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104-450: Dunkirk ( UK : / d ʌ n ˈ k ɜːr k / dun- KURK , US : / ˈ d ʌ n k ɜːr k / DUN -kurk , French : Dunkerque [dœ̃kɛʁk] ; West Flemish : Duunkerke ; Dutch : Duinkerke or Duinkerken ) is a major port city in the department of Nord in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the Belgian border. It has

208-559: A century as Received Pronunciation (RP). However, due to language evolution and changing social trends, some linguists argue that RP is losing prestige or has been replaced by another accent, one that the linguist Geoff Lindsey for instance calls Standard Southern British English. Others suggest that more regionally-oriented standard accents are emerging in England. Even in Scotland and Northern Ireland, RP exerts little influence in

312-555: A definite end to the Avignon Papacy . Conciliarism gained impetus due to the Schism. This new reformist movement held that a general council is superior to the pope on the strength of its capability to resolve ecclesiastical issues. Theorists such as Jean Gerson explained that the priests and the church itself are the sources of the papal power and, thus, the church should be able to correct, punish, and, if necessary, depose

416-508: A greater movement, normally [əʊ], [əʉ] or [əɨ]. Dropping a morphological grammatical number , in collective nouns , is stronger in British English than North American English. This is to treat them as plural when once grammatically singular, a perceived natural number prevails, especially when applying to institutional nouns and groups of people. The noun 'police', for example, undergoes this treatment: Police are investigating

520-524: A group of French cardinals declared his election invalid and elected Clement VII , who claimed to be the true pope. After several attempts at reconciliation, the Council of Pisa (1409) declared that both rivals were illegitimate and elected a third purported pope. The schism was finally resolved when the Pisan claimant Antipope John XXIII called the Council of Constance (1414–1418). The Council arranged for

624-512: A hazard to navigation in the English Channel . The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Dunkirk proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Dunkirk absorbed the former commune of Malo-les-Bains in 1969, Rosendaël and Petite-Synthe in 1971, Mardyck in 1979 and Fort-Mardyck and Saint-Pol-sur-Mer in 2010. Dunkirk is part of Nord's 13th constituency , The current Member of Parliament

728-588: A holy cause, was taken up against the Flemings , because they were Urbanists, that is, infidels. Sustained by such national and factional rivalries, the schism continued after the deaths of both Urban VI in 1389 and Clement VII in 1394. Boniface IX was crowned in Rome in 1389, and Benedict XIII , who was elected against the wishes of Charles VI of France, reigned in Avignon from 1394. When Pope Boniface died in 1404,

832-510: A hybrid tongue for basic communication). The more idiomatic, concrete and descriptive English is, the more it is from Anglo-Saxon origins. The more intellectual and abstract English is, the more it contains Latin and French influences, e.g. swine (like the Germanic schwein ) is the animal in the field bred by the occupied Anglo-Saxons and pork (like the French porc ) is the animal at

936-578: A large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC , in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout the country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analysed by Johnson's team both for content and for where it

1040-406: A lesser class or social status and often discounted or considered of a low intelligence. Another contribution to the standardisation of British English was the introduction of the printing press to England in the mid-15th century. In doing so, William Caxton enabled a common language and spelling to be dispersed among the entirety of England at a much faster rate. Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of

1144-433: A marked reduction from its original full-time service. This scaling back underscores the difficulties in maintaining such an ambitious project, with financial constraints and logistical inefficiencies contributing to its partial rollback. While the program succeeded in increasing mobility for low-income residents and reducing car usage initially, its long-term sustainability has been questioned, casting doubt on its viability as

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1248-475: A model for other cities. ( https://www.goodnewsnetwork.org/after-becoming-largest-european-city-to-offer-free-public-transit-theyre-enjoying-a-revolution-from-their-buses/ ), https://theconversation.com/in-the-french-city-of-dunkirk-free-public-transport-has-led-to-more-walking-and-cycling-127411 , https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-01-14/free-public-transit-can-it-work-in-every-city ) As of August 2019, approximately 5% of 2000 people surveyed had used

1352-565: A pope. On 18 January 1460, Pope Pius II issued the bull Execrabilis which forbids any attempt to appeal papal judgements by general councils. There was also a marked decline in discipline within the church. Scholars note that the Western Schism effectively eroded the church's authority and its capacity to proclaim the gospel. This dissension and loss of unity ultimately culminated in the Protestant Reformation of

1456-659: A process called T-glottalisation . National media, being based in London, have seen the glottal stop spreading more widely than it once was in word endings, not being heard as "no [ʔ] " and bottle of water being heard as "bo [ʔ] le of wa [ʔ] er". It is still stigmatised when used at the beginning and central positions, such as later , while often has all but regained /t/ . Other consonants subject to this usage in Cockney English are p , as in pa [ʔ] er and k as in ba [ʔ] er. In most areas of England and Wales, outside

1560-545: A single umbrella variety, for instance additionally incorporating Scottish English , Welsh English , and Northern Irish English . Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English acknowledges that British English shares "all the ambiguities and tensions [with] the word 'British' and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity". Variations exist in formal (both written and spoken) English in

1664-526: A strategic point, Dunkirk has always been exposed to political greed, by Duke Robert I of Bar in 1395, by Louis de Luxembourg in 1435 and finally by the Austrian archduke Maximilian I of Habsburg , who in 1477 married Mary of Burgundy , sole heiress of late Duke Charles the Bold . As Maximilian was the son of Emperor Frederick III , all Flanders was immediately seized by King Louis XI of France . However,

1768-470: A year and awaited French military support, which never came. Innocent died 6 November 1406, and the Roman cardinals elected Angelo Correr as Gregory XII. The suggestion for a church council to resolve the Schism, first made in 1378, was not adopted initially, because canon law required that a pope call a council. Eventually theologians like Pierre d'Ailly and Jean Gerson, adopted arguments that permitted

1872-549: Is Christine Decodts of the miscellaneous centre . At their base, the arms display the insignia of the four medals awarded to the city: the Legion of Honour , Croix de Guerre and British Distinguished Service Cross for World War I; and a second Croix de Guerre for World War II. The city also has its own flag, made up of six horizontal stripes of alternate white and azure blue. The commune has grown substantially by absorbing several neighbouring communes: Dunkirk has

1976-725: Is also due to London-centric influences. Examples of R-dropping are car and sugar , where the R is not pronounced. British dialects differ on the extent of diphthongisation of long vowels, with southern varieties extensively turning them into diphthongs, and with northern dialects normally preserving many of them. As a comparison, North American varieties could be said to be in-between. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are usually preserved, and in several areas also /oː/ and /eː/, as in go and say (unlike other varieties of English, that change them to [oʊ] and [eɪ] respectively). Some areas go as far as not diphthongising medieval /iː/ and /uː/, that give rise to modern /aɪ/ and /aʊ/; that is, for example, in

2080-598: Is based on British English, but has more influence from American English , often grouped together due to their close proximity. British English, for example, is the closest English to Indian English, but Indian English has extra vocabulary and some English words are assigned different meanings. Western Schism The papacy had resided in Avignon since 1309, but Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377. The Catholic Church split in September 1378, when, following Gregory XI's death and Urban VI's subsequent election,

2184-494: Is closed and has been dismantled in places. In September 2018, Dunkirk's public transit service introduced free public transport, thereby becoming the largest city in Europe to do so. Several weeks after the scheme had been introduced, the city's mayor, Patrice Vergriete, reported that there had been 50% increase in passenger numbers on some routes, and up to 85% on others. As part of the transition towards offering free bus services,

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2288-593: Is essentially region-less. It derives from a mixture of the Midlands and Southern dialects spoken in London in the early modern period. It is frequently used as a model for teaching English to foreign learners. In the South East, there are significantly different accents; the Cockney accent spoken by some East Londoners is strikingly different from Received Pronunciation (RP). Cockney rhyming slang can be (and

2392-795: Is included in style guides issued by various publishers including The Times newspaper, the Oxford University Press and the Cambridge University Press . The Oxford University Press guidelines were originally drafted as a single broadsheet page by Horace Henry Hart, and were at the time (1893) the first guide of their type in English; they were gradually expanded and eventually published, first as Hart's Rules , and in 2002 as part of The Oxford Manual of Style . Comparable in authority and stature to The Chicago Manual of Style for published American English ,

2496-621: Is itself broadly grouped into Southern English , West Country , East and West Midlands English and Northern English ), Northern Irish English (in Northern Ireland), Welsh English (not to be confused with the Welsh language ), and Scottish English (not to be confused with the Scots language or Scottish Gaelic ). Each group includes a range of dialects, some markedly different from others. The various British dialects also differ in

2600-495: Is now retroactively recognized by the Catholic Church as the sole legitimate line during the Western Schism. However, Popes Alexander VI through VIII have not been renumbered, leaving a gap in the numbering sequence. According to John F. Broderick (1987): Doubt still shrouds the validity of the three rival lines of pontiffs during the four decades subsequent to the still disputed papal election of 1378. This makes suspect

2704-547: The Chambers Dictionary , and the Collins Dictionary record actual usage rather than attempting to prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other varieties of English, and neologisms are frequent. For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the ninth century, the form of language spoken in London and

2808-574: The Black Country , or if he was a Scouser he would have been well "made up" over so many spondoolicks, because as a Geordie might say, £460,000 is a "canny load of chink". Most people in Britain speak with a regional accent or dialect. However, about 2% of Britons speak with an accent called Received Pronunciation (also called "the King's English", "Oxford English" and " BBC English" ), that

2912-603: The East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education in Britain. The standardisation of British English is thought to be from both dialect levelling and a thought of social superiority. Speaking in the Standard dialect created class distinctions; those who did not speak the standard English would be considered of

3016-553: The Eastern Orthodox Church . The papacy had, since 1309, resided in Avignon, a papal enclave surrounded by France . Initiated by Pope Clement V , the Avignon Papacy had developed a reputation for corruption that estranged much of Western Christendom . This reputation was attributed to perceptions of strong French influence, the papal curia 's efforts to extend its powers of patronage, and attempts to increase its revenues. The last Avignon pope, Gregory XI , at

3120-670: The Franco-Flemish War against his suzerain King Philippe IV of France , the citizens of Dunkirk sided with the French against their count, who at first was defeated at the 1297 Battle of Furnes , but reached de facto autonomy upon the victorious Battle of the Golden Spurs five years later and exacted vengeance. Guy's son, Count Robert III (1305–1322), nevertheless granted further city rights to Dunkirk; his successor Count Louis I (1322–1346) had to face

3224-642: The Kingdom of Spain , the United Netherlands , the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France . At the beginning of the Eighty Years' War , Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, from 1577. Spanish forces under Duke Alexander Farnese of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious Dunkirkers . The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when

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3328-577: The Peasant revolt of 1323–1328 , which was crushed by King Philippe VI of France at the 1328 Battle of Cassel , whereafter the Dunkirkers again were affected by the repressive measures of the French king. Count Louis remained a loyal vassal of the French king upon the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with England in 1337, and prohibited the maritime trade, which led to another revolt by

3432-608: The Republic of Ireland and carries truck freight as well as a limited number of private car passengers. The Dunkirk-Rosslare route take 24 hours and is run by the MF Regina Seaways . The Gare de Dunkerque railway station offers connections to Gare de Calais-Ville , Gare de Lille Flandres , Arras and Paris, and several regional destinations in France. The railway line from Dunkirk to De Panne and Adinkerke , Belgium,

3536-520: The Roman occupation. This group of languages ( Welsh , Cornish , Cumbric ) cohabited alongside English into the modern period, but due to their remoteness from the Germanic languages , influence on English was notably limited . However, the degree of influence remains debated, and it has recently been argued that its grammatical influence accounts for the substantial innovations noted between English and

3640-642: The Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary . Dialects and accents vary amongst the four countries of the United Kingdom , as well as within the countries themselves. The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England (which

3744-789: The Royal Greenwich Observatory . Sightings were made of signal lights at Dover Castle from the Dunkirk Belfry, and vice versa. Two belfries in Dunkirk (the belfry near the Church of Saint-Éloi and the one at the Hôtel de Ville ) are part of a group of belfries of Belgium and France , inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2005 in recognition of their civic architecture and importance in

3848-493: The Royal Spanish Academy with Spanish. Standard British English differs notably in certain vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features from standard American English and certain other standard English varieties around the world. British and American spelling also differ in minor ways. The accent, or pronunciation system, of standard British English, based in southeastern England, has been known for over

3952-610: The West Country and other near-by counties of the UK, the consonant R is not pronounced if not followed by a vowel, lengthening the preceding vowel instead. This phenomenon is known as non-rhoticity . In these same areas, a tendency exists to insert an R between a word ending in a vowel and a next word beginning with a vowel. This is called the intrusive R . It could be understood as a merger, in that words that once ended in an R and words that did not are no longer treated differently. This

4056-526: The meridian arc distance from Dunkirk to Barcelona , two cities lying on approximately the same longitude as each other and also the longitude through Paris. The belfry was chosen as the reference point in Dunkirk. Using this measurement and the latitudes of the two cities they could calculate the distance between the North Pole and the Equator in classical French units of length and hence produce

4160-588: The renunciation of both Roman pope Gregory XII and Pisan antipope John XXIII. The Avignon antipope Benedict XIII was excommunicated, while Pope Martin V was elected and reigned from Rome. The event is sometimes referred to as the Great Schism , although this term is usually reserved for the East–West Schism of 1054 between the churches remaining in communion with the See of Rome and those remaining with

4264-435: The 16th century. For the next five centuries, the Catholic Church recognized the Roman popes as the legitimate line from 1378 to 1409, followed by the Pisan popes from 1409 to 1415. All Avignon popes after 1378 are considered to be antipopes. This recognition is reflected in the numbering of popes Alexander VI , VII , and VIII , who numbered themselves consecutively after their Pisan namesake Alexander V. The recognition of

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4368-718: The 20th century, French Flemish (the local variety of Dutch ) was commonly spoken. A fishing village arose late in the tenth century, in the originally flooded coastal area of the English Channel south of the Western Scheldt , when the area was held by the Counts of Flanders , vassals of the French Crown. About AD 960, Count Baldwin III had a town wall erected in order to protect the settlement against Viking raids. The surrounding wetlands were drained and cultivated by

4472-629: The 21st century. RP, while long established as the standard English accent around the globe due to the spread of the British Empire , is distinct from the standard English pronunciation in some parts of the world; most prominently, RP notably contrasts with standard North American accents. In the 21st century, dictionaries like the Oxford English Dictionary , the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English ,

4576-691: The Antichrist), which convinced him to leave. He took a ship to Avignon and reestablished the papal court there. Charles V of France , who seems to have been irked beforehand by the choice of the Roman pontiff, soon became his greatest protector. Besides France, Clement eventually succeeded in winning to his cause Castile , Aragon , Navarre , a great part of the Latin East , and Scotland . Years later, Owain Glyndŵr 's rebellion in Wales also recognized

4680-463: The Avignon antipope Benedict XIII. In the intense partisanship that was characteristic of the Middle Ages, the schism engendered a fanatical hatred noted by Johan Huizinga : when the town of Bruges went over to the "obedience" of Avignon, a great number of people left to follow their trade in a city of Urbanist allegiance..[..].. In the 1382, the oriflamme , which might only be unfurled in

4784-615: The Church to call a council to resolve this issue, while Francesco Zabarella argued that a council could only be convoked by an emperor. Pope Benedict and Gregory agreed to abdicate their respective papacies in December 1406. However, Benedict stated that he wanted to negotiate a solution first. Gregory sent an ambassador to the St. Victor abbey in Marseille, where Benedict was staying. On

4888-482: The Dunkirk citizens. After the count had been killed in the 1346 Battle of Crécy , his son and successor Count Louis II of Flanders (1346–1384) signed a truce with the English; the trade again flourished and the port was significantly enlarged. However, in the course of the Western Schism from 1378, English supporters of Pope Urban VI (the Roman claimant) disembarked at Dunkirk, captured the city and flooded

4992-836: The English Language (1755) was a large step in the English-language spelling reform , where the purification of language focused on standardising both speech and spelling. By the early 20th century, British authors had produced numerous books intended as guides to English grammar and usage, a few of which achieved sufficient acclaim to have remained in print for long periods and to have been reissued in new editions after some decades. These include, most notably of all, Fowler's Modern English Usage and The Complete Plain Words by Sir Ernest Gowers . Detailed guidance on many aspects of writing British English for publication

5096-922: The Oxford Manual is a fairly exhaustive standard for published British English that writers can turn to in the absence of specific guidance from their publishing house. British English is the basis of, and very similar to, Commonwealth English . Commonwealth English is English as spoken and written in the Commonwealth countries , though often with some local variation. This includes English spoken in Australia , Malta , New Zealand , Nigeria , and South Africa . It also includes South Asian English used in South Asia, in English varieties in Southeast Asia , and in parts of Africa. Canadian English

5200-627: The Pisan popes made the continued legitimacy of the Roman pope Gregory XII doubtful for 1409–1415. The Annuario Pontificio for 1860 listed the Pisan popes as true popes from 1409 to 1415, but it acknowledged that Gregory XII's reign ended in either 1409 or 1415. The Western Schism was, in practice, reinterpreted in 1958 when Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli chose to reuse the ordinal XXIII upon his election as Pope John XXIII, citing "twenty-two [sic] Johns of indisputable legitimacy." (There had actually been twenty undisputed Johns due to antipopes and numbering errors .) Although Roncalli's declaration of assuming

5304-422: The Roman pope Gregory XII , giving it greater legitimacy. On 6 April 1415, the council issued Haec sancta , stating that the council is the Church's highest governing body and has the authority to remove popes. The council, advised by the theologian Jean Gerson , secured the resignation of Gregory XII and the detention and removal of John XXIII. The Avignon antipope Benedict XIII , who refused to step down,

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5408-488: The United Kingdom. For example, the adjective wee is almost exclusively used in parts of Scotland, north-east England, Northern Ireland, Ireland, and occasionally Yorkshire , whereas the adjective little is predominant elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described by the term British English . The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of

5512-402: The West Scottish accent. Phonological features characteristic of British English revolve around the pronunciation of the letter R, as well as the dental plosive T and some diphthongs specific to this dialect. Once regarded as a Cockney feature, in a number of forms of spoken British English, /t/ has become commonly realised as a glottal stop [ʔ] when it is in the intervocalic position, in

5616-1183: The archduke defeated the French troops in 1479 at the Battle of Guinegate . When Mary died in 1482, Maximilian retained Flanders according to the terms of the 1482 Treaty of Arras . Dunkirk, along with the rest of Flanders, was incorporated into the Habsburg Netherlands and upon the 1581 secession of the Seven United Netherlands , remained part of the Southern Netherlands , which were held by Habsburg Spain (Spanish Netherlands) as Imperial fiefs. [REDACTED] Burgundian Netherlands 1384–1482 [REDACTED] Habsburg Netherlands 1482–1556 [REDACTED] Spanish Netherlands 1556–1577 [REDACTED] Dunkirk Rebels 1577–1583 [REDACTED] Spanish Netherlands 1583–1646 [REDACTED] France 1646–1652 [REDACTED] Spanish Netherlands 1652–1658 [REDACTED] [REDACTED] England and France 1658–1659 [REDACTED] England 1659–1662 [REDACTED] [REDACTED] France 1662–1870 [REDACTED] Prussian occupation 1870–1873 [REDACTED] France 1873–1940 [REDACTED] German occupation 1940–1945 [REDACTED] France 1945–present The area remained much disputed between

5720-434: The autumn of 1917. In January 1916, a spy scare took place in Dunkirk. The writer Robert W. Service , then a war correspondent for the Toronto Star , was mistakenly arrested as a spy and narrowly avoided being executed out of hand. On 1 January 1918, the United States Navy established a naval air station to operate seaplanes . The base closed shortly after the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . In October 1917, to mark

5824-522: The city experienced severe bombardment, including from the largest gun in the world in 1917, the German ' Lange Max '. On a regular basis, heavy shells weighing approximately 750 kg (1700 lb) were fired from Koekelare , about 45–50 km (30 miles) away. The bombardment killed nearly 600 people and wounded another 1,100, both civilian and military, while 400 buildings were destroyed and 2,400 damaged. The city's population, which had been 39,000 in 1914, reduced to fewer than 15,000 in July 1916 and 7,000 in

5928-553: The city was conquered by the French in 1646 but Spanish forces recaptured the city in 1652. In 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured after a siege by Franco-English forces following the battle of the Dunes . The city along with Fort-Mardyck was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain. The English governors were Sir William Lockhart (1658–60), Sir Edward Harley (1660–61) and Lord Rutherford (1661–62). On 17 October 1662, Dunkirk

6032-402: The city's fleet was expanded from 100 to 140 buses, including new vehicles which run on natural gas. The Dunkirk free public transport initiative, initially lauded for its bold ambition, saw a significant decline in ridership after the initial surge. While the first three months post-launch demonstrated a dramatic increase in usage, with some lines experiencing up to 120% higher demand on weekends,

6136-402: The city, which had been converted into a fortress. To seize the now strategically insignificant town would consume too many Allied resources which were needed elsewhere. The town was by-passed masking the German garrison with Allied troops, notably the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade . During the German occupation , Dunkirk was largely destroyed by Allied bombing. The artillery siege of Dunkirk

6240-402: The country and particularly to London. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 125 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's schoolchildren. Notably Multicultural London English , a sociolect that emerged in the late 20th century spoken mainly by young, working-class people in multicultural parts of London . Since

6344-415: The credentials of the cardinals created by the Roman, Avignon, and Pisan claimants to the Apostolic See. Unity was finally restored without a definitive solution to the question; for the Council of Constance succeeded in terminating the Western Schism, not by declaring which of the three claimants was the rightful one, but by eliminating all of them by forcing their abdication or deposition, and then setting up

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6448-485: The eight cardinals of the Roman conclave offered to refrain from electing a new pope if Benedict would resign; but when Benedict's legates refused on his behalf, the Roman party then proceeded to elect Pope Innocent VII . Discussions continued instead with Innocent, but quickly stalled and by February 1405, and Benedict's envoys had returned to Avignon. Benedict quickly excommunicated Innocent and with an army started marching towards Rome, in May 1405. He occupied Genoa for

6552-421: The eighth and ninth centuries; the second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman . These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strictest sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop

6656-458: The election of Urban VI was invalid because it had been out of fear of the rioting Roman crowds. Unable to maintain himself in Anagni, and following the defeat of his forces at the battle of Marino, Clement VII fled to Naples, which was ruled by one of his supporters, Queen Joanna I of Naples . Despite being met regally by Joanna, Clement was met with the populace chanting, "Viva Papa Urbano" (Long Live Pope Urban) and "Muoia l'Anticristo" (Death to

6760-565: The election of a Roman pope. The pope and his curia had returned to Rome after seventy years in Avignon, and the Romans were prepared to do everything in their power to keep them there. On 8 April 1378, the cardinals elected Bartolomeo Prignano, the archbishop of Bari , as Pope Urban VI . The majority of the cardinals who had elected Urban VI quickly regretted their decision and removed themselves to Anagni . Meeting at Fondi , thirteen cardinals elected Count Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII on 20 September 1378. The cardinals argued that

6864-431: The entreaty of relatives, friends, and his retinue, decided to return to Rome on 17 January 1377. Gregory, however, announced his intention to reverse his decision and return to Avignon just after the Easter celebrations of 1378. Before he could return to Avignon, Gregory XI died in the Vatican palace on 27 March 1378. The Romans put into operation a plan to use intimidation and violence ( impressio et metus ) to ensure

6968-405: The face of overpowering German Panzer attacks. Fighting in Belgium and France, the BEF and a portion of the French Army became outflanked by the Germans and retreated to the area around the port of Dunkirk. More than 400,000 soldiers were trapped in the pocket as the German Army closed in for the kill. Unexpectedly, the German Panzer attack halted for several days at a critical juncture. For years, it

7072-435: The famous novel Man in the Iron Mask by Alexandre Dumas was arrested at Dunkirk. The eighteenth-century Swedish privateers and pirates Lars Gathenhielm and his wife Ingela Hammar are known to have sold their gains in Dunkirk. As France and Great Britain became commercial and military rivals, the British grew concerned about Dunkirk being used as an invasion base to cross the English Channel. The jetties, their forts, and

7176-412: The first prototype metre which was defined as being one ten millionth of that distance. The definitive metre bar, manufactured from platinum, was presented to the French legislative assembly on 22 June 1799. Dunkirk was the most easterly cross-channel measuring point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790) , which used triangulation to calculate the precise distance between the Paris Observatory and

7280-445: The free bus service to completely replace their cars. Dunkirk is twinned with: Dunkirk has co-operation agreements with: Dunkirk has an oceanic climate , with cool winters and warm summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Dunkirk has a marine west coast climate , abbreviated "Cfb" on climate maps. Summer high temperatures average around 20 to 21 °C (68 to 70 °F), being significantly influenced by

7384-424: The gallant behaviour of its inhabitants during the war, the City of Dunkirk was awarded the Croix de Guerre and, in 1919, the Legion of Honour and the British Distinguished Service Cross . These decorations now appear in the city's coat of arms. During the Second World War 1940 Battle of France , the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), while aiding the French and Belgian armies, were forced to retreat in

7488-458: The idea of two different morphemes, one that causes the double negation, and one that is used for the point or the verb. Standard English in the United Kingdom, as in other English-speaking nations, is widely enforced in schools and by social norms for formal contexts but not by any singular authority; for instance, there is no institution equivalent to the Académie française with French or

7592-523: The last southern Midlands accent to use the broad "a" in words like bath or grass (i.e. barth or grarss ). Conversely crass or plastic use a slender "a". A few miles northwest in Leicestershire the slender "a" becomes more widespread generally. In the town of Corby , five miles (8 km) north, one can find Corbyite which, unlike the Kettering accent, is largely influenced by

7696-586: The marine currents. British English British English (abbreviations: BrE , en-GB , and BE ) is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . More narrowly, it can refer specifically to the English language in England , or, more broadly, to the collective dialects of English throughout the British Isles taken as

7800-457: The mass internal migration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and given its position between several major accent regions, it has become a source of various accent developments. In Northampton the older accent has been influenced by overspill Londoners. There is an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a transitional accent between the East Midlands and East Anglian . It is

7904-504: The monks of nearby Bergues Abbey. The name Dunkirka was first mentioned in a tithe privilege of 27 May 1067, issued by Count Baldwin V of Flanders . Count Philip I (1157–1191) brought further large tracts of marshland under cultivation, laid out the first plans to build a Canal from Dunkirk to Bergues and vested the Dunkirkers with market rights . In the late 13th century, when the Dampierre count Guy of Flanders entered into

8008-645: The name specified that his decision was made "apart from disputes about legitimacy", this passage was subsequently excised from the version appearing in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the Pisan popes Alexander V and John XXIII have since been classified as antipopes by the Roman Curia. The reinterpretation is reflected in modern editions of the Annuario Pontificio , which extend Gregory XII's reign to 1415. The line of Roman popes

8112-509: The official evacuation) were captured or forced to make their own way home through a variety of routes including via neutral Spain. Many wounded who were unable to walk were abandoned. Dunkirk was again contested in 1944, with the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division attempting to liberate the city in September, as Allied forces surged northeast after their victory in the Battle of Normandy . However, German forces refused to relinquish their control of

8216-617: The order several hours later. This lull gave the British and French a few days to fortify their defences. The Allied position was complicated by Belgian King Leopold III 's surrender on 27 May, which was postponed until 28 May. The gap left by the Belgian Army stretched from Ypres to Dixmude. Nevertheless, a collapse was prevented , making it possible to launch an evacuation by sea , across the English Channel , codenamed Operation Dynamo. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill ordered any ship or boat available, large or small, to collect

8320-544: The other West Germanic languages. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon , eventually came to dominate. The original Old English was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first was by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who settled in parts of Britain in

8424-519: The other hand, Gregory preferred Savona, and Benedict concurred. They balked at the last moment, and both groups of cardinals abandoned their preferred leaders. The Council of Pisa met in 1409 under the auspices of the cardinals to try solving the dispute. At the fifteenth session, on 5 June 1409, the Council of Pisa attempted to depose both the Roman pope and Avignon antipope as schismatical, heretical, perjured and scandalous, but proceeded to inflame

8528-565: The port facilities were demolished in 1713 under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht . The Treaty of Paris of 1763, which concluded the Seven Years' War , included a clause restricting French rights to fortify Dunkirk. This clause was overturned in the subsequent Treaty of Versailles of 1783. Dunkirk's port was used extensively during the war by British forces who brought in dock workers from, among other places, Egypt and China. From 1915,

8632-469: The problem even further by electing Peter Philargi, the cardinal archbishop of Milan, as Alexander V . He reigned briefly in Pisa from June 26, 1409, to his death in 1410, when he was succeeded by, Baldassare Cossa as John XXIII , who achieved limited support. In 1414, Council of Constance was convened by the Pisan pope John XXIII to resolve the schism once and for all. The council was also endorsed by

8736-492: The rise of municipal power in Europe. The 63-meter-high Dunkirk Lighthouse, also known as the Risban Light, was built between 1838 and 1843 as part of early efforts to place lights around the coast of France. At the time of its construction it was one of only two first order lighthouses (the other being Calais) to be set up in a port. Automated since 1985, the light can be seen 28 nautical miles (48 km) away. In 2010 it

8840-511: The stranded soldiers. 338,226 men (including 123,000 French soldiers) were evacuated – the miracle of Dunkirk , as Churchill called it. It took over 900 vessels to evacuate the BEF, with two-thirds of those rescued embarking via the harbour, and over 100,000 taken off the beaches. More than 40,000 vehicles as well as massive amounts of other military equipment and supplies were left behind. Forty thousand Allied soldiers (some who carried on fighting after

8944-542: The surrounding estates. They were ejected by King Charles VI of France , but left great devastations in and around the town. Upon the extinction of the Counts of Flanders with the death of Louis II in 1384, Flanders was acquired by the Burgundian , Duke Philip the Bold . The fortifications were again enlarged, including the construction of a belfry daymark (a navigational aid similar to a non-illuminated lighthouse). As

9048-486: The system faced substantial challenges. By the end of the first three months, ridership plummeted by 73% from its peak, eventually stabilizing at only 12% more than pre-pandemic levels (2019-2020). This decline was primarily due to the inability of the public transport infrastructure to handle the overwhelming demand, leading to overcrowding, delays, and reduced service quality. Despite these issues, Dunkirk’s free transport program remains operational, albeit limited to weekends,

9152-589: The table eaten by the occupying Normans. Another example is the Anglo-Saxon cu meaning cow, and the French bœuf meaning beef. Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from

9256-603: The theft of work tools worth £500 from a van at the Sprucefield park and ride car park in Lisburn. A football team can be treated likewise: Arsenal have lost just one of 20 home Premier League matches against Manchester City. This tendency can be observed in texts produced already in the 19th century. For example, Jane Austen , a British author, writes in Chapter 4 of Pride and Prejudice , published in 1813: All

9360-464: The third-largest French harbour. The population of the commune in 2019 was 86,279. The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish dun(e) ' dune ' or ' dun ' and kerke 'church', thus 'church in the dunes'. A smaller town 25 km (15 miles) farther up the Flemish coast originally shared the same name, but was later renamed Oostduinkerke (n) in order to avoid confusion. Until the middle of

9464-495: The third-largest harbour in France, after those of Le Havre and Marseille . As an industrial city, it depends heavily on the steel , food processing , oil-refining , ship-building and chemical industries . The cuisine of Dunkirk closely resembles Flemish cuisine ; perhaps one of the best known dishes is coq à la bière – chicken in a creamy beer sauce. In June 1792 the French astronomers Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre François André Méchain set out to measure

9568-403: The traditional accent of Newcastle upon Tyne , 'out' will sound as 'oot', and in parts of Scotland and North-West England, 'my' will be pronounced as 'me'. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are diphthongised to [ɪi] and [ʊu] respectively (or, more technically, [ʏʉ], with a raised tongue), so that ee and oo in feed and food are pronounced with a movement. The diphthong [oʊ] is also pronounced with

9672-592: The words that they have borrowed from other languages. Around the middle of the 15th century, there were points where within the 5 major dialects there were almost 500 ways to spell the word though . Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1949–1950), the University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to Leeds to study British regional dialects. The team are sifting through

9776-414: The world and operates in over 200 countries . English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. The resident population at this time was generally speaking Common Brittonic —the insular variety of Continental Celtic , which was influenced by

9880-568: The world are good and agreeable in your eyes. However, in Chapter 16, the grammatical number is used. The world is blinded by his fortune and consequence. Some dialects of British English use negative concords, also known as double negatives . Rather than changing a word or using a positive, words like nobody, not, nothing, and never would be used in the same sentence. While this does not occur in Standard English, it does occur in non-standard dialects. The double negation follows

9984-446: The world where English is spoken and so a uniform concept of British English is more difficult to apply to the spoken language. Globally, countries that are former British colonies or members of the Commonwealth tend to follow British English, as is the case for English used by European Union institutions. In China, both British English and American English are taught. The UK government actively teaches and promotes English around

10088-447: Was excommunicated on 27 July 1417, having lost all his supporters in the process. The Council elected Pope Martin V in 1417, essentially ending the schism. Benedict XIII, recognized by King Martin of Aragon in 1397, chose to ignore pleas for his resignation. Benedict died 23 May 1423: to succeed him three cardinals elected Gil Sanchez Munoz y Carbon as Clement VIII . Clement VIII resigned in 1429 and recognized Martin V, putting

10192-466: Was sold to France by Charles II of England for £320,000. The French government developed the town as a fortified port. The town's existing defences were adapted to create ten bastions. The port was expanded in the 1670s by the construction of a basin that could hold up to thirty warships with a double lock system to maintain water levels at low tide. The basin was linked to the sea by a channel dug through coastal sandbanks secured by two jetties. This work

10296-609: Was assumed that Adolf Hitler ordered the German Army to suspend the attack, favouring bombardment by the Luftwaffe . However, according to the Official War Diary of Army Group A , its commander, Generaloberst Gerd von Rundstedt , ordered the halt to allow maintenance on his tanks, half of which were out of service, and to protect his flanks which were exposed and, he thought, vulnerable. Hitler merely validated

10400-461: Was completed by 1678. The jetties were defended a few years later by the construction of five forts, Château d'Espérance, Château Vert, Grand Risban, Château Gaillard, and Fort de Revers. An additional fort was built in 1701 called Fort Blanc. During the reign of Louis XIV , a large number of commerce raiders and pirates once again made their base at Dunkirk, the most famous of whom was Jean Bart . The main character (and possible real prisoner) in

10504-643: Was directed on the final day of the war by pilots from No. 652 Squadron RAF , and No. 665 Squadron RCAF . The fortress, under the command of German Admiral Friedrich Frisius , eventually unconditionally surrendered to the commander of the Czechoslovak forces, Brigade General Alois Liška , on 9 May 1945. On 14 December 2002, the Norwegian car carrier MV  Tricolor collided with the Bahamian -registered Kariba and sank off Dunkirk Harbour, causing

10608-456: Was initially intended to be) difficult for outsiders to understand, although the extent of its use is often somewhat exaggerated. Londoners speak with a mixture of accents, depending on ethnicity, neighbourhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors. Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney. Immigrants to the UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to

10712-434: Was listed as an historical monument. Two museums in Dunkirk include: Dunkirk has a ferry route to Dover that is run by DFDS , which serves as an alternative to the route to the service to nearby Calais . The Dover-Dunkirk ferry route takes two hours compared to Dover-Calais' 1 hour 30 minutes, is run by th r ee vessels and runs every two hours from Dunkirk. Another DFDS route connects Dunkirk to Rosslare Europort in

10816-511: Was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio". When discussing the award of the grant in 2007, Leeds University stated: that they were "very pleased"—and indeed, "well chuffed"—at receiving their generous grant. He could, of course, have been "bostin" if he had come from

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