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116-612: After a relatively brief Vandal occupation (456–534), Sardinia was a province of the Byzantine Empire from 535 until the eighth century. After 705, with the rapid Arab expansion , Saracen pirates from North Africa began to raid the island and encountered no effective opposition by the Byzantine army . In 815, Sardinian ambassadors requested military assistance from the Carolingian Emperor Louis

232-805: A prime minister , as is in the case of the United Kingdom , or the Nordic countries . In the Ottoman Empire , the Sultan wielded absolute power over the state and was considered a Padishah meaning "Great King" by his people. Many sultans wielded absolute power through heavenly mandates reflected in their titles, such as "Shadow of God on Earth". In ancient Mesopotamia , many rulers of Assyria , Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well. Throughout Imperial China , many emperors and one empress ( Wu Zetian ) wielded absolute power through

348-577: A Roman army in 422 and had failed to seal a treaty with them. Advancing eastward along the African coast, the Vandals laid siege to the walled city of Hippo Regius in 430. Inside, Saint Augustine and his priests prayed for relief from the Arian Christian invaders, knowing that the fall of the city would spell conversion or death for many Nicene Christians. On 28 August 430, three months into

464-495: A century of largely unrestricted parliamentary rule proved just as ruinous, King Gustav III seized back royal power in the coup d'état of 1772 , and later once again abolished the privy council under the Union and Security Act in 1789, which, in turn, was rendered void in 1809 when Gustav IV Adolf was deposed in a coup and the constitution of 1809 was put in its place. The years between 1789 and 1809, then, are also referred to as

580-794: A large part of the Vandal army and navy to Sardinia to deal with a rebellion by the Gothic nobleman Godas . This enabled the armies of the Byzantine Empire, commanded by Belisarius , to land unopposed 10 miles (16 km) from Carthage in the Summer of 533 . Gelimer quickly assembled an army and met Belisarius at the Battle of Ad Decimum . The Vandals were prevailing until Gelimer's brother Ammatas and nephew Gibamund fell in battle. Gelimer then lost heart and fled. Belisarius quickly took Carthage as

696-410: A period of absolute monarchy. Many nations formerly with absolute monarchies, such as Jordan , Kuwait , Morocco and Qatar , have de jure moved towards a constitutional monarchy . However, in these cases, the monarch still retains tremendous powers, even to the extent that by some measures, parliament's influence on political life is viewed as negligible or merely consultative. In Bhutan ,

812-570: A representative assembly or a constitution until the 1905 Revolution . However, the concept of absolutism was so ingrained in Russia that the Russian Constitution of 1906 still described the monarch as an autocrat. Russia became the last European country (excluding Vatican City ) to abolish absolutism, and it was the only one to do so as late as the 20th century (the Ottoman Empire drafted its first constitution in 1876). Russia

928-556: A representative of each curadoria , members of the high clergy, the castle lords, two representatives of the capital elected by delegates from jurados Coronas de curatoria , came together. Then the judex was crowned with a mixed-elected hereditary system following the direct male line and, only in the alternative, the female line. The judge ruled on the basis of a covenant with the people (the bannus-consensus ). The sovereign could be dethroned and even, in cases of serious acts of tyranny and oppression, executed legitimately by

1044-570: A result of evangelisation by Basilian monks . The Sardinian Church was an autocephalous institution for five centuries, independent from both the Byzantine and the Roman Curia . In the eleventh century, after the schism of 1054, the judikes , according to Pope Alexander II , began a policy for the development of Western monasticism on the island, with the aim of a wider dissemination of culture but also of new techniques for cultivating

1160-485: A result of this, Romanesque architecture flourished in the island. Byzantine Greek was used as an administrative language during the Byzantine period, but fell into disuse. Latin , which had long been the language of the native population, developed into the Sardinian language and became the official language. It was also used in legal and administrative documents such as the condaghe , municipal statutes, and

1276-541: A simultaneous assault, commanded by Marcellinus, would retake Sicily. The Emperor assembled his fleet in 460, but Gaiseric learned of the impending assault and "put a scorched earth policy into effect in Mauretania – scouring the land and poisoning the wells in advance of the planned imperial offensive." In addition, Gaiseric led his own fleet against Majorian's force and defeated the Romans at Cartagena. In 468, both

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1392-401: A sword with a bone handle and curved blade, between 50 and 70 cm long which was still in use, in a more contained dimension, until the end of nineteenth century. In Sardinia a type of longbow was made, and over time the use of the crossbow spread. In case of conflict judges often used mercenary troops, such as the dreaded Genoese crossbowmen . Christianity spread throughout most of

1508-440: A treaty between Valentinian III and Gaiseric, giving the Vandals control of coastal Numidia and parts of Mauretania . Gaiseric chose to break the treaty in 439 when he invaded the province of Africa Proconsularis and laid siege to Carthage . The city was captured without a fight; the Vandals entered it while most of the inhabitants were attending the races at the hippodrome . Gaiseric made it his capital and styled himself

1624-400: A veneer of normality. From 477 onward, the Vandals produced their own coinage, although it was restricted to bronze and silver low-denomination coins. Although the low-denomination imperial money was replaced, the high-denomination was not, demonstrating in the words of Merrills "reluctance to usurp the imperial prerogative". Gaiseric died on 25 January 477, 88 years of age. According to

1740-533: Is "little doubt" that the initial invasion was "brutally violent." He has also argued along with Richard Miles that the Vandals initially targeted the Nicene Church for financial rather than religious reasons, seeking to rob it of its wealth. Once Gaiseric secured his hold over Numidia and Mauretania in the treaty of 435, he worked "to destroy the power of the Nicene church in his new territories by seizing

1856-460: Is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign is the sole source of political power, unconstrained by constitutions , legislatures or other checks on their authority. The absolutist system of government saw its high point in Europe during the 16th and 17th century , associated with a form of rule unconstrained by the former checks of feudalism , embodied by figures such as Louis XIV of France,

1972-579: Is believed that at some point the Iudex Provinciae or Archon of Sardinia, residing in Caralis , had complete control of the island. He appointed, in the most strategic area for the defense of the coast, the lociservator ( lieutenant ), belonging to his family, the Lacon-Gunale , who became substantially autonomous from Caralis over time; this was probably the action that precipitated

2088-534: Is granted on jus officii , namely on the grounds of appointment to work in a certain capacity in the service of the Holy See. It usually ceases upon cessation of the appointment. Citizenship is also extended to the spouse and children of a citizen, provided they are living together in the city. Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, and according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by Royal Decree in 1992,

2204-511: Is said to have proclaimed L'état, c'est moi ! , 'I am the State!'. Although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles , he reigned over France for a long period, some historians consider him an absolute monarch, while some other historians have questioned whether Louis' reign should be considered 'absolute', given the reality of the balance of power between

2320-525: Is the absolute monarch of Vatican City, and is elected by a papal conclave with a two-thirds supermajority. As governed by the Holy See, Vatican City State is an sacerdotal - monarchical state ruled by the Pope, who is the bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church . Unlike citizenship of other states, which is based either on jus sanguinis or jus soli , citizenship of Vatican City

2436-468: Is the world's most authoritarian regime in 2023 measured by the electoral democracy score of the V-Dem Democracy indices . There is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson , argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, while historians such as Roger Mettam dispute

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2552-578: Is unknown. In the 5th century, there was a decline in trade across the Mediterranean as well. When arriving in Africa, the Vandals confiscated land held by senators and gave the land to themselves. Those who had their land confiscated ended up keeping their rights. Those who lived in the territory prior and were wealthy kept their wealth and power. Absolute monarchy Philosophers Works List of forms of government Absolute monarchy

2668-635: The Age of Enlightenment , the concept of the divine right to power and democratic ideals were given serious merit. The Revolutions of 1848 , known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations , were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history . By the 19th century, divine right

2784-537: The Arian faction within the royal family led a revolt, and Hoamer's cousin Gelimer (530–534) became king. Hilderic, Hoamer, and their relatives were thrown into prison. In 533, Hilderic was executed when the Byzantine army approached Carthage. Byzantine Emperor Justinian I declared war, with the stated intention of restoring Hilderic to the Vandal throne. While an expedition was en route, Gelimer's brother Tzazo led

2900-878: The Benedictine monks of Monte Cassino a large area of its territory with churches (including the Byzantine church of Nostra Segnora de Mesumundu ), not far from the then capital of Ardara . For several centuries afterwards representatives of many religious orders including the monks of the Abbey of Montecassino , the Camaldolese , the Vallombrosians , the Vittorini of Marseille , the Cistercians of Bernard of Clairvaux arrived and settled in Sardinia. As

3016-709: The Church of Scotland led to rebellion by the Covenanters and the Bishops' Wars , then fears that Charles I was attempting to establish absolutist government along European lines was a major cause of the English Civil War , although he did rule this way for 11 years starting in 1629, after dissolving the Parliament of England for a time. Absolutism was underpinned by a written constitution for

3132-722: The Mandate of Heaven . In pre-Columbian America , the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca , who was considered the son of Inti , the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Korea under the Joseon dynasty and short-lived empire was also an absolute monarchy. Throughout much of European history, the divine right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs claimed supreme autocratic power by divine right, and that their subjects had no rights to limit their power. Throughout

3248-699: The Visconti family and then to Pisa in 1288. Arborea lasted longer and, between 1323 and 1326, participated in an alliance with the Crown of Aragon at the conquest of the Pisan possessions in Sardinia (the former kingdoms of Gallura and Calari). However, threatened by the Aragonese claims of suzerainty and consolidation of the rest of the island, in 1353 the Kingdom of Arborea, under Marianus IV of Arborea , broke

3364-699: The basilicas of three of the most intransigent bishops and expelling them from their cities." Similar policies continued with the capture of Carthage in 439 as the Vandal king made efforts to simultaneously advance the Arian church and oppress Nicene practices. Heather notes that four major churches within the city walls were confiscated for the Arians, and a ban was imposed on all Nicene services in areas in which Vandals settled; Gaiseric also had Quodvultdeus , Bishop of Carthage, and many of his clergy exiled from Africa and refused "to allow replacements to be ordained… so that

3480-539: The expedition in 523 ended in a disastrous Vandalic defeat. He also allied with the Visigoths , but despite this alliance, Thrasamund failed to aid Theoderic when the Byzantine Navy ravaged the coast of southern Italy, preventing him from coming to the assistance of King Alaric of the Visigoths in the Battle of Vouillé , which contributed to Alaric's defeat. Thrasamund's successor Hilderic (523–530)

3596-600: The king had majority control of the Legislative Assembly until 2010. Liechtenstein has moved towards expanding the power of the monarch — the Prince of Liechtenstein was given vast expanded powers after a referendum to amend the Constitution of Liechtenstein in 2003, which led BBC News to describe the prince as an "absolute monarch again". The referendum granted the monarch the powers to dismiss

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3712-483: The "Sun King" . Attempting to establish an absolutist government along continental lines, Charles I of England viewed Parliament as unnecessary, which would ultimately lead to the English Civil War (1642–1651) and his execution . Absolutism declined substantially, first following the French Revolution , and later after World War I , both of which led to the popularization of modes of government based on

3828-488: The 1st century AD said that North Africa fed Rome for eight months of the year, with the other four months of needed grain coming from Egypt. The Roman need for grain from North Africa may have declined by the 5th century because the population of the city of Rome had fallen, and the number of Roman soldiers had decreased. The treaty in 442 between Rome and the Vandals seems to have ensured that grain shipments continued. However, in terms of halting hostilities between Rome and

3944-606: The Arborean army, led by Brancaleone Doria , again conquered most of the island, subjecting it to Arborean rule. This state of affairs lasted until 1409, when the army of the Kingdom of Arborea suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of the Aragonese army in the Battle of Sanluri . The Kingdom of Arborea ceased to exist in 1420, after the sale of its territories to the Aragonese by the last judge, William II of Narbonne , for 100,000 gold florins . Vandal Kingdom The Vandal Kingdom ( Latin : Regnum Vandalum ) or Kingdom of

4060-599: The Byzantines, ending the Kingdom of the Vandals and paving the way for Byzantine North Africa . The Vandals' territory in North Africa (which is now northern Tunisia and eastern Algeria) became a Byzantine province. The best Vandal warriors were formed into five cavalry regiments, known as Vandali Iustiniani , and stationed on the Persian frontier. Some entered the private service of Belisarius. Gelimer himself

4176-542: The Frexenses Berber tribe under king Guenfan seized a portion of territory south of Thugga and established the kingdom of Dorsale , pushing the Vandals further out of inland. Around the 510s, migrating Laguatan berbers under king Cabaon captured Oea (modern Tripoli ) and Sabratha and established a kingdom there, and began sacking Vandalic territories and destroyed various Vandalic settlements. Thrasamund attempted to crush him and retake his territory, but

4292-638: The Giudicato of Arborea marks, towards the end of the fourteenth century, the birth of a rule of law by Mariano IV first and then by his daughter Eleonora, who extended the scope of the rules to adapt them to a changed reality in social conditions. The Chart is written in Sardinian (of the Logudorese variety ) and from this we can deduce the judicial intent to actually make it known to citizens in order to make them aware of lawful and unlawful behaviors, with

4408-660: The House of Habsburg-Lorraine to rule over the Holy Roman Empire was Joseph II , a sovereign raised during the Enlightenment. Joseph II extended full legal freedom to serfs in 1781. Franz Joseph I of Austria was Emperor of Austria from 1848 until his death in 1916 and was succeeded by Charles I of Austria . Charles I was the last Emperor of Austria and abdicated on 12 November 1918 due to Austria-Hungary losing World War I . Louis XIV of France (1638–1715)

4524-540: The Hun 's death in 453, however, the Romans turned their attention back to the Vandals, who were now in control of some of the richest lands formerly ruled by Rome. In an effort to bring the Vandals into the fold of the Empire, Valentinian III offered the hand of his daughter, Eudocia , in marriage to Gaiseric's son Huneric when both Eudocia and Huneric were children. However, they had not yet wed when in 455, Valentinian III

4640-678: The King must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran . The Quran and the body of the Sunnah (traditions of the Islamic prophet , Muhammad ) are declared to be the Kingdom's Constitution, but no written modern constitution has ever been promulgated for Saudi Arabia, which remains the only Arab nation where no national elections have ever taken place since its founding. No political parties or national elections are permitted. The Saudi government

4756-568: The King of the Vandals and Alans , to denote the inclusion of his Alan allies into his realm. Conquering Sicily , Sardinia , Corsica , Malta , and the Balearic Islands , he built his kingdom into a powerful state. Averil Cameron suggests that the new Vandal rule may not have been unwelcome to the population of North Africa, as the previous landowners were generally unpopular. The impression given by sources such as Victor of Vita , Possidius , Quodvultdeus , and Fulgentius of Ruspe

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4872-509: The Nicenes and ceased persecution once more. Externally, Vandal power had been declining since Gaiseric's death; Gunthamund lost large parts of Sicily to Theodoric's Ostrogoths and had to withstand increasing pressure from the native Berbers , who raided everything inland up to the coast. Gunthamund's successor Thrasamund (496–523) was a religious fanatic and hostile to Nicenes, but he contented himself with bloodless persecutions. In 510

4988-688: The Pious . In 807, 810–812, and 821–822 the Arabs of Spain and North Africa tried to invade the island but the Sardinians resisted several attacks. This defence was so effective that in a letter in 851 Pope Leo IV asked the Iudex Provinciae ('judge of the province') of Sardinia, based in Caralis , for aid in the defense of Rome . With the fall of the Exarchate of Africa , based in Carthage , at

5104-617: The Riksdag in order to carry out the Great Reduction which would have been made impossible by the privy council which comprised the high nobility. After the death of Charles XII in 1718, the system of absolute rule was largely blamed for the ruination of the realm in the Great Northern War , and the reaction tipped the balance of power to the other extreme end of the spectrum, ushering in the Age of Liberty . After half

5220-495: The Roman-ruled islands of Mallorca , Sicily , Sardinia , and Corsica in the western Mediterranean. In the 460s, the Romans launched two unsuccessful military expeditions by sea in an attempt to overthrow the Vandals and reclaim North Africa. The conquest of North Africa by the Vandals was a blow to the beleaguered Western Roman Empire, as North Africa was a major source of revenue and a supplier of grain (mostly wheat ) to

5336-404: The Swedish monarch was never absolute in the sense of wielding arbitrary power . The monarch still ruled under the law and could only legislate in agreement with the Riksdag of the Estates ; rather, the absolutism introduced was the monarch's ability to run the government unfettered by the privy council , contrary to earlier practice. The absolute rule of Charles XI was instituted by the crown and

5452-444: The Terrible was known for his reign of terror through oprichnina . Peter I the Great reduced the power of the Russian nobility and strengthened the central power of the monarch, establishing a bureaucracy. This tradition of absolutism, known as Tsarist autocracy , was expanded by Catherine II the Great and her descendants. Although Alexander II made some reforms and established an independent judicial system, Russia did not have

5568-416: The Vandal Kingdom bears a close resemblance to the Roman provincial administration of Africa. While it was staffed by local Africans, the currency and taxation system were a creative adaptation of Roman models and were similar to those administered by the Romans. Vandal troops were also fashioned similarly to the Roman model. Power and wealth in the Vandal state were led by a military landowning aristocracy, and

5684-403: The Vandal Kingdom prior to the Vandal arrival mostly considered themselves Roman. The Vandals were a minority of the population. The state of the economy overall is hard to assess. The Vandals did not create any gold coins, but taxes were increased to primarily pay for expanding the army. Trade did continue with pottery being exported but at lower levels. Whether grain shipments to Rome continued

5800-401: The Vandal Persecution details the "wicked ferocity" inflicted against church property and attacks against "many… distinguished bishops and noble priests" in the first years of the conquest; similarly, Bishop Honoratus writes that "before our eyes men are murdered, women raped and we ourselves collapse under torture." Citing these and other corroborating sources, Merrills has argued that there

5916-436: The Vandals and Alans ( Latin : Regnum Vandalorum et Alanorum ) was a confederation of Vandals and Alans , which was a barbarian kingdom established under Gaiseric , a Vandalic warlord. It ruled parts of North Africa and the Mediterranean for 99 years from 435 to 534 AD. In 429 AD, the Vandals, estimated to number 80,000 people, had crossed by boat from Hispania to North Africa. They advanced eastward, conquering

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6032-476: The Vandals association with senseless destruction through the noun vandalism . The Vandal sack of Rome, piracy in the Mediterranean, and the Roman need to recover control of the grain trade made the destruction of the Vandal Kingdom a priority for the Roman Empire. The Western Roman Emperor Majorian began to organize an offensive in the summer of 458. A maritime force staged from Cartagena in Hispania would take Mauretania and then march on Carthage , while

6148-420: The Vandals following Gaiseric's death and Huneric's strict religious laws. The Vandals started rapidly losing territory in modern-day western Algeria to the Kingdom of Altava , and by the end of Huneric's rule he completely lost control over the Aurès Mountains to king Masties , who established the kingdom of the Aurès in 483–484. Gunthamund (484–496), his cousin and successor, sought internal peace with

6264-449: The Vandals in 441, but it progressed only as far as Sicily. The Western Empire, under Valentinian III , secured peace with the Vandals in 442. Under the treaty, the Vandals gained Byzacena , Tripolitania , and part of Numidia and confirmed their control of Proconsular Africa . French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present Historians since Edward Gibbon have seen

6380-410: The Vandals took 500 hostages at Zakynthos , hacked them to pieces, and threw the pieces overboard on the way back to Carthage. In the 470s, the Romans abandoned their policy of war against the Vandals. The Western Germanic general Ricimer reached a treaty with the Vandals, and in 476 Gaiseric was able to conclude a "perpetual peace" with Constantinople. Relations between the two states assumed

6496-423: The Vandals, that treaty was honored more in the breach than in the observance, and the Romans placed a high priority on recovering North Africa and regaining their control of grain from the Vandal Kingdom. The peace treaty of 442 did not halt Vandal raids in the western Mediterranean. Over the next 35 years, Gaiseric used his large naval fleet to loot the coasts of both the Eastern and Western Empires. After Attila

6612-477: The Western and Eastern Empires attempted to conquer Africa again with the "most ambitious campaign ever launched against the Vandal state." Primary sources suggest that the fleet numbered 1,113 ships and carried 100,000 men, but this figure has been rejected by modern historiography, with Heather suggesting 30,000 troops and 50,000 soldiers and sailors combined, based on 16,000 Roman soldiers conveyed on 500 ships in 532. Andy Merrills and Richard Miles have asserted that

6728-452: The accompanying persecution of the Nicene church, had political motivations. He notes a "key distinction" between "the anti-Nicene character" of Gaiseric's actions in Proconsularis and the rest of his kingdom; persecution was most intense when it was in proximity to his Arian followers. Heather suggests that Arianism was a means for Gaiseric to keep his followers united and under control; wherever his people interacted with Nicenes, this strategy

6844-432: The alliance with the Aragonese and together with the Doria declared war against the Iberians. In 1368 an Arborean offensive succeeded in nearly driving the Aragonese from the island, reducing the Kingdom of Sardinia to just the port cities of Cagliari and Alghero and incorporating everything else into their own kingdom. A peace treaty returned the Aragonese their previous possessions in 1388, but tensions continued. In 1391

6960-530: The birth of the kingdoms, or judgedoms . The first incontrovertible source that cites the existence of four kingdoms is the epistle sent by Pope Gregory VII from Capua on October 14, 1073 to the Sardinian judges Orzocco of Cagliari , Orzocco d'Arborea , Marianus of Torres and Constantine of Gallura ; however their autonomy was already clear in a later letter of Pope John VIII (872) in which he referred to them as principes Sardiniae ("princes of Sardinia"). The known medieval giudicati were: Each of

7076-401: The broken betrothal between Huneric and Eudocia invalidated his peace treaty with Valentinian, Gaiseric sacked Rome, rescuing Eudoxia, Eudocia, and Eudoxia's younger daughter Placidia (the latter was married to the future unrecognised emperor Olybrius ). Maximus and Palladius were killed by an angry mob while fleeing the city. Timeline The chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine offers

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7192-413: The capture of North Africa by the Vandals and Alans as the "deathblow" and "the greatest single blow" to the Western Roman Empire in its struggle to survive. Prior to the Vandals, northern Africa was prosperous and peaceful, requiring only a small percentage of the Roman Empire's military forces, and was an important source of taxes for the empire and grain for the city of Rome . The scholar Josephus in

7308-480: The city of Rome . Although primarily remembered for the sack of Rome in 455 and their persecution of Nicene Christians in favor of Arian Christianity , the Vandals also supported the continued construction of educational institutions in their kingdom. According to historian Richard Miles , North Africa hosted "many of the most innovative writers and natural scientists " of the late Latin -speaking Western Roman Empire . The Vandal Kingdom ended in 534, when it

7424-443: The coastal regions of what is now Tunisia , and Algeria . In 435, the Western Roman Empire , then ruling North Africa, allowed the Vandals to settle in the provinces of Numidia and Mauretania when it became clear that the Vandal army could not be defeated by Roman military forces. In 439, the Vandals renewed their advance eastward and captured Carthage , the most important city of North Africa. The fledgling kingdom then conquered

7540-408: The commander in charge of the security of the sovereign. The main armaments were the sword, chain mail , the shield, the helmet, and the birrudu , a weapon similar to the ancient verutum , the Roman javelin. The militias of the ground and the infantry ( birrudos ) used a shorter version of this same weapon. Besides the use of spears and shields, another common weapon was the leppa ,

7656-431: The concept of absolute monarch took a notable turn from the above with its emphasis on the monarch as the "first servant of the state", but it also echoed many of the important characteristics of absolutism. Prussia was ruled by the House of Hohenzollern as a feudal monarchy from 1525 to 1701 and an absolute monarchy from 1701 to 1848, after which it became a federal semi-constitutional monarchy from 1848 to 1918 until

7772-503: The consequent criminal implications. A situation of legal certainty is therefore defined. The chart survived, albeit with some difficulty, the judicial period and remained in force in the Spanish and Savoyard era until the enactment of the Code of Carlo Felice in April 1827. From the study of the Chart we can deduce a great attention of the Giudicati towards the protection of the safety of the countryside and agricultural production, including horse breeding and leather production, even to

7888-428: The country and move his assets out of Liechtenstein if voters had chosen to restrict his powers. Vatican City continues to be an absolute monarchy, but is unique because it is also a microstate , ecclesiastical jurisdiction , and elective monarchy . As of 2023, Vatican City has a population of 764 residents (regardless of citizenship). It is the smallest state in the world both by area and by population . The Pope

8004-406: The detriment of sheep farming. This denotes a great attention towards the productive base which supports the efforts of the enemies in the struggle for the independence of Sardinia. The Condaghes are also of great importance for the study of the judicial period between the 11th and 13th centuries. Term of Byzantine origin ( kontakion - stick on which cards sewn together were rolled up) which defines

8120-406: The diplomatic maneuvers of Genoa and Pisa on the territory, on trade, on the episcopal curiae, and the judicial chancelleries. The Kingdom of Logudoro ended effectively in 1259 with the direct management of his territories by the Doria and the Malaspina Genoese families. Cagliari was conquered by a Pisan-Sardinian alliance in 1258 and his territory was divided between the winners. Gallura went to

8236-435: The end of the seventh century, and especially with the emergence of the Arab presence in Sicily (827), Sardinia remained disconnected from the core lands of the Byzantine Empire and had, out of necessity, become economically and militarily independent. The almost total absence of historical sources does not allow certainty surrounding the date of the passage from Byzantine central authority to self-government in Sardinia. It

8352-526: The first time in Europe in 1665 Kongeloven , ' King's Law ' of Denmark–Norway , which ordered that the Monarch: ...shall from this day forth be revered and considered the most perfect and supreme person on the Earth by all his subjects, standing above all human laws and having no judge above his person, neither in spiritual nor temporal matters, except God alone. This law consequently authorized

8468-461: The four States had fortified borders to protect their political and commercial interests, as well their own laws, administration and emblems. The administrative organization of the judgedoms differed significantly from the feudal forms existing in the rest of medieval Europe as their institutions were closer to those of the territories of the Byzantine Empire, although with local peculiarities that some scholars consider of Nuragic derivation. In

8584-685: The government moved from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy following planned parliamentary elections to the Tshogdu in 2003, and the election of a National Assembly in 2008 . In Nepal , there were several swings between constitutional rule and direct rule related to the Nepalese Civil War , the Maoist insurgency , and the 2001 Nepalese royal massacre , with the Nepalese monarchy being abolished on 28 May 2008. In Tonga ,

8700-597: The government, nominate judges and veto legislation, among others. Just prior to the referendum, the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe published a comprehensive report analysing the amendments, opining that they were not compatible with the European standards of democracy, effectively making Liechtenstein a de facto absolute monarchy. Prince Hans-Adam II had also previously threatened to leave

8816-474: The individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates , which itself is a federation of such monarchies – a federal monarchy . Though absolute monarchies are sometimes supported by legal documents, they are distinct from constitutional monarchies , in which the authority of the monarch is restricted (e.g. by legislature or unwritten customs) or balanced by that of other officials, such as

8932-514: The international context of the Middle Ages , the judgedoms were characterized by semi-democratic institutions such as the Coronas de curatorias which in turn elected their own representatives to the parliamentary assizes called Corona de Logu . The central government and the entire Judiciary were ruled substantially by the judge. The king did not have possession of the land nor was he

9048-461: The island in the early centuries, excluding much of the Barbagia region. At the end of the sixth century Pope Gregory I reached an agreement with Hospito , chief of the barbaricini , that guaranteed the conversion of his people from paganism to Christianity. Since Sardinia was in the political sphere of the Byzantine Empire, it developed an array of Greek and Eastern Christianity traits as

9164-467: The judicial dynamics known to us as well as being the most ancient evidence of the ancient Sardinian vernacular. The Sardinian judicial armies were composed of troops made up of soldiers and free citizens, subject to periodic rotation. In an emergency forced conscription was used. The elite corps was made up of so-called bujakesos , chosen riders who served under the command of the Majore de Janna ,

9280-654: The king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm in Denmark. Absolute monarchy lasted until 1814 in Norway , and 1848 in Denmark . The House of Habsburg is currently extinct in its male line, due to the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in 1700. However, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine still carries the female line of the House of Habsburg. The first member of

9396-615: The land. The immigration of monastics to the island was fueled by donated funds, and local churches were built by the judicial aristocracy. However, there were still strong ties with the Eastern liturgy. In 1092 a papal bull expressly abolished the autonomy and autocephaly of the Church of Sardinia, which was placed under the primacy of the Archbishop of Pisa . The first act of donation was made in 1064 by Barisone I of Torres who gave

9512-630: The large amounts of African red slip ware discovered across the Mediterranean that date from the Vandal period of North Africa to challenge the assumption that the Vandal rule of North Africa was a time of economic instability. When the Vandals raided Sicily in 440, the Western Roman Empire was too preoccupied with war in Gaul to react. Theodosius II , emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, dispatched an expedition to deal with

9628-540: The law of succession which he had promulgated, the oldest male member of the royal house was to succeed. Thus he was succeeded by his son Huneric (477–484), who at first tolerated Nicene Christians, owing to his fear of Constantinople, but after 482 began to persecute Manichaeans and Nicenes. He also murdered many rival members of the Vandalic dynasty. The native Berbers of North Africa who were kept in line during Gaiseric's rule soon began revolts and invasions against

9744-587: The laws of the kingdoms such as the Carta de Logu . Pisa and Genoa began to infiltrate the Judicial politics and economy in the eleventh century intervening to support the giudicati , against the Taifa of Dénia , an Iberian Muslim kingdom, which was trying to conquer the island. From the second half of the thirteenth century the autonomous existence of the kingdoms of Logudoro, Gallura and Calari ended due to

9860-533: The limits of royal power as the fact that governments were perennially in financial trouble, unable to tap the wealth of those ablest to pay, and likely to stir up a costly revolt whenever they attempted to develop an adequate income. Anthropology , sociology , and ethology as well as various other disciplines such as political science attempt to explain the rise of absolute monarchy ranging from extrapolation generally, to certain Marxist explanations in terms of

9976-624: The liturgy, Homoousian books were destroyed, and almost 5,000 clergy were exiled into the desert. Violence continued with "men and women… subjected to a series of torments including scalping , forced labour and execution by sword and fire." In 483, Huneric issued a royal edict commanding all Chalcedonian bishops in Africa to attend a debate with Arian representatives. In the aftermath of this conference, he forbade Nicene clergy from assembling or carrying out baptisms or ordinations and ordered all Nicene churches to be closed and Nicene property confiscated. These churches were then turned over for

10092-438: The monarch and the nobility, as well as parliaments. The king of France concentrated legislative, executive, and judicial powers in his person. He was the supreme judicial authority. He could condemn people to death without the right of appeal. It was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them. In Brandenburg-Prussia ,

10208-678: The monarchy was abolished during the German Revolution . Frederick I was the first King in Prussia , beginning his reign on 18 January 1701. King Frederick the Great adopted the title King of Prussia in 1772, the same year he annexed most of Royal Prussia in the First Partition of Poland , and practiced enlightened absolutism until his death in 1786. He introduced a general civil code, abolished torture and established

10324-409: The notion of popular sovereignty . Nonetheless, it provided an ideological foundation for the newer political theories and movements that emerged to oppose liberal democracy, such as Legitimism and Carlism in the early 19th century, or " integral nationalism " in the early 20th century. Absolute monarchies include Afghanistan , Brunei , Eswatini , Oman , Saudi Arabia , Vatican City , and

10440-553: The only 5th-century report that on 2 June 455, Pope Leo the Great received Gaiseric and implored him to abstain from murder and destruction by fire, and to be satisfied with pillage. The Vandals departed with countless valuables, including the spoils of the Temple in Jerusalem booty brought to Rome by Titus . Eudoxia and her daughters were taken to Carthage, where Eudocia married Huneric shortly thereafter. The sack of Rome earned

10556-628: The operation was undoubtedly extensive and "deserves admiration for its logistical brilliance." At a naval battle in Cape Bon , Tunisia , the Vandals destroyed the Western fleet and part of the Eastern fleet through the use of fire ships . Following up the attack, the Vandals tried to invade the Peloponnese but were driven back by the Maniots at Kenipolis with heavy losses. In retaliation,

10672-449: The political elite replaced and expropriated the largely absentee senatorial aristocracy. Other main sources of income included its takeover of the major grain and oil export region of the Romans, which had hitherto been the source of food for the major city of Rome. The wealth that the Vandal leaders accumulated was spent on luxurious town houses and religious buildings, according to literary sources and archeology. Most people who lived in

10788-504: The population of North Africa. From their invasion of North Africa in 429 onward, the Vandals, who were predominantly followers of Arianism , persecuted Nicene Christians . This persecution began with the unfettered violence inflicted against the church during Gaiseric's invasion, but, with the legitimization of the Vandal Kingdom, the oppression became entrenched in "more coherent religious policies." Victor of Vita's History of

10904-602: The principle that the Crown would not interfere in matters of justice. He also promoted an advanced secondary education, the forerunner of today's German gymnasium (grammar school) system, which prepares the brightest pupils for university studies. The Prussian education system was emulated in various countries, including the United States. Until 1905, the Tsars and Emperors of Russia governed as absolute monarchs. Ivan

11020-459: The register on which the parchments of the deeds of donation to monasteries or other ecclesiastical bodies were transcribed. In them the sums of money, the servants, the maids, the cultivated lands, the vineyards, the wooded areas (the salts), the pastures and the livestock donated by the local nobility were reported in great detail. From the Condaghes it was possible to reconstruct a large part of

11136-461: The repository of sovereignty since this was formally held by the Corona de Logu , a council of elders (representatives of the administrative districts - Curadorias ) and high priests. They appointed the ruler and attributed the supreme power to him, while maintaining the power to ratify acts and agreements related to the entire kingdom. During su Collectu (coronation ceremony) in the capital,

11252-640: The royal fisc or for Arian clerical use. While primary sources reveal little about Gunthamund's religious policies, existing evidence does suggest that the new king was "generally better disposed towards the Chalcedonian faith than his predecessor [Huneric] had been" and maintained a period of tolerance. Gunthamund ended the desert exile of a bishop called Eugenius and also restored the Nicene shrine of Saint Agileus in Carthage. Thrasamund ended his late brother's policies of tolerance when he ascended to

11368-417: The same people, without this prejudging the inheritance of the title within the same ruling dynasty. The judge was not an absolute ruler in the sense of later absolutism —at least in form: he could not declare war or sign a peace treaty without the consent of the Corona de Logu . However, that was composed primarily of the nobility's relatives and, therefore, linked by common interests. The succession to

11484-402: The siege, the 75-year-old St. Augustine died — perhaps from starvation or stress, as the wheat fields outside the city lay dormant and unharvested. After 14 months, hunger and disease were ravaging both the city's inhabitants and the Vandals outside the walls. The city eventually fell to the Vandals, who made it their first capital. Peace was made between the Romans and the Vandals in 435 through

11600-487: The surviving Vandals fought on. On December 15, 533, Gelimer and Belisarius clashed again at the Battle of Tricamarum , some 20 miles (32 km) from Carthage. Again, the Vandals fought well but broke, this time when Tzazo fell in battle. Belisarius quickly advanced to Hippo , second city of the Vandal Kingdom. In 534 Gelimer, besieged at Mount Pappua by the Herulian General Pharas , surrendered to

11716-553: The throne in 496. He reintroduced "harsh measures against the Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy" but "worked to maintain positive relations with the Romano-African lay elite," his intention being to split the loyalties of the two groups. Except for Hilderic, most Vandal kings persecuted Nicenes (as well as Donatists ) to a greater or lesser extent, banning conversion for Vandals and exiling bishops. The administration of

11832-648: The throne was dynastic but in some case there was the possibility of election by the Corona De Logu . In the government of the territory, the Judge was assisted by the Chancellery. The sovereign authority was in fact formalized with the drafting of official acts called bullata paper, written by the statal chancellor, usually a bishop or at least a senior member of the clergy, assisted by other officials called majores . The territory of various kingdoms

11948-457: The total number of Nicene bishops within the Vandal kingdom suffered a decline." Laymen were excluded from office and frequently suffered confiscation of their property. However, diplomatic considerations took precedence over religious policy. In 454, at the request of Valentinian III, Gaiseric installed Deogratius as the new Bishop of Carthage, a position that had been left empty since Quodvultdeus's departure. Heather argues that this accession

12064-457: The validity of estimates, based on Procopius 's assertion that the Vandals and Alans numbered 80,000 when they moved to North Africa, Peter Heather estimates that they could have fielded an army of around 15,000–20,000. According to Procopius, the Vandals came to Africa at the request of Bonifacius , the military ruler of the region. However, it has been suggested that the Vandals migrated to Africa in search of safety; they had been attacked by

12180-519: The very concept of absolutism. In general, historians who disagree with the appellation of absolutism argue that most monarchs labeled as absolutist exerted no greater power over their subjects than any other non-absolutist rulers, and these historians tend to emphasize the differences between the absolutist rhetoric of monarchs and the realities of the effective use of power by these absolute monarchs. Renaissance historian William Bouwsma summed up this contradiction: Nothing so clearly indicates

12296-671: Was conquered by Belisarius in the Vandalic War and incorporated into the Eastern Roman Empire (or Byzantine Empire ). The surviving Vandals either assimilated into the indigenous African population or were dispersed among the Byzantine territories. The Vandals , under their new king Gaiseric (also known as Genseric or Geiseric), crossed to Africa in 429, beginning the Vandalic conquest of Roman Africa . Although their numbers are unknown and some historians debate

12412-412: Was divided into curadorias , administrative districts of varying sizes formed by urban and rural villages, dependent on a capital which housed the curadore . These administrators, aided especially by jurados (judges) and a council the Corona de curatoria , represented the judicial authority locally and tended to the public property of the Crown. The curadore appointed for each village

12528-530: Was honourably treated and granted large estates in Galatia , where he lived to be an old man. He was also offered the rank of patrician but refused it because he was not willing to convert from Arianism to Nicene Christianity. In the words of historian Roger Collins : "The remaining Vandals were then shipped back to Constantinople to be absorbed into the imperial army," As a distinct ethnic unit they disappeared, either by fleeing to Spain or by being absorbed into

12644-482: Was intended to improve Vandal–Roman relations as Gaiseric negotiated the marriage of his son Huneric to the Princess Eudocia. However, after Valentinian was killed and Vandal relations with Rome and Constantinople worsened, Gaiseric renewed his oppressive religious policies, leaving the bishopric empty once again when Deogratius died in 457. Heather argues that Gaiseric's promotion of the Arian church, with

12760-498: Was murdered by accomplices of the usurper Petronius Maximus , who sought control of the Empire. Maximus immediately married Valentinian's widow, the Empress Licinia Eudoxia , and he also canceled Eudocia's betrothal to Huneric and married her instead to his own son, Palladius . Diplomacy between Rome and the Vandal Kingdom broke down. Eudoxia wrote a letter to Gaiseric, begging him to come to her aid. Claiming that

12876-571: Was one of the four continental empires which collapsed after World War I , along with Germany , Austria–Hungary , and the Ottoman Empire . In 1918, the Bolsheviks executed the Romanov family , ending three centuries of Romanov rule. The form of government instituted in Sweden under King Charles XI and passed on to his son, Charles XII is commonly referred to as absolute monarchy; however,

12992-511: Was part of the curadorias a majore de Bidda (the modern equivalent of a mayor ) with administrative and judicial powers, and direct responsibility for the successful actions of land management. The Cartas de Logu are collections of penal, public, civil and land regulations of great importance, in force in the various Giudicati. Unfortunately, only a few parts of the Carta Caralitana have been preserved. The Carta de Logu of

13108-610: Was regarded as an obsolete theory in most countries in the Western world , except in Russia where it was still given credence as the official justification for the Tsar's power until February Revolution in 1917 and in the Vatican City where it remains today. James VI and I and his son Charles I tried to import the principle of divine right into Scotland and England. Charles I's attempt to enforce episcopal polity on

13224-425: Was that the Vandal takeover of Carthage and North Africa led to widespread destruction. However, recent archaeological investigations have challenged this assertion. Although Carthage's odeon was destroyed, the street grid remained the same, and some public buildings were renovated. The political centre of Carthage was Byrsa Hill. New industrial centres emerged in towns during this period. Historian Andy Merrills uses

13340-540: Was the Vandal king who was most tolerant of Trinitarian Christians. He granted religious freedom, and consequently Chalcedonian synods were once more held in North Africa. However, he had little interest in war and left it to his nephew Hoamer. When the Vandals and the Berber kingdom of Dorsale came into conflict yet again, Hoamer suffered a decisive defeat by the Berbers led by Guenfan and his son Antalas . Following this,

13456-523: Was threatened. However, Heather also notes that "personal belief must have also played a substantial role in Gaiseric's decision making." Huneric, Gaiseric's son and successor, continued and intensified the repression of the Nicene church and attempted to make Arianism the primary religion in North Africa; indeed, much of Victor of Vita's narrative focuses on the atrocities and persecutions committed during Huneric's reign. Priests were forbidden to practice

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