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134-620: The Sui dynasty united China in AD 589, defeating the Chen dynasty and ending the division of the country that spanned almost 300 years. After the unification of China, Sui asserted its position as an overlord of neighbouring countries. However, in Goguryeo , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea , king Pyeongwon and his successor, Yeongyang , insisted on maintaining an equal relationship with

268-536: A planned city . Wen and his successor Emperor Yang undertook various centralising reforms, most notably among them the equal-field system that aimed to reduce economic inequality and improve agricultural productivity, the Five Departments and Six Boards  [ zh ] system, which preceded the Three Departments and Six Ministries system, and the standardisation and re-unification of

402-556: A community in Jilin (Kirin), where both Manchu and Chinese Bannermen were settled at a town called Wulakai, and eventually the Chinese Bannermen there could not be differentiated from Manchus since they were effectively Manchufied (assimilated). The Han civilian population was in the process of absorbing and mixing with them when Lattimore wrote his article. Around the time of World War I , Zhang Zuolin established himself as

536-632: A decree of a stiffer punishment for those who were found to deliberately injure and heal themselves. Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short (581–618), much was accomplished during its tenure. The Grand Canal was one of the main accomplishments. It was extended north from the Hangzhou region across the Yangtze to Yangzhou, and then northwest to the region of Luoyang. Again, like the Great Wall works,

670-654: A distinct geographical entity, and that "Manchuria" ( Manzhou ) was used as a toponym by the Chinese. According to Elliott, the Manchu imperial lineage believed that their original homeland was the Changbai Mountains . The Qing court endeavored to create a regional identity focused on the Changbai Mountains, which gradually became a symbol of Manchu identity. However, it is uncertain whether that notion

804-741: A few days every winter, and it is never heavy. This explains why corresponding latitudes of North America were fully glaciated during glacial periods of the Quaternary while Manchuria, though even colder, always remained too dry to form glaciers  – a state of affairs enhanced by stronger westerly winds from the surface of the ice sheet in Europe. Manchuria was the homeland of several ethnic groups, including Manchu , Mongols , Koreans , Nanai , Nivkhs , Ulchs , Hui , possibly Turkic peoples , and ethnic Han Chinese in southern Manchuria. Various ethnic groups and their respective kingdoms, including

938-654: A geographical term was first used in the 18th or 19th centuries by the Japanese before spreading to Europe . The term was promoted by the Japanese Empire in support for the existence of its puppet state, Manchukuo . Although the toponym is still used, some scholars treat the term with caution or avoid it altogether due to its association with Japanese colonialism . The term is deprecated in China due to its association with Japanese imperialism and ethnic connotations. As

1072-463: A means to regulate market prices from the taxation of crops, much like the earlier Han dynasty . The large agricultural surplus supported rapid growth of population to a historical peak, which was only surpassed at the zenith of the Tang dynasty more than a century later. The capital of Daxing ( Chang'an , modern Xi'an ), while situated in the militarily secure heartland of Guanzhong , was remote from

1206-456: A message that he wished to discuss things further but Eulji Mundeok, aware of Wu's intentions, did not comply. The two generals argued about the next course of action, with Yu Zhongwen arguing strongly that Eulji Mundeok should be pursued. They did agree that the Goguryeo capital should be captured. Accordingly, the Sui troops began advancing south towards Pyeongyang . Eulji Mundeok maneuvered

1340-431: A new name for their ethnic group. However neither the name Manchu or the Chinese rendering of Manshū as Manzhou ever acquired geographical connotations, while in Japanese, both Manchuria and Manchu are rendered as Manshū . According to Nakami Tatsuo, Manzhou was used to refer to Manchu people or one of their states rather than a region: "Originally, Manzhou was the name of the Manchu people or of their state; it

1474-632: A powerful warlord with influence over most of Manchuria. During his rule, the Manchurian economy grew tremendously, backed by the immigration of Chinese from other parts of China. The Japanese assassinated him on 2 June 1928, in what is known as the Huanggutun Incident . Following the Mukden Incident in 1931 and the subsequent Japanese invasion of Manchuria , the Japanese declared Manchuria an "independent state", and appointed

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1608-675: A remaining Chinese region (known as Manchuria). In modern literature, "Manchuria" usually refers to Manchuria in China. As a result of the Treaties of Aigun and Peking, Qing China lost access to the Sea of Japan . Manchuria in China also came under strong Russian influence with the building of the Chinese Eastern Railway through Harbin to Vladivostok . In the Chuang Guandong movement, many Han farmers, mostly from

1742-597: A result, areas once considered part of Manchuria are simply referred to as the Northeast . The Three Provinces and the Northeast were also in concurrent use among the Japanese along with Manchuria until the Mukden Incident of 1931. The area is home to many ethnic groups, including the Manchus , Mongols , Koreans , Nanai , Nivkhs , and Ulchs . Many of the early ancient Koreanic kingdoms were established in

1876-498: A strength of 305,000, and a naval fleet of some 120,000 were dispatched. The Sui navy reached the bay of the Daedong River before the army. Seeing that the Sui army had not arrived yet, Go Geonmu, commander of the defence army of Goguryeo at Pyeongyang and brother of King Yeongyang, sent what few troops remained in the capital to engage the Sui navy in battle. After an engagement, feigning defeat, Goguryeo troops retreated into

2010-666: A surrender and peace negotiation terms with the Sui generals. Generals Wu and Yuwen had their own secret order from Emperor Yang to seize Yeongyang or Eulji Mundeok if they should fall into their hands. However, the generals' advisers, notably the assistant director of the Right of the Department of State Affairs, Liu Shilong (劉士龍), convinced them it would be unwise to arrest negotiators from the opposing camp. They ultimately let Eulji return to Goguryeo and Yu Zhongwen later regretted his decision, attempting to lure Eulji Mundeok back. He sent

2144-634: Is a calque of Latin of the Japanese placename Manshū ( 満州 , "Region of the Manchus"), which dates from the 18th century. According to the American researcher Mark C. Elliott, the term Manshū first appeared as a placename in Katsuragawa Hoshū's 1794 work Hokusa Bunryaku in two maps, "Ashia zenzu" and "Chikyū hankyū sōzu", which were also created by Katsuragawa. According to Junko Miyawaki-Okada, Japanese geographer Takahashi Kageyasu

2278-559: Is also home to many Mongols and Hui . In present-day Chinese, an inhabitant of the Northeast is a "Northeasterner" ( 东北人 ; Dōngběirén ). "The Northeast" is a term that expresses the entire region, encompassing its history and various cultures. It is usually restricted to the "Three East Provinces" or "Three Northeast Provinces", excluding northeastern Inner Mongolia. In China, the term Manchuria ( traditional Chinese : 滿洲 ; simplified Chinese : 满洲 ; pinyin : Mǎnzhōu )

2412-625: Is an exonym (derived from the endonym " Manchu ") of Japanese origin. The history of "Manchuria" ( Manzhou ) as a toponym in China is disputed, with some scholars believing it was never used while others believe it was by the late 19th century. The area was historically referred to by various names in the Qing dynasty such as Guandong (East of the Pass ) or the Three Provinces referring to Fengtian , Heilongjiang , and Jilin . Manchuria as

2546-493: Is controversial" based on reasons outlined by Mariko Asano Tamanoi in the "Introduction" of Crossed Histories: Manchuria in the Age of Empire (2005). According to Tamanoi, "'Manchuria' is a product of Japanese imperialism, and to call the area Manzhou is to accept uncritically a Japanese colonial legacy." Japan used the name "Manchuria" to convey the idea of a contested region distinct from China while China insisted on its ownership of

2680-480: Is rarely used today, and the term is often negatively associated with the Japanese imperial legacy and the puppet state of Manchukuo . The Northeast ( Tōhoku ) was also used as a name for Manchuria by the Japanese during the 1920s and 1930s. Manchuria consists mainly of the northern side of the funnel-shaped North China Craton , a large area of tilled and overlaid Precambrian rocks spanning 100 million hectares (250 million acres). The North China Craton

2814-591: The Qing shilu the lands of the Qing state (including Manchuria and present-day Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet) are thus identified as "the Middle Kingdom" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages in roughly two-thirds of the cases, while the term refers to the traditional Chinese provinces populated by the Han in roughly one third of the cases. It was also common to use "China" ( Zhongguo , Dulimbai gurun ) to refer to

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2948-631: The Byzantine Empire , the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east. From Turkic peoples of Central Asia the Eastern Romans derived a new name for China after the older Sinae and Serica : Taugast ( Old Turkic : Tabghach ), during its Northern Wei (386–535) period. The 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta wrote a generally accurate depiction of the reunification of China by Emperor Wen of

3082-535: The Confucian examination system for bureaucrats. By supporting educational reforms, he lost the support of the nomads. He also started many expensive construction projects such as the Grand Canal of China , and became embroiled in several costly wars. Between these policies, invasions into China from Turkic nomads, and his growing life of decadent luxury at the expense of the peasantry, he lost public support and

3216-611: The Evenk - Daur federation led by the Evenki chief Bombogor and beheaded Bombogor in 1640, with Qing armies massacring and deporting Evenkis and absorbing the survivors into the Banners . Chinese cultural and religious influence such as Chinese New Year, the " Chinese god ", motifs such as the dragon, spirals, and scrolls, agriculture, husbandry, methods of heating, and material goods such as iron cooking-pots, silk, and cotton spread among

3350-480: The Goguryeo troops so that they engaged the Sui army seven times a day, each time faking defeat and retreat. The strategy would draw the Sui army deeper south with the perception of victory. The Sui army eventually advanced to about 20 km from Pyeongyang . Yu Zhongwen later recognized that his advancing troops were suffering from exhaustion, and that fortifications of Pyeongyang made for an impossible campaign. Yu

3484-647: The Great Wall of China and the Willow Palisade . Chinese tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area. Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, Han Chinese settled the path linking Jinzhou , Fengtian , Tieling , Changchun , Hulun , and Ningguta during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, and Han Chinese had become

3618-517: The Later Jin (Five Dynasties) . This practice was referred to as èrwáng-sānkè    [ simple ; zh ] ( 二王三恪 ). Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short-lived, in terms of culture, it represents a transition from the preceding ages, and many cultural developments which can be seen to be incipient during the Sui dynasty later were expanded and consolidated during the ensuing Tang dynasty , and later ages. This includes not only

3752-765: The Liaoshen Campaign and took complete control over Manchuria. With the encouragement of the Soviet Union, Manchuria was then used as a staging ground during the Chinese Civil War for the Chinese Communist Party , which emerged victorious in 1949. Ambiguities in the treaties that ceded Outer Manchuria to Russia led to disputes over the political status of several islands. The Kuomintang government in Taiwan (Formosa) complained to

3886-666: The Russian Empire by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty during the Amur Annexation of 1858–1860. The parts of Manchuria ceded to Russia are collectively known as Outer Manchuria or Russian Manchuria, which include present-day Amur Oblast , Primorsky Krai , the Jewish Autonomous Oblast , the southern part of Khabarovsk Krai , and the eastern edge of Zabaykalsky Krai . The name Manchuria

4020-739: The Shandong peninsula moved there. By 1921, Harbin, northern Manchuria's largest city, had a population of 300,000, including 100,000 Russians . Japan replaced Russian influence in the southern half of Manchuria as a result of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904–1905. Most of the southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway was transferred from Russia to Japan, and became the South Manchurian Railway . Japanese influence extended into Outer Manchuria in

4154-765: The Sixteen Prefectures in Northern China as well. The Liao dynasty became the first state to control all of Manchuria. In the early 12th century, the Tungusic Jurchen people, who were Liao's tributaries, overthrew the Liao and formed the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) , which went on to control parts of Northern China and Mongolia after a series of successful military campaigns . During the Mongol Yuan dynasty rule of China (1271–1368), Manchuria

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4288-636: The Sushen , Donghu , Xianbei , Wuhuan , Mohe , Khitan and Jurchens , have risen to power in Manchuria. Koreanic kingdoms such as Gojoseon (before 108 BCE), Buyeo (2nd century BCE to 494 CE) and Goguryeo (37 BCE to 688 CE) also became established in large parts of this area. The Chinese Qin (221–206 BCE), Han (202 BCE–9 CE and 25 CE–220 CE), Cao Wei (220–266), Western Jin (266–316), and Tang (618–690 and 705–907) dynasties controlled parts of Manchuria. Parts of northwestern Manchuria came under

4422-736: The Yalta Conference in February 1945, Joseph Stalin had agreed that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months after Germany surrendered . Accordingly, in August the Soviet Union issued its declaration of war and launched the Soviet invasion of Manchuria . Soon afterwards, the Chinese Communist Party and Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) started fighting for control over Manchuria. The communists won in

4556-750: The Yongle Emperor ( r.  1402–1424 ), establishing the Nurgan Regional Military Commission of 1409–1435. Starting in the 1580s, a Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain, Nurhaci (1558–1626), started to unify Jurchen tribes of the region. Over the next several decades, the Jurchen took control of most of Manchuria . In 1616 Nurhaci founded the Later Jin dynasty, which later became known as the Qing dynasty . The Qing defeated

4690-400: The 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk . Despite migration restrictions, Qing rule saw massively increasing numbers of Han Chinese both illegally and legally streaming into Manchuria and settling down to cultivate land – Manchu landlords desired Han Chinese peasants to rent their land and to grow grain; most Han Chinese migrants were not evicted as they crossed the Great Wall and Willow Palisade. During

4824-456: The 1690s, smallpox epidemics reduced Yukagir numbers by an estimated 44 percent." At the behest of people like Vasilii Poyarkov in 1645 and Yerofei Khabarov in 1650, Russian Cossacks killed some peoples like the Daur people of Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang to the extent that some authors speak of genocide . The Daurs initially deserted their villages since they had heard about the cruelty of

4958-715: The 18th century, despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on Manchu and Mongol lands, the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China – who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought – into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s. The Qianlong Emperor ( r.  1735–1796 ) allowed Han Chinese peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite his having issued edicts in favor of banning them from 1740 to 1776. Han Chinese then streamed into Manchuria, both illegally and legally, over

5092-621: The Amur natives including the Udeghes , Ulchis , and Nanais . In 1644, after peasant rebels sacked the Ming dynasty 's capital of Beijing, the Jurchens (now called Manchus) allied with Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, overthrowing the short-lived Shun dynasty (1644–1649) and establishing Qing-dynasty rule (1644–1912) over all of China. The Manchu conquest of China involved

5226-463: The Chinese but the People's Republic of China disapproved of it regardless. By the 1950s, Manzhou had virtually disappeared as a toponym although some still used it out of habit. The term Manchuria has been described as "controversial" or "troublesome" by several scholars including Mark C. Elliott, Norman Smith, and Mariko Asano Tamanoi. The historian Norman Smith wrote that "The term 'Manchuria'

5360-584: The Chinese, Russian and Japanese authorities and international disease experts held an 'International Plague Conference' in the northern city of Shenyang after the disease was under control to learn the lessons. It was reported that among Banner people, both Manchu and Chinese (Hanjun) in Aihun, Heilongjiang in the 1920s, would seldom marry with Han civilians, but they (Manchu and Chinese Bannermen) would mostly intermarry with each other. Owen Lattimore reported that during his January 1930 visit to Manchuria, he studied

5494-529: The Duke of Sui when serving at the Zhou court, where the character 隨 literally means 'to follow', implying loyalty, Emperor Wen created a unique character 隋 , morphed from that in his former title, as the name of his new dynasty. In a bloody purge, Wen had 59 Zhou princes eliminated, in contrast to his later reputation as the "Cultured Emperor". Emperor Wen emphasized Han cultural identity during his reign, abolishing

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5628-432: The Linyi-Champa Campaign (602–605). The Hanoi area formerly held by the Han and Jin dynasties was easily retaken from the Early Lý dynasty ruler Lý Phật Tử in 602. A few years later the Sui army pushed farther south and was attacked by troops on war elephants from Champa in southern Vietnam. The Sui army feigned retreat and dug pits to trap the elephants, lured the Champan troops to attack then used crossbows against

5762-401: The Lu of Fanyang hailed from Shandong and were related to the Liu clan, which was also linked to the Yang of Hongnong and other clans of Guanlong. The Yang of Hongnong, Jia of Hedong, Xiang of Henei, and Wang of Taiyuan from the Tang dynasty were later claimed as ancestors by Song dynasty lineages. Information about these major political events in China were somehow filtered west and reached

5896-584: The Manchus and Mongols. Elliot notes that one scholar considered the use of "Manchuria" as not only inaccurate but giving approval to Japanese colonialism. During the Ming dynasty the area in which the Jurchens lived was referred to as Nurgan . During the Qing dynasty, the region was known as the "three eastern provinces" ( 東三省 ; 东三省 ; Dōngsānshěng ; Manchu   ᡩᡝᡵᡤᡳ ᡳᠯᠠᠨ ᡤᠣᠯᠣ , Dergi Ilan Golo ), which referred to Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Fengtian since 1683 when Jilin and Heilongjiang were separated. However, Jilin and Heilongjiang did not receive

6030-497: The Qing dynasty referenced as Manchuria originally further included Primorskiy Kray , the Jewish Autonomous Oblast , the southern parts of Amur Oblast and Khabarovskiy Kray , and a corner of Zabaykalʼskiy Kray . These districts were acknowledged as Qing territory by the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk but ceded to the Russian Empire due to the Amur Annexation in the unequal 1858 Treaty of Aigun and 1860 Convention of Beijing (the People's Republic of China indirectly questioned

6164-481: The Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs. In diplomatic documents, the term "Chinese language" ( Dulimbai gurun i bithe ) referred to the Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (中國人 Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing. The Qing explicitly stated that the lands in Manchuria belonged to "China" (Zhongguo, Dulimbai gurun) in Qing edicts and in

6298-474: The Russians the first time Khabarov came. The second time he came, the Daurs decided to do battle against the Russians instead, but were slaughtered by Russian guns. The Russians came to be known as "red-beards". The Amur natives called Russian Cossacks luocha (羅剎), after demons in Buddhist mythology, because of their cruelty towards the Amur tribespeople, who were subjects of the Qing. The Qing viewed Russian proselytization of Eastern Orthodox Christianity to

6432-451: The Sui army would withdraw. Seizing the opportunity to retreat, Yu withdrew his troops towards Sui. When Sui army had reached Salsu (thought to be the present-day Chongchon River ), Goguryeo charged the remaining Sui army. Eulji Mundeok defended fortresses against the Sui army and navy for several months and destroyed the Sui troops while retreating into Goguryeo territory. An attack at Salsu (Chongchon River) inflicted massive casualties on

6566-473: The Sui dynasty, spreading from India through Kushan Afghanistan into China during the Late Han period. Buddhism gained prominence during the period when central political control was limited. Buddhism created a unifying cultural force that uplifted the people out of war and into the Sui dynasty. In many ways, Buddhism was responsible for the rebirth of culture in China under the Sui dynasty. While early Buddhist teachings were acquired from Sanskrit sutras , it

6700-467: The Sui dynasty, with the conquest of the rival Chen dynasty in southern China. Simocatta correctly placed these events within the reign period of Byzantine ruler Maurice . Simocatta also provided cursory information about the geography of China , its division by the Yangzi River and its capital Khubdan (from Old Turkic Khumdan , i.e. Chang'an) along with its customs and culture , deeming its people " idolatrous " but wise in governance. He noted that

6834-459: The Sui dynasty. Emperor Wen of Sui was displeased with the challenge from Goguryeo , which continued small scale raiding into Sui's northern border. Wen sent diplomatic papers in 596 after Sui envoys spotted Goguryeo diplomats in the yurt of the Eastern Turkish Khanate and demanded the Goguryeo to cancel any military alliance with the Turks, stop the annual raiding of Sui border regions, and acknowledge Sui as their overlord. After receiving

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6968-446: The Sui forces. When the Sui army had reached Salsu, Eulji Mundeok's force slaughtering them. The historical text records that Sui soldiers had to run almost 200 km that day to escape death. The Battle of Salsu contributed to the massive overall casualty figure for Sui during the campaign. Out of the initial 305,000 men Emperor Yang crossed the Liao River with to attack Goguryeo, only 2,700 returned. Emperor Yang invaded Liaodong again

7102-484: The Sui system, Yodong and other castles of Goguryeo continued to hold on. By June, five months after the start of the campaign, not a single castle, fortress, or citadel has fallen to Sui. Emperor Yang felt that a fundamental change in strategy was needed to seize control of Korea. The new strategy was to keep the fortresses of Goguryeo in Manchuria at bay, while sending a contingent of army and navy to take Pyongyang , Goguryeo's capital. An army contingent, allegedly with

7236-408: The Sui. The Sui court pursued a pro-Taoist policy. The first reign of the dynasty saw the state promoting the Northern Louguan school of Taoism, while the second reign instead promoted the Southern Shangqing school of Taoism, possibly due to Emperor Yang's preference for Southern culture. Buddhism was popular during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern and Southern dynasties period that preceded

7370-433: The Yang clan of Hongnong, had Han origins and claimed descent from the Han dynasty general Yang Zhen, but had intermarried with the Xianbei for generations. Yang Jian's daughter was the Empress Dowager, and her stepson, Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou , was a child. After crushing an army in the eastern provinces, Yang Jian usurped the throne from the Northern Zhou rulers, and became Emperor Wen of Sui . While formerly

7504-441: The anti-Han policies of Northern Zhou and reclaiming his Han surname of Yang. Having won the support of Confucian scholars who held power in previous Han dynasties (abandoning the nepotism and corruption of the nine-rank system ), Emperor Wen initiated a series of reforms aimed at strengthening his empire for the wars that would reunify China. In his campaign for southern conquest, Emperor Wen assembled thousands of boats to confront

7638-432: The apexes in the two millennium imperial period of Chinese history. The Sui emperors were from the northwest military aristocracy, and they cited as their ancestors the Yang of Hongnong 弘農楊氏 , a Han clan. They emphasised their Han ancestry, and claimed descent from the Han official Yang Zhen. The New Book of Tang traces their patrilineal ancestry to the Zhou dynasty kings via the Dukes of Jin . The Li of Zhaojun and

7772-400: The area of the Kwantung Leased Territory on the Liaodong Peninsula . It is not to be confused with the southern province of Guangdong . The term "Manchuria" is deprecated among people of the People's Republic of China (PRC) due to its association with Japanese imperialism , the puppet state of Manchukuo of the Empire of Japan , and Manchurian nationalism . Official state documents use

7906-438: The area. It is the ancestral homeland to the Tungusic-speaking Jurchens and their descendants, the Manchus. Manchuria is now most often associated with the three Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang , Jilin , and Liaoning . The former Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo further included the prefectures of Chengde (now in Hebei ), and Hulunbuir , Hinggan , Tongliao , and Chifeng (now in Inner Mongolia ). The region of

8040-462: The art and fortune of the outer castle. Once the looting of the castle started, the death-defying corps of Goguryeo, consisting of 500 troops, ambushed the Sui troops. Confused and disoriented, Lai ran to the fleet at the sea, his legion reduced to mere thousands. The army contingent, led by generals Yu Zhongwen and Yuwen Shu , had their own problems. While the supply could be transported safely within China, once it reached Goguryeo territory, there

8174-403: The buffer zone that he had acquired after the war of 598, as the area was not suitable to face such a vast army. The Goguryeo troops retreated behind what is now known as the Liao River . A fortunate event for Goguryeo was that the river melted much sooner than usual. By the time Emperor Yang arrived, the ice had all melted. Undaunted, Emperor Yang ordered the construction of three bridges across

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8308-412: The city. The Sui naval commander, Lai Huni , considering it to be a chance to add to his merit, led a host of more than 40,000 to lay assault against Pyeongyang. When the Sui soldiers reached one of the outer castles, however, they found the wall empty and the gate open. Upon entering the castle, Lai, considering the engagement in the outskirts a decisive move of Goguryeo that failed, looted and destroyed

8442-405: The coastline. Whenever they anchored, Goguryeo detachments were present to attack the Sui sailors, and Sui fleet suffered a devastating loss. Emperor Yang of Sui , when he won the throne in 604, built the Grand Canal connecting the north and south of China. The south, economic base of China, and the north, political base of China, were connected by the canal, allowing transportation of troops for

8576-419: The coinage . The Sui also encouraged the spread of Buddhism throughout the empire. By the dynasty's mid-point, the state experienced considerable prosperity, enjoying a vast agricultural surplus that supported rapid population growth. The Sui engaged in many construction mega-projects, including the Grand Canal , the extension of the Great Wall , and the reconstruction of Luoyang. The canal linked Luoyang in

8710-497: The conquest of Chen. The emperor presented himself as a Cakravartin king, a Buddhist monarch who would use military force to defend the Buddhist faith. In the year 601 AD, Emperor Wen had relics of the Buddha distributed to temples throughout China, with edicts that expressed his goals, "all the people within the Four Seas may, without exception, develop enlightenment and together cultivate fortunate karma, bringing it to pass that present existences will lead to happy future lives, that

8844-403: The control of the First Turkic Khaganate of 552–603 and of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate of 581–630. Early Manchuria had a mixed economy of hunting, fishing, livestock, and agriculture. With the Song dynasty (960–1269) to the south, the Khitan people of Inner Mongolia created the Liao dynasty (916–1125) and conquered Outer Mongolia and Manchuria, going on to control the adjacent part of

8978-514: The deaths of over 25 million people. The Qing dynasty built the Willow Palisade – a system of ditches and embankments – during the later 17th century to restrict the movement of Han civilians into Jilin and Heilongjiang. Only bannermen , including Han bannermen, were allowed to settle in Jilin and Heilongjiang . After conquering the Ming, the Qing often identified their state as "China" (中國, Zhongguo ; "Middle Kingdom"), and referred to it as Dulimbai Gurun ("Middle Kingdom") in Manchu. In

9112-424: The deposed Qing emperor Puyi as puppet emperor of Manchukuo . Under Japanese control, Manchuria was brutally run, with a systematic campaign of terror and intimidation against the local populations including arrests, organised riots and other forms of subjugation. Manchukuo was used by Japan as a base to invade the rest of China. At that time, hundreds of thousands of Japanese settlers arrived in Manchuria . At

9246-505: The early rainy season when it reached Goguryeo. The unseasonably heavy rain made the army's progress almost impossible and hampered the transport of provisions. Constant attacks by Goguryeo forces and illness inflicted heavy casualties. Coming to the conclusion that the army could not achieve the objective on its own, Yang decided to combine with Zhou's naval fleet and proceed. Zhou's navy also came across their own challenges, contending with rough seas, losing many ships despite staying close to

9380-452: The east with Chang'an in the west, with the eastern economic and agricultural centres towards Jiangdu (now Yangzhou, Jiangsu ) and Yuhang (now Hangzhou, Zhejiang ), and with the northern frontiers (near modern Beijing ). While the initial motivations of the canal were improving grain shipments to the capital and military logistics—including the transportation of troops —the new, reliable inland route would ultimately facilitate domestic trade,

9514-402: The economic centres to the east and south of the empire. Emperor Wen initiated the construction of the Grand Canal , with completion of the first (and the shortest) route that directly linked Chang'an to the Yellow River (Huang He) . Later, Emperor Yang enormously enlarged the scale of the Grand Canal construction. Externally, the emerging Turkic Khaganate in the north posed a major threat to

9648-643: The eighteenth century Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares of privately owned land in Manchuria and 203,583 hectares of lands which were part of courier stations, noble estates, and Banner lands; in garrisons and towns in Manchuria Han Chinese made up 80% of the population. The Qing resettled Han Chinese farmers from north China to the area along the Liao River in order to restore the land to cultivation. Han Chinese squatters reclaimed wasteland, and other Han rented land from Manchu landlords. By

9782-402: The elephants causing them to turn around and trample their own soldiers. Although Sui troops were victorious many succumbed to disease as northern soldiers did not have immunity to tropical diseases such as malaria . The Sui dynasty led a series of massive expeditions to invade Goguryeo , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . Emperor Yang conscripted many soldiers for the campaign. This army

9916-556: The emperor along with many of the dynasty's military officers. Yangdi moved the capital to the south in Yangzhou , but the revolts were too widespread. Yuwen Shu 's son, Yuwen Huaji , became a powerful Sui general who led a successful coup against Yangdi and personally murdered him. That would complete the transition from Sui to Tang , as the Duke of Tang proclaimed himself emperor of a new dynasty . Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( [swěɪ] , pinyin : Suí cháo )

10050-559: The fight against Chen, Emperor Wen also employed the service of people from southeastern Sichuan , which Sui had recently conquered. In 588, the Sui had amassed 518,000 troops along the northern bank of the Yangtze River, stretching from Sichuan to the East China Sea . The Chen dynasty could not withstand such an assault. By 589, Sui troops entered Jiankang (now Nanjing ) and the last emperor of Chen surrendered. The city

10184-422: The first three decades of the 20th century, implying that these regions were extensions of each other. Tamanoi notes that the name "Manchuria" cannot be found on Chinese maps and acknowledged that she "should use the term in quotation marks" even though she did not. Historian Bill Sewell denies that Manchuria is "a genuine geographic term", claiming the Japanese never viewed Manchuria as a discrete entity and it

10318-570: The flow of people, and cultural exchange for centuries. These mega-projects were led by an efficient centralised bureaucracy, but forcibly conscripted millions of workers at a heavy human cost. After a series of disastrous military campaigns against Goguryeo on the Korean peninsula , ended in defeat by 614, the dynasty disintegrated under a series of popular revolts culminating in the assassination of Emperor Yang by his minister, Yuwen Huaji in 618. The dynasty, which lasted only thirty-seven years,

10452-482: The following year (613), but was again obliged to retreat without success. While Emperor Yang was away, Yang Xuangan , the son of Emperor Yang's prime minister Yang Su , fomented rebellion against Emperor Yang. Fearing attack from two fronts, Emperor Yang was forced to retreat and use his army to put down Yang Xuangan's rebellion. After crushing the revolt, Emperor Yang invaded Goguryeo again in 614. He managed to breach Goguryeo's first line of defence without capturing

10586-526: The foundation for the subsequent Tang dynasty , who after toppling the Sui would ultimately preside over a new golden age in Chinese history . The dynasty was founded by Yang Jian (Emperor Wen), who had been a member of the military aristocracy that had developed in the northwest during the prolonged period of division. The Sui capital was initially based in Daxing ( Chang'an , modern Xi'an ), but later moved to Luoyang in 605, which had been re-founded as

10720-414: The four military expeditions ended in failure, incurring a substantial financial and manpower deficit from which the Sui would never recover. One of the major work projects undertaken by the Sui was construction activities along the Great Wall of China ; but this, along with other large projects, strained the economy and angered the resentful workforce employed. During the last few years of the Sui dynasty,

10854-535: The frontier fortress, but he could not advance far beyond Liao River because of Goguryeo's constant attacks and obstruction to his supply lines. Yeongyang, seeing a chance to end the exhausting wars, offered peace and returned Yang Xuangan's associate Husi Zheng (斛斯政), who had fled to Goguryeo after Yang Xuangan's rebellion, to Sui. Perceiving the little success in Goguryeo and the increasing internal discontent in China, Emperor Yang accepted Yeongyang's offer of peace and withdrew Sui troops from Goguryeo's territory. However,

10988-562: The full function of provinces until 1907. The Japanese also used the name "Three Eastern Provinces" ( Tōsanshō ) during the 1920s and 1930s along with Manshū . However, after the Manchurian Incident of 1931, Tōsanshō was completely replaced by Manshū in Japanese usage while the Three Provinces and Northeast became the orthodox name for the same region in Chinese usage. Manchuria has been referred to as Guandong ( 關東 ; 关东 ; Guāndōng ), which literally means "east of

11122-484: The huge Pacific Ocean causes complete monsoonal wind reversal. In summer, when the land heats faster than the ocean, low-pressure forms over Asia and warm, moist south to southeasterly winds bring heavy, thundery rain, yielding annual rainfall ranging from 400 mm (16 in), or less in the west, to over 1,150 mm (45 in) in the Changbai Mountains . Temperatures in summer are very warm to hot, with July average maxima ranging from 31 °C (88 °F) in

11256-665: The indigenous peoples along the Amur River as a threat. In 1858 Russian diplomacy forced a weakening Qing dynasty to cede Manchuria north of the Amur to Russia under the Treaty of Aigun . In 1860, with the Treaty of Peking , the Russians managed to obtain a further large slice of Manchuria, east of the Ussuri River . As a result, Manchuria became divided into a Russian half (known as Outer Manchuria or Russian Manchuria), and

11390-420: The king of Goguryeo never showed up to swear allegiance, which infuriated Emperor Yang, who was dissuaded only with difficulty from launching another invasion against Goguryeo. The losses that Sui suffered, in terms of lives and resources and consequently in the trust the people had in the Sui state, contributed to the fall of the Sui dynasty. Peasants, farmers, soldiers, aristocrats, and landlords rose up against

11524-484: The late 18th century, Manchus in Beijing were sent to Manchuria as part of a plan to reduce the burden on the court, but they tried to return by every means possible. With the exception of 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers and their families and a military colony established in the 1850s, Manchuria was devoid of Manchus. By 1900, 15 million of Manchuria's 17 million inhabitants were Han Chinese. The Russian conquest of Siberia

11658-407: The late 1920s, he found "no single Chinese name for Manchuria as a unit". Historical geographer Philippe Forêt concurred, noting that there is no word for Manchuria in either Chinese or Manchu languages. Another perspective delineated by scholars such as Mark C. Elliott and Li Narangoa argues that Manchu consciousness of their homeland as a unique place contributed to the creation of Manchuria as

11792-510: The legitimacy of these treaties in the 1960s, but has more recently signed agreements such as the 2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship , which affirm the current status quo; a minor exchange nonetheless occurred in 2004 at the confluence of the Amur and Ussuri rivers). Various senses of Greater Manchuria sometimes further include Sakhalin Island , which despite its lack of mention in treaties

11926-459: The major public works initiated, such as the Great Wall and the Great Canal, but also the political system developed by Sui, which was adopted by Tang with little initial change other than at the top of the political hierarchy. Other cultural developments of the Sui dynasty included religion and literature, particular examples being Buddhism and poetry. Rituals and sacrifices were conducted by

12060-624: The majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800. To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing sold formerly Manchu-only lands along the Sungari to Han Chinese at the beginning of the Daoguang Emperor 's 1820–1850 reign, and Han Chinese filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s, according to Abbé Huc . The demographic change was not caused solely by Han migration. Manchus also refused to stay in Manchuria. In

12194-463: The massive conscription of labour and allocation of resources for the Grand Canal project resulted in challenges for Sui dynastic continuity. The eventual fall of the Sui dynasty was also due to the many losses caused by the failed military campaigns against Goguryeo. It was after these defeats and losses that the country was left in ruins and rebels soon took control of the government. Emperor Yang

12328-697: The massive military campaign. After the construction of the canal, Emperor Yang ordered the enlisting of soldiers in 611. He instructed them to gather in present-day Beijing . The force gathered by year's end was one of the greatest in civilization according to the Book of Sui , which states that 1,133,800 troops were mobilized and that the support troops multiple times that number. The army began to depart in early 612, and its size made it take 40 days for all of it to depart. The long line of soldiers stretched for about 300 km. The strength and losses may have been inflated by Tang dynasty historians. Yeongyang gave up

12462-485: The message, Yeongyang launched a joint pre-emptive invasion with the Malgal against the Chinese along the border in present-day Hebei province in 597. Emperor Wen ordered his fifth and youngest son, Yang Liang (assisted by the co-prime minister Gao Jiong ), and Admiral Zhou Luohou (周羅睺), to invade and conquer Goguryeo with an army and navy totaling 300,000, mostly composed of horse archers. Yang Liang's army faced

12596-426: The more mountainous parts where they have poorly developed orthents , as well as in the extreme north where permafrost occurs and orthels dominate. The climate of Manchuria has extreme seasonal contrasts, ranging from humid, almost tropical heat in summer to windy, dry, Arctic cold in winter. This pattern occurs because the position of Manchuria on the boundary between the great Eurasian continental landmass and

12730-421: The movement of troops, but to report to him to receive instruction. The order hampered Sui strategy throughout the campaign. During the strategically important campaign against Yodong fortress , the general commanding the siege had to send a messenger to the emperor for the approval of the surrender. When the messenger returned, Goguryeo's troops had again become ready to defend the fortress. Exploiting that flaw in

12864-410: The name remained in common use among the Chinese Communist Party into the 1930s. Names for the region were relatively fluid before the Mukden Incident of 1931, after which alternative names in Japanese were discarded for Manshū , and Dongbei (Northeast) and Dongsansheng (Three Eastern Provinces) became the orthodox names for the Chinese. According to Mark Gamsa, Manzhou was not widely used among

12998-419: The narrow sense, the area constituted by three Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang , Jilin , and Liaoning but broadly also including the eastern Inner Mongolian prefectures of Hulunbuir , Hinggan , Tongliao , and Chifeng , collectively known as Northeast China; in a broader sense, the area of historical Manchuria includes the aforementioned regions plus the Amur river basin, parts of which were ceded to

13132-481: The naval forces of the Chen dynasty on the Yangtze River . The largest of these ships were very tall, having five layered decks and the capacity for 800 non-crew personnel. They were outfitted with six 50-foot-long booms that were used to swing and damage enemy ships, or to pin them down so that Sui marine troops could use act-and-board techniques. Besides employing Xianbei and other Chinese ethnic groups for

13266-456: The newly founded dynasty. With Emperor Wen's diplomatic manoeuvre, the Khaganate split into Eastern and Western halves. Later the Great Wall was consolidated to further secure the northern territory. In Emperor Wen's late years, the first war with Goguryeo , ended with defeat. Nevertheless, the celebrated "Reign of Kaihuang" (era name of Emperor Wen) was considered by historians as one of

13400-586: The newly unified state, and collapsed after a brief period, leaving behind long-lasting legacies. During the late Northern and Southern dynasties period, the Xianbei -ruled Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi in 577, reunifying northern China. By this time, Yang Jian, a Northern Zhou general who would later found the Sui dynasty, became the regent to the Northern Zhou court. Yang Jian's clan,

13534-511: The pass", and similarly Guanwai ( 關外 ; 关外 ; Guānwài ; 'outside the pass'), a reference to Shanhai Pass in Qinhuangdao in today's Hebei , at the eastern end of the Great Wall of China . This usage is seen in the expression Chuǎng Guāndōng (literally "Rushing into Guandong") referring to the mass migration of Han Chinese to Manchuria in the 19th and 20th centuries. The name Guandong later came to be used more narrowly for

13668-598: The puppet state of Manchukuo was founded covering not only the northeastern three provinces but also parts of eastern Inner Mongolia. In 1933, the Bureau of Information and the Publicity Department of Foreign Affairs of the Manchukuo Government published a Handbook of Information of Manchukuo stating that Manchuria did not belong to China, had its own history and traditions, and was the home of

13802-453: The rebellion that rose against it took many of China's able-bodied men from rural farms and other occupations, which in turn damaged the agricultural base and the economy further. Men would deliberately break their limbs in order to avoid military conscription , calling the practice "propitious paws" and "fortunate feet." Later, after the fall of Sui, in the year 642, Emperor Taizong of Tang made an effort to eradicate this practice by issuing

13936-405: The region by rejecting the name "Manchuria". Japanese colonists who returned to Japan from Manchukuo in the post-war period used terms such as Manshu (Manchuria), Man-mō (Manchuria-Mongolia), and Mō-man (Mongolia-Manchuria) almost interchangeably. Hyphenated terms such as Man-sēn (Manchuria and Korea) and Man-mō (Manchuria-Mongolia) emerged in Japanese media and traveler writings during

14070-605: The risk of attacking the United States and the British Empire in 1941. There was a major epidemic known as the Manchurian plague in 1910–1911, likely caused by the inexperienced hunting of marmots , many of whom are diseased. The cheap railway transport and the harsh winters, where the hunters sheltered in close confinement, helped to propagate the disease. The response required close coordination between

14204-435: The river. The bridges however, were too short to reach the opposite bank in another fortunate turn of events for the defenders, and Goguryeo's attack successfully held off the first assault. After the extension of the bridges however, the Sui forces succeeded in crossing the river, and the army surrounded the fortresses of Goguryeo. Emperor Yang ordered his generals before the campaigns not to make individual decisions regarding

14338-430: The ruler was named "Taisson", which he claimed meant "Son of God", perhaps Chinese Tianzi ( Son of Heaven ) or even the name of the contemporary ruler Emperor Taizong of Tang . Emperor Yang of Sui (569–618) ascended the throne after his father's death, possibly by murder. He further extended the empire, but unlike his father, did not seek to gain support from the nomads. Instead, he restored Confucian education and

14472-438: The south to 24 °C (75 °F) in the extreme north. In winter, however, the vast Siberian High causes very cold, north-to-northwesterly winds that bring temperatures as low as −5 °C (23 °F) in the extreme south and −30 °C (−22 °F) in the north where the zone of discontinuous permafrost reaches northern Heilongjiang . However, because the winds from Siberia are exceedingly dry, snow falls only on

14606-531: The sustained creation of good causation will carry us one and all up to wondrous enlightenment". Ultimately, this act was an imitation of the ancient Mauryan Emperor Ashoka of India . Confucian philosopher Wang Tong wrote and taught during the Sui dynasty, and even briefly held office as Secretary of Shuzhou. His most famous (as well as only surviving) work, the Explanation of the Mean (Zhongshuo, 中說)

14740-430: The term Manchuria is imperialistic in nature and has no "precise meaning" since the Japanese deliberately promoted the use of "Manchuria" as a geographic name to promote its separation from China at the time they were setting up their puppet state of Manchukuo. In the 1920s, Japanese media still presented Manchuria as part of China, albeit as a distinct region, and sometimes called it the "Garden of China". However, in 1932,

14874-562: The term Northeast Region (东北; Dōngběi) to describe the region. Northeast China is predominantly occupied by Han Chinese due to internal Chinese migrations and Sinicization of the Manchus , especially during the Qing dynasty . It is considered the original homeland of several historical groups besides the Manchus, including the Yemaek the Xianbei , the Shiwei , and the Khitans . The area

15008-506: The wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917 , but Outer Manchuria had reverted to Soviet control by 1925. Manchuria was an important region due to its rich natural resources including coal, fertile soil, and various minerals. For pre–World War II Japan , Manchuria was an essential source of raw materials. Without occupying Manchuria, the Japanese probably could not have carried out their plan for conquest over Southeast Asia or taken

15142-650: Was administered as Liaoyang province . In 1375 Naghachu , a Mongol official of the Mongolia-based Northern Yuan dynasty of 1368–1635 in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong, but later surrendered to the Ming dynasty in 1387. In order to protect the northern border areas, the Ming dynasty decided to "pacify" the Jurchens in order to deal with its problems with Yuan remnants along its northern border. The Ming solidified control over Manchuria under

15276-601: Was glaciated during the Quaternary , but the surface geology of most of the lower-lying and more fertile parts of Manchuria consists of very deep layers of loess , which have been formed by the wind-borne movement of dust and till particles formed in glaciated parts of the Himalayas , Kunlun Shan and Tien Shan , as well as the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts. Soils are mostly fertile mollisols and fluvents except in

15410-484: Was Europeans who first started using the name Manchuria to refer to the location. Others such as Forêt described Manchuria as a solely geographical term without indicating a political connection and used it in that capacity despite acknowledging its imperialistic overtones. The historian Gavan McCormack agreed with Robert H. G. Lee's statement that "The term Manchuria or Man-chou is a modern creation used mainly by westerners and Japanese", with McCormack writing that

15544-489: Was a danger of ambush by Goguryeo forces. Emperor Yang solved the problem by instructing each soldier to carry food for himself, which greatly increased each soldier's burden. Many resorted to discarding the food. By the time it had reached the Yalu River , the army's shortage of provisions was acute. Yeongyang decided to assess the strength of the Sui army by ordering his Commander Field Marshal Eulji Mundeok to fake

15678-573: Was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged period of political division since the War of the Eight Princes . The Sui endeavoured to rebuild the country, re-establishing and reforming many imperial institutions; in so doing, the Sui laid much of

15812-654: Was an independent continent before the Triassic period and is known to have been the northernmost piece of land in the world during the Carboniferous . The Khingan Mountains in the west are a Jurassic mountain range formed by the collision of the North China Craton with the Siberian Craton , which marked the final stage of the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea . No part of Manchuria

15946-465: Was assassinated in 618. He had gone South after the capital being threatened by various rebel groups and was killed by his Yuwen clan advisors. Meanwhile, in the North, the aristocrat Li Yuan ( 李淵 ) held an uprising after which he ended up ascending the throne to become Emperor Gaozu of Tang . There were Dukedoms for the offspring of the royal families of the Zhou dynasty, Sui dynasty, and Tang dynasty in

16080-439: Was caught in a dilemma and could not decide on advance or retreat. Eulji Mundeok sent him for the occasion a poem: Your divine plans have plumbed the heavens; Your subtle reckoning has spanned the earth. You win every battle, your military merit is great. Why then not be content and stop the war? When no response came, Eulji sent a representative. The plan now was to offer Emperor Yeongyang to Emperor Yang escort to submission if

16214-472: Was compiled shortly after his death in 617. Although poetry continued to be written, and certain poets rose in prominence while others disappeared from the landscape, the brief Sui dynasty, in terms of the development of Chinese poetry, lacks distinction, though it nonetheless represents a continuity between the Six Dynasties and the poetry of Tang. Sui dynasty poets include Yang Guang (580–618), who

16348-662: Was during the late Six dynasties and Sui dynasty that local Chinese schools of Buddhist thoughts started to flourish. Most notably, Zhiyi founded the Tiantai school, and completed the Great treatise on Concentration and Insight , within which he taught the principle of "Three Thousand Realms in a Single moment of Life" as the essence of Buddhist teaching outlined in the Lotus Sutra . Emperor Wen and his empress had converted to Buddhism to legitimise imperial authority over China and

16482-555: Was eventually assassinated by his own ministers. Both Emperors Yang and Wen sent military expeditions into Vietnam as Annam in northern Vietnam had been incorporated into the Chinese empire over 600 years earlier during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). However the Kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam became a major counterpart to Chinese invasions to its north . According to Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais, these invasions became known as

16616-439: Was met with indigenous resistance to colonization, but Russian Cossacks crushed the natives. The conquest of Siberia and Manchuria also resulted in the spread of infectious diseases . Historian John F. Richards wrote: "... New diseases weakened and demoralized the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The worst of these was smallpox "because of its swift spread, the high death rates, and the permanent disfigurement of survivors." ... In

16750-518: Was not the name of a region. In fact, neither Manchus nor Han Chinese have ever called China's Northeast 'Manzhou'." Even advocates of an independent Manchuria such as Inaba Iwakichi acknowledged this. In 1912, British diplomat and sinologist Herbert Giles stated in China and the Manchus that "'Manchuria' is unknown to the Chinese or to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression". According to Owen Latimore, during his travels in China during

16884-423: Was razed to the ground, while Sui troops escorted Chen nobles back north, where the northern aristocrats became fascinated with everything the south had to provide culturally and intellectually. Although Emperor Wen was famous for bankrupting the state treasury with warfare and construction projects, he made many improvements to infrastructure during his early reign. He established granaries as sources of food and as

17018-495: Was shared among ordinary Manchus, and there is evidence that part of that effort was to combat widespread acculturation among Manchus, resulting in the loss of their language. As part of this effort, Jesuits were commissioned to create maps that enhanced Manchu conceptualization of their homeland, which Elliot believes to have been the original impetus to label the region as Manchuria in European and Japanese maps. In 1877, Manzhou

17152-604: Was shown as Qing territory on period Chinese, Japanese, Russian, and French maps of the area. The drainage basin of the Amur River apart to the east towards Mongolia roughly corresponds to the geographical area of the historic land of the Manchu people. The northern boundary was marked by mountains. The geographical term "Manchuria" was first used in the 18th or 19th century by the Japanese . "Manchuria" – variations of which arrived in European languages through Dutch –

17286-456: Was so enormous it recorded in historical texts that it took 30 days for all the armies to exit their last rallying point near Shanhaiguan before invading Goguryeo. In one instance the soldiers—both conscripted and paid—listed over 3000 warships, up to 1.15 million infantry, 50,000 cavalry, 5000 artillery, and more. The army stretched to 1000 li , or about 410 km (250 mi), across rivers and valleys, over mountains and hills. Each of

17420-703: Was the first to use the term Manshū as a toponym in 1809 in the Nippon Henkai Ryakuzu , and it was from that work that Westerners adopted the name. By the 1830s, various Indo-European forms of Manshū could be found. However, according to Li Narangoa, the term was introduced to Japan in the 18th century through European maps following Jesuit conventions. Manshū then increasingly appeared on maps by Japanese cartographers such as Kondi Jūzō, Takahashi Kageyasu, Baba Sadayoshi, and Yamada Ren. Their maps were brought to Europe by Philipp Franz von Siebold . According to Japanese scholar Nakami Tatsuo, Siebold

17554-488: Was the last Sui emperor (and a sort of poetry critic ); and also, the Lady Hou, one of his consorts. Manchuria Manchuria is a term that refers to a region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China , and historically parts of the modern-day Russian Far East , often referred to as Outer Manchuria . Its definition may refer to varying geographical extents as follows: in

17688-476: Was the one who brought the usage of the term Manchuria to Europeans after borrowing it from the Japanese, who were the first to use it in a geographic manner in the 18th century. The history of the use of "Manchuria" as a toponym in China is uncertain. According to one stream of thought, it was not used by the Manchus or the Chinese. The name Manchu was given to the Jurchen people by Hong Taiji in 1635 as

17822-475: Was undermined by ambitious wars and construction projects, which overstretched its resources. Particularly, under Emperor Yang , heavy taxation and compulsory labour duties would eventually induce widespread revolts and brief civil war following the fall of the dynasty. The dynasty is often compared to the earlier Qin dynasty . Both dynasties unified China after a prolonged period of division, undertook wide-ranging reforms and construction projects to consolidate

17956-432: Was used as a toponym in an essay by Gong Chai, a scholar from Ningbo . The description of Manzhou located it to the northeast of Beijing and identified it as the birthplace of the dynasty. Manzhou was used as a place name again 20 years later by Qing officials. Manzhou began to appear on Chinese maps in the first decade of the 1900s. Maps that used Manzhou were in the minority during the early Republican period but

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