Caucasus at the expense of Persia. Another successful Caucasus war against Persia several years later, starting in 1826 and ending in 1828 with the Treaty of Turkmenchay , and a successful war against Ottoman Turkey in 1828 and 1829, enabled Russia to use a much larger portion of its army in subduing
3815-442: The early modern era . With the spread of codified state laws and Western-style legal education in the modern Muslim world , muftis generally no longer play their traditional role of clarifying and elaborating the laws applied in courts. However, muftis have continued to advise the general public on other aspects of sharia , particularly questions regarding religious rituals and everyday life. Some modern muftis are appointed by
3924-523: The modern era . Tracing its origins to the Quran and early Islamic communities, the practice of ifta crystallized with the emergence of the traditional legal theory and schools of Islamic jurisprudence ( madhahib ). In the classical legal system, fatwas issued by muftis in response to private queries served to inform Muslim populations about Islam, advise courts on difficult points of Islamic law, and elaborate substantive law. In later times, muftis also issued public and political fatwas that took
4033-766: The British tobacco monopoly was in effect, also achieved its goals. Some muftis in the modern era, like the mufti of the Lebanese republic in the mid-20th century and the Grand Mufti of the Sultanate of Oman, were important political leaders. In Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini used proclamations and fatwas to introduce and legitimize a number of institutions, including the Council of the Islamic Revolution and
4142-420: The Caucasus region and revealing plans to give the central government more power. He also vowed to take tougher action against domestic terrorism, including preemptive strikes against Chechen separatists. In 2005 and 2006, separatist leaders Aslan Maskhadov and Shamil Basayev were killed. Since 2007, Chechnya has been governed by Ramzan Kadyrov . Kadyrov's rule has been characterized by high-level corruption,
4251-540: The Caucasus to Persia, now led by Nader Shah , following the Treaty of Resht , Russian troops clashed again with Chechens in a village called Chechen-aul along the Argun River . The Russians were defeated again and withdrew, but this battle is responsible for the apocryphal story about how the Nokchi came to be known as "Chechens" – the people ostensibly named for the place the battle had taken place. The name "Chechen"
4360-532: The Chechen coalition government, for a five-year term. Maskhadov sought to maintain Chechen sovereignty while pressing the Russian government to help rebuild the republic, whose formal economy and infrastructure were virtually destroyed. Russia continued to send money for the rehabilitation of the republic; it also provided pensions and funds for schools and hospitals. Nearly half a million people (40% of Chechnya's prewar population) had been internally displaced and lived in refugee camps or overcrowded villages. There
4469-634: The Chechen-Ingush ASSR city of Malgobek after capturing half of the Caucasus in less than a month, Chechens and Ingush were falsely accused as Nazi supporters and entire nations were deported during Operation Lentil to the Kazakh SSR (later Kazakhstan ) in 1944 near the end of World War II where over 60% of Chechen and Ingush populations perished. American historian Norman Naimark writes: Troops assembled villagers and townspeople, loaded them onto trucks – many deportees remembered that they were Studebakers, fresh from Lend-Lease deliveries over
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4578-520: The Chechen-Ingush ASSR was restored but with both the boundaries and ethnic composition of the territory significantly changed. There were many (predominantly Russian) migrants from other parts of the Soviet Union , who often settled in the abandoned family homes of Chechens and Ingushes. The republic lost its Prigorodny District which transferred to North Ossetian ASSR but gained predominantly Russian Naursky District and Shelkovskoy District that
4687-572: The Chechens, and thus it remains the most practiced. Many Chechens are also Sufis , of either the Qadiri or Naqshbandi orders. Mufti A mufti ( / ˈ m ʌ f t i / ; Arabic : مفتي [muftiː] , listen ) is an Islamic jurist qualified to issue a nonbinding opinion ( fatwa ) on a point of Islamic law ( sharia ). The act of issuing fatwas is called iftāʾ . Muftis and their fatwas played an important role throughout Islamic history , taking on new roles in
4796-560: The German forces. Many of the materials were later proven to be fabricated. Even distinguished Red Army officers who fought bravely against Germans (e.g. the commander of 255th Separate Chechen-Ingush regiment Movlid Visaitov , the first to contact American forces at Elbe river) were deported. There is a theory that the real reason why Chechens and Ingush were deported was the desire of Russia to attack Turkey, an anti-communist country, as Chechens and Ingush could impede such plans. In 2004,
4905-775: The Ichkerian regime and a ground offensive that began in October 1999 marked the beginning of the Second Chechen War. Much better organized and planned than the First Chechen War, the Russian armed forces took control of most regions. The Russian forces used brutal force, killing 60 Chechen civilians during a mop-up operation in Aldy, Chechnya on 5 February 2000. After the re-capture of Grozny in February 2000,
5014-531: The Ichkerian regime fell apart. Chechen separatists continued to fight Russian troops and conduct terror attacks. In October 2002, 40–50 Chechen rebels seized a Moscow theater and took about 900 civilians hostage. The crisis ended with 117 hostages and up to 50 rebels dead, mostly due to an unknown aerosol pumped into the building by Russian special forces to incapacitate the people inside. In response to these attacks, Russia tightened its grip on Chechnya and expanded its anti-terrorist operations throughout
5123-498: The Iranian border – and delivered them at previously designated railheads. ... Those who could not be moved were shot. ... [A] few fighters aside, the entire Chechen and Ingush nations, 496,460 people, were deported from their homeland. The deportation was justified by the materials prepared by NKVD officer Bogdan Kobulov accusing Chechens and Ingush in a mass conspiracy preparing rebellion and providing assistance to
5232-811: The Muslim world, from anti-colonial struggles to the Gulf War of the 1990s, when muftis in some countries issued fatwas supporting collaboration with the US-led coalition, while muftis from other countries endorsed the Iraqi call for jihad against the US and its collaborators. During the era of Western colonialism , some muftis issued fatwas seeking to mobilize popular resistance to foreign domination, while others were induced by colonial authorities to issue fatwas supporting accommodation with colonial rule. Muftis also intervened in
5341-477: The Northern Caucasus ) which was recognized by major world powers. The capital of the new state was moved to Temir-Khan-Shura (Dagestan). Tapa Tchermoeff , a prominent Chechen statesman, was elected the first prime minister of the state. The second prime minister elected was Vassan-Girey Dzhabagiev, an Ingush statesman, who also was the author of the constitution of the republic in 1917, and in 1920 he
5450-639: The Russian Federation if Chechnya were granted that right. Finally, it argued that Chechnya was a major hub in the oil infrastructure of Russia and hence its secession would hurt the country's economy and energy access. During the Chechen Revolution , the Soviet Chechen leader Doku Zavgayev was overthrown and Dzhokhar Dudayev seized power. On 1 November 1991, Dudaev's Chechnya issued a unilateral declaration of independence. In
5559-658: The Russian republics of Dagestan , Ingushetia , and North Ossetia–Alania to its east, north, and west; and with Stavropol Krai to its northwest. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Checheno-Ingush ASSR split into two parts: the Republic of Ingushetia and the Chechen Republic. The latter proclaimed the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria , which declared independence, while
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#17327977105145668-530: The Transcaucasia which it considered useful in its wars against Persia and Turkey, the Russian Empire began conquering the Northern Caucasus mountains. The Russian Empire used Christianity to justify its conquests, allowing Islam to spread widely because it positioned itself as the religion of liberation from tsardom, which viewed Nakh tribes as "bandits". The rebellion was led by Mansur Ushurma ,
5777-406: The ancient natives of the Caucasus . It is noteworthy, that according to the genealogical table drawn up by Leonti Mroveli, the legendary forefather of the Vainakhs was "Kavkas", hence the name Kavkasians, one of the ethnicons met in the ancient Georgian written sources, signifying the ancestors of the Chechens and Ingush . As appears from the above, the Vainakhs, at least by name, are presented as
5886-442: The appearance of the wheel (3000 BC), horseback riding, metal works (copper, gold, silver, iron), dishes, armor, daggers, knives and arrow tips in the region. The artifacts were found near Nasare-Cort , Muzhichi , Ja-E-Bortz (alternatively known as Surkha-khi ), Abbey-Gove (also known as Nazran or Nasare). In the 14th and 15th centuries, there was frequent warfare between the Chechens, Tamerlane and Tokhtamysh , culminating in
5995-547: The authority to represent the hidden imam . Under the usuli doctrine that prevailed among Twelver Shias in the 18th century and under the Qajar dynasty, the mujtahids further claimed to act collectively as deputies of the imam . According to this doctrine, all Muslims are supposed to follow a high-ranking living mujtahid bearing the title of marja' al-taqlid , whose fatwas are considered binding, unlike fatwas in Sunni Islam. Thus, in contrast to Sunni muftis, Shia mujtahids gradually achieved increasing independence from
6104-440: The benefit of judges, giving a summary of jurisprudence for a particular madhhab (legal school). Author-jurists sought out fatwas that reflected the social conditions of their time and place, often opting for later legal opinions which were at variance with the doctrine of early authorities. Research by Wael Hallaq and Baber Johansen has shown that the rulings of muftis collected in these volumes could, and sometimes did, have
6213-404: The borders of Chechnya from invasions of Kabardinians and Avars during the Battle of Khachara . The Chechens converted over the next few centuries to Sunni Islam , as Islam was associated with resistance to Russian encroachment. Peter the Great first sought to increase Russia's political influence in the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea at the expense of Safavid Persia when he launched
6322-446: The chief mufti for administrative and military initiatives, including fatwas sanctioning jihad against Mamluk Egypt and Safavid Iran. Fatwas by the Ottoman chief mufti were also solicited by the rulers to legitimize new social and economic practices, such as financial and penal laws enacted outside of sharia, printing of nonreligious books (1727) and vaccination (1845). At other times muftis wielded their influence independently of
6431-404: The classical legal theory was religious knowledge and piety. According to the adab al-mufti manuals, a mufti must be an adult, Muslim, trusted and reliable, of good character and sound mind, an alert and rigorous thinker, trained as a jurist, and not a sinner. On a practical level, the stature of muftis derived from their reputation for scholarly expertise and upright character. Issuing of fatwas
6540-498: The closest thing we have to a direct continuation of the cultural and linguistic community that gave rise to Western civilisation ." Traces of human settlement dating back to 40,000 BC were found near Lake Kezanoi . Cave paintings, artifacts, and other archaeological evidence indicate continuous habitation for some 8,000 years. People living in these settlements used tools, fire, and clothing made of animal skins. The Caucasian Epipaleolithic and early Caucasian Neolithic era saw
6649-414: The ensuing decade, the territory was locked in an ongoing struggle between various factions, usually fighting unconventionally. The First Chechen War, during which Russian forces attempted to regain control over Chechnya, took place from 1994 to 1996. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority in troops, weaponry, and air support , the Russian forces were unable to establish effective permanent control over
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#17327977105146758-422: The first Russian involvement in the Caucasus. In 1558, Temryuk of Kabarda sent his emissaries to Moscow requesting help from Ivan the Terrible against the Vainakh tribes. Ivan the Terrible married Temryuk's daughter Maria Temryukovna . An alliance was formed to gain the ground in the central Caucasus for the expanding Tsardom of Russia against stubborn Vainakh defenders. In 1667 Mehk-Da Aldaman Gheza defended
6867-509: The former sided with Russia. Following the First Chechen War of 1994–1996 with Russia, Chechnya gained de facto independence as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, although de jure it remained a part of Russia. Russian federal control was restored in the Second Chechen War of 1999–2009, with Chechen politics being dominated by the former Ichkerian Mufti Akhmad Kadyrov , and later his son Ramzan Kadyrov . The republic covers an area of 17,300 square kilometres (6,700 square miles), with
6976-431: The general population. Following independence, most Muslim states established national organizations devoted to issuing fatwas. One example is the Egyptian Dar al-Ifta , founded in 1895, which has served to articulate a national vision of Islam through fatwas issued in response to government and private queries. National governments in Muslim-majority countries also instituted councils of senior religious scholars to advise
7085-530: The government on religious matters and issue fatwas. These councils generally form part of the ministry for religious affairs, rather than the justice department, which may have a more assertive attitude toward the executive branch. While chief muftis of earlier times oversaw a hierarchy of muftis and judges applying traditional jurisprudence, most modern states have adopted European-influenced legal codes and no longer employ traditional judicial procedures or traditionally trained judges. State muftis generally promote
7194-409: The importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims, little research has been done to determine to what extent the Muslim public continues to acknowledge the religious authority of muftis or heeds their advice. The word mufti comes from the Arabic root f-t-y , whose meanings include "youth, newness, clarification, explanation." A number of related terms derive from the same root. A mufti's response
7303-469: The influence of judges and secular functionaries. By articulating grievances and legal rights of the population, public fatwas often prompted an otherwise unresponsive court system to provide redress. Under European colonial rule, the institution of dar al-ifta was established in a number of madrasas (law colleges) as a centralized place for issuing of fatwas, and these organizations to a considerable extent replaced independent muftis as religious guides for
7412-500: The introduction of agriculture , irrigation , and the domestication of animals in the region. Settlements near Ali-Yurt and Magas , discovered in modern times, revealed tools made out of stone: stone axes, polished stones, stone knives, stones with holes drilled in them, clay dishes etc. Settlements made out of clay bricks were discovered in the plains. In the mountains there were settlements made from stone and surrounded by walls; some of them dated back to 8000 BC. This period also saw
7521-462: The knowledge and legal skill to perform this activity. In addition, it was felt that the major question of jurisprudence had already been addressed by master jurists of earlier times, so that later muftis only had to follow the legal opinions established within their legal school ( taqlid ). At that point, the notions of mufti and mujtahid became distinguished, and legal theorists classified jurists into three or more levels of competence. Unlike
7630-420: The most "Caucasian" people of all the Caucasians (Caucasus – Kavkas – Kavkasians) in the Georgian historical tradition. American linguist Johanna Nichols "has used language to connect the modern people of the Caucasus region to the ancient farmers of the Fertile Crescent " and her research suggests that "farmers of the region were proto-Nakh-Daghestanians". Nichols stated: "The Nakh–Dagestanian languages are
7739-404: The mountainous area due to numerous successful full-scale battles and insurgency raids. The Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis in 1995 shocked the Russian public. In April 1996, the first democratically elected president of Chechnya, Dzhokhar Dudayev , was killed by Russian forces using a booby trap bomb and a missile fired from a warplane after he was located by triangulating the position of
7848-523: The mufti/fatwa). A mufti's fatwa is issued in response to a query. Fatwas can range from a simple yes/no answer to a book-length treatise. A short fatwa may state a well-known point of law in response to a question from a lay person, while a "major" fatwa may give a judgment on an unprecedented case, detailing the legal reasoning behind the decision. Queries to muftis were supposed to address real and not hypothetical situations and be formulated in general terms, leaving out names of places and people. Since
7957-410: The muftis in the network, who still act as individual jurisconsults. In other cases, Islamic jurists of different nationalities, schools of law, and sometimes even denominations (Sunni and Shia), coordinate to issue a joint fatwa, which is expected to command greater authority with the public than individual fatwas. The collective fatwa (sometimes called ijtihād jamāʿī , "collective legal interpretation")
8066-470: The natives of the North Caucasus . The resistance of the Nakh tribes never ended and was a fertile ground for a new Muslim- Avar commander, Imam Shamil , who fought against the Russians from 1834 to 1859 (see Murid War ). In 1859, Shamil was captured by Russians at aul Gunib. Shamil left Baysangur of Benoa , a Chechen with one arm, one eye, and one leg, in charge of command at Gunib. Baysangur broke through
8175-511: The petitioner. Early in the 20th century, the Salafi reformist Shafi'i jurist Rashid Rida responded to thousands of queries from around the Muslim world on a variety of social and political topics in the regular fatwa section of his Cairo-based journal Al-Manar . In the late 20th century, when the Grand Mufti of Egypt Sayyid Tantawy issued a fatwa allowing interest banking, the ruling
8284-573: The phrase "When they ask you concerning ..., say ..." In two cases (4:127, 4:176) this is expressed with verbal forms of the root f-t-y , which signify asking for or giving an authoritative answer. In the hadith literature, this three-way relationship between God, Muhammad, and believers, is typically replaced by a two-way consultation, in which Muhammad replies directly to queries from his Companions ( sahaba ). According to Islamic doctrine, with Muhammad's death in 632, God ceased to communicate with mankind through revelation and prophets. At that point,
8393-423: The political process on many other occasions during the colonial era. For example, in 1904 a fatwa by Moroccan ulema achieved the dismissal of European experts hired by the state, while in 1907 another Moroccan fatwa succeeded in deposing the sultan for failing to defend the state against French aggression. The 1891 tobacco protest fatwa by the Iranian mujtahid Mirza Shirazi , which prohibited smoking as long as
8502-400: The post of qadi , which is reserved for men in the classical sharia system, fatwas could be issued by qualified women as well as men. In practice, the vast majority of jurists who completed the lengthy curriculum in linguistic and religious sciences required to obtain the qualification to issue fatwas were men. Slaves and persons who were blind or mute were likewise theoretically barred from
8611-404: The post of a judge, but not that of mufti. The mufti and the judge play different roles in the classical sharia system, with corresponding differences between a fatwa and a qada (court decision): Before the 11th century CE, anyone who possessed scholarly recognition as an Islamic jurist could issue fatwas. Starting around that time, however, the public office of mufti began to appear alongside
8720-418: The practice of ifta as a collective obligation ( farḍ al-kifāya ), which must be discharged by some members of the community. Before the rise of modern schools, the study of law was a centerpiece of advanced education in the Islamic world. A relatively small class of legal scholars controlled the interpretation of sharia on a wide range of questions essential to the society, ranging from ritual to finance. It
8829-408: The private issuing of fatwas. In Khurasan , the rulers appointed a head of the local ulama, called shaykh al-Islam , who also functioned as the chief mufti. The Mamluks appointed four muftis, one for each of the four Sunni madhhabs, to the appeals courts of provincial capitals. The Ottomans organized muftis into a hierarchical bureaucracy with a chief mufti of the empire called shaykh al-islam at
8938-410: The rapidly expanding Muslim community turned to Muhammad's Companions, as the most authoritative voices among them, for religious guidance, and some of them are reported to have issued pronouncements on a wide range of subjects. The generation of Companions was in turn replaced in that role by the generation of Successors ( tabi'un ). The institution of ifta thus developed in Islamic communities under
9047-733: The recognition of Chechnya as a separate nation. This movement was opposed by Boris Yeltsin 's Russian Federation , which argued that Chechnya had not been an independent entity within the Soviet Union—as the Baltic, Central Asian, and other Caucasian states such as Georgia had—but was part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and hence did not have a right under the Soviet constitution to secede. It also argued that other republics of Russia , such as Tatarstan , would consider seceding from
9156-512: The region. Russia installed a pro-Russian Chechen regime. In 2003, a referendum was held on a constitution that reintegrated Chechnya within Russia but provided limited autonomy. According to the Chechen government, the referendum passed with 95.5% of the votes and almost 80% turnout. The Economist was skeptical of the results, arguing that "few outside the Kremlin regard the referendum as fair". In September 2004, separatist rebels occupied
9265-430: The requisite qualifications. Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals acting as muftis has at times given rise to complaints about a "chaos" in the modern practice of ifta . Advances in print media and the rise of the internet have changed the role played by muftis in modern society. In the pre-modern era, most fatwas issued in response to private queries were read only by
9374-584: The rise of new forms of contemporary ifta . Unlike the concise or technical pre-modern fatwas, fatwas delivered through modern mass media often seek to be more expansive and accessible to the wide public. As the influence of muftis in the courtroom has declined in modern times, there has been a relative increase in the proportion of fatwas dealing with rituals and further expansion in purely religious areas like Quranic exegesis, creed, and Sufism. Modern muftis issue fatwas on topics as diverse as insurance, sex-change operations, Moon exploration, and beer drinking. In
9483-709: The ruler, and several Ottoman and Moroccan sultans were deposed by a fatwa. This happened, for example, to the Ottoman sultan Murad V on the grounds of his insanity. Public fatwas were also used to dispute doctrinal matters, and in some case to proclaim that certain groups or individuals who professed to be Muslim were to be excluded from the Islamic community (a practice known as takfir ). In both political and scholarly sphere, doctrinal controversies between different states, denominations or centers of learning were accompanied by dueling fatwas. Muftis also acted to counteract
9592-544: The ruling elites began to establish institutions of higher religious learning known as madrasas in an effort to secure support and cooperation of the ulema (religious scholars). Madrasas, which were primarily devoted to the study of law, soon multiplied throughout the Islamic world, helping to spread Islamic learning beyond urban centers and to unite diverse Islamic communities in a shared cultural project. In some states, such as Muslim Spain, muftis were assigned to courts in advisory roles. In Muslim Spain jurists also sat on
9701-408: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Gornik . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gornik&oldid=670759499 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
9810-516: The siege and continued to fight Russia for another two years until he was captured and killed by Russians. The Russian tsar hoped that by sparing the life of Shamil, the resistance in the North Caucasus would stop, but it did not. Russia began to use a colonization tactic by destroying Nakh settlements and building Cossack defense lines in the lowlands. The Cossacks suffered defeat after defeat and were constantly attacked by mountaineers, who were robbing them of food and weaponry. The tsarists' regime used
9919-456: The south, Georgia . Its capital is Grozny. Chechnya is well known for being mountainous, but it is in fact split between the more flat areas north of the Terek, and the highlands south of the Terek. Rivers: Despite a relatively small territory, Chechnya is characterized by a variety of climate conditions. The average temperature in Grozny is 11.2 °C (52.2 °F). The Chechen Republic
10028-422: The state to issue fatwas, while others serve on advisory religious councils. Still others issue fatwas in response to private queries on television or over the internet . Modern public fatwas have addressed and sometimes sparked controversies in the Muslim world and beyond. The legal methodology of modern ifta often diverges from pre-modern practice. While the proliferation of contemporary fatwas attests to
10137-455: The state. While most fatwas were delivered to an individual or a judge, some fatwas that were public or political in nature played an important role in religious legitimation, doctrinal disputes, political criticism, or political mobilization. As muftis were progressively incorporated into government bureaucracies in the course of Islamic history, they were often expected to support government policies. Ottoman sultans regularly sought fatwas from
10246-514: The student was ready to issue fatwas by giving him a certificate ( ijaza ). During the first centuries of Islam, it was assumed that a mufti was a mujtahid , i.e., a jurist who is capable of deriving legal rulings directly from the scriptural sources through independent reasoning ( ijtihad ), evaluating the reliability of hadith and applying or even developing the appropriate legal methodologies. Starting from around 1200 CE, legal theorists began to accept that muftis of their time may not possess
10355-427: The top. The Ottoman shaykh al-Islam (Turkish: şeyhülislam ), was among the most powerful state officials. Scribes reviewed queries directed to Ottoman muftis and rewrote them to facilitate issuing of fatwas. In Mughal India and Safavid Iran the chief mufti had the title of sadr . For the first few centuries of Islam, muftis were educated in informal study circles, but beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries,
10464-793: The total population. The birth rate was 25.41 in 2004. (25.7 in Achkhoi Martan, 19.8 in Groznyy, 17.5 in Kurchaloi, 28.3 in Urus Martan and 11.1 in Vedeno ). The languages used in the Republic are Chechen and Russian . Chechen belongs to the Vaynakh or North-central Caucasian language family, which also includes Ingush and Batsb . Some scholars place it in a wider North Caucasian languages . Despite its difficult past, Chechnya has
10573-617: The twentieth century. The war between Nakh tribes and Russia resurfaced during the times of the Russian Revolution , which saw the Nakh struggle against Anton Denikin and later against the Soviet Union . On 21 December 1917, Ingushetia , Chechnya, and Dagestan declared independence from Russia and formed a single state: "United Mountain Dwellers of the North Caucasus" (also known as the Mountainous Republic of
10682-515: Was a Chechen abrek Zelimkhan Gushmazukaev and his comrade-in-arms Ingush abrek Sulom-Beck Sagopshinski. Together they built up small units which constantly harassed Russian military convoys, government mints, and government post-service, mainly in Ingushetia and Chechnya. Ingush aul Kek was completely burned when the Ingush refused to hand over Zelimkhan. Zelimkhan was killed at the beginning of
10791-470: Was among the most demanding occupations in medieval Islam and muftis were among the best educated religious scholars of their time. According to legal theory, it was up to each mufti to decide when he was ready to practice. In practice, an aspiring jurist would normally study for several years with one or several recognized scholars, following a curriculum that included Arabic grammar , hadith , law and other religious sciences . The teacher would decide when
10900-465: Was an economic downturn. Two Russian brigades were permanently stationed in Chechnya. In light of the devastated economic structure, kidnapping emerged as the principal source of income countrywide, procuring over US$ 200 million during the three-year independence of the chaotic fledgling state, although victims were rarely killed. In 1998, 176 people were kidnapped, 90 of whom were released, according to official accounts. President Maskhadov started
11009-527: Was considered a requirement for qualified jurists to communicate their knowledge through teaching or issuing fatwas. The ideal mufti was conceived as an individual of scholarly accomplishments and exemplary morals, and muftis were generally approached with the respect and deference corresponding to these expectations. Judges generally sought an opinion from a mufti with higher scholarly authority than themselves for difficult cases or potentially controversial verdicts. Fatwas were routinely upheld in courts, and if
11118-555: Was forbidden. Until the 11th or 12th century, the vast majority of jurists held other jobs to support themselves. These were generally lower- and middle-class professions such as tanning, manuscript copying or small trade. The classical institution of ifta is similar to jus respondendi in Roman law and the responsa in Jewish law . Muftis have played three important roles in the classical legal system: Islamic doctrine regards
11227-451: Was however already used from as early as 1692. Under intermittent Persian rule since 1555, in 1783 the eastern Georgians of Kartl-Kakheti led by Erekle II and Russia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk . According to this treaty, Kartl-Kakheti received protection from Russia, and Georgia abjured any dependence on Iran . In order to increase its influence in the Caucasus and to secure communications with Kartli and other Christian regions of
11336-647: Was in charge of an army of Chechens against the rogue warlord Mamai and defeated him in the Battle of Tatar-tup in 1362. The kingdom of Simsim was almost destroyed during the Timurid invasion of the Caucasus, when Khour II allied himself with the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh in the Battle of the Terek River. Timur sought to punish the highlanders for their allegiance to Tokhtamysh and as a consequence invaded Simsim in 1395. The 16th century saw
11445-674: Was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or declare a jihad. The Amman Message was a statement, signed in 2005 in Jordan by nearly 200 prominent Islamic jurists, which served as a "counter-fatwa" against a widespread use of takfir (excommunication) by jihadist groups to justify jihad against rulers of Muslim-majority countries. The Amman Message recognized eight legitimate schools of Islamic law and prohibited declarations of apostasy against them. The statement also asserted that fatwas can be issued only by properly trained muftis, thereby seeking to delegitimize fatwas issued by militants who lack
11554-578: Was part of the reorganisation of the Soviet Union. This new treaty was to be signed 22 August 1991, which would have transformed 15 republic states into more than 80. The 19–21 August 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt led to the abandonment of this reorganisation. With the impending dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, an independence movement, the Chechen National Congress , was formed, led by ex- Soviet Air Force general and new Chechen President Dzhokhar Dudayev . It campaigned for
11663-526: Was re-elected for the third term. In 1921 the Russians attacked and occupied the country and forcibly absorbed it into the Soviet state. The Caucasian war for independence restarted, and the government went into exile. During Soviet rule, Chechnya and Ingushetia were combined to form the Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic . In the 1930s, Chechnya was flooded with many Ukrainians fleeing
11772-461: Was supposed to state these caveats in their response. Muftis often consulted another mufti on difficult cases, though this practice was not foreseen by legal theory, which saw futya as a transaction between one qualified jurist and one "unqualified" petitioner. In theory, a mufti was expected to issue fatwas free of charge. In practice, muftis commonly received support from the public treasury, public endowments or private donations. Taking of bribes
11881-543: Was vigorously debated in the Egyptian press by both religious scholars and lay intellectuals. In the internet age, a large number of websites have appeared offering fatwas to readers around the world. For example, IslamOnline publishes an archive of "live fatwa" sessions, whose number approached a thousand by 2007, along with biographies of the muftis. Together muftis who issue call-in fatwas during radio shows and satellite television programs, these sites have contributed to
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