Pierre Flotte or Pierre Flote ( Languedoc , second half of the 13th century – Kortrijk , 11 July 1302) was a French legalist, Chancellor of France and Keeper of the Seals of Philip IV the Fair . He was taught Roman law at the University of Montpellier , and was considered one of the best lawyers and legalists of his time. He led negotiations with the Roman Curia , England and Germany .
103-687: He was an adversary of Pope Boniface VIII , defending the authoritarianism of the French king against the Roman Church , and the first civilian to be appointed as Chancellor, as before, only ecclesiastics were granted this honor. He died in the Battle of the Golden Spurs which took place near Kortrijk on 11 July 1302, when the local Flemish population mounted a successful uprising against France. This French law-related biographical article
206-609: A podestà . Concerning Rome , with a history of civic violence, Gregorovius says that "in 1205 the Pope Innocent III changed the form of the civic government; the executive power lying henceforward in the hand of a single senator or podestà , who, directly or indirectly, was appointed by the pope". In Florence after 1180, the chief authority was transferred from the consuls to the podestà , and Milan and other cities were also ruled by these officials. The Republic of Genoa elected its first podestà in 1191,
309-491: A Brescian citizen, to quell the internal unrest that ravaged the capital of the Republic. There were, moreover, podestà in some of the cities of the adjoining Provence in southeastern France. An anonymous writer composed a short guide for the would-be podestà (although it would be unseemly to appear openly to run for the office), Oculus pastoralis , of about 1222; in six simple and brief chapters it guides
412-511: A governor was appointed to head the local government. In larger communes, the podestà was assisted by one or two vice-podestà nominated by the Ministry of Interior , in addition to a board of advisors ( consulta municipale ) nominated either by the local prefect or, in the major cities, by the Ministry of Interior. The decree was in effect from 21 April 1927 until 1945, when
515-521: A Franciscan; all three Italians. In his last Consistory for the promotion of Cardinals, on 15 December 1302, Boniface VIII named two more cardinals: Pedro Rodríguez , bishop of Burgos, Spain, became Suburbicarian Bishop of Sabina; and Giovanni Minio da Morrovalle (or da Muro), OFM, Minister General of the Franciscans, was appointed Suburbicarian Bishop of Porto. A Franciscan, a Spaniard, no Benedictines, no French. In fact, there were only two French in
618-720: A canonry in the Cathedral of Todi in 1260. He also came into possession of the small nearby castello of Sismano , a place with twenty-one fires (hearths, families). In later years Father Vitalis , the Prior of S. Egidio de S. Gemino in Narni testified that he knew him and conversed with him in Todi and that Benedetto was in a school run by Rouchetus , a Doctor of Laws , from that city. Benedetto never forgot his roots in Todi , later describing
721-703: A common podestà until 1453, when all Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks . The example of Italy in the matter of podestà was sometimes followed by cities and republics in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages, notably by such as had trade relations with Italy. The officers elected sometimes bore the title of podestà or podestat . Thus in East Frisia , there were podestà identical in name and functions to those of
824-454: A council... but... the grief which had hardened in the heart of Pope Boniface, by reason of the injury which he had received, produced in him, once he had come to Rome, a strange malady so that he gnawed at himself as if he were mad, and in this state he passed from this life on the twelfth day of October in the year of Christ 1303, and in the Church of St. Peter near the entrance of the doors, in
927-533: A grand-nephew of Pope Nicholas III, was also appointed, along with Francesco Napoleone Orsini, a nephew of Pope Nicholas III. Three years later, on 4 December 1298, four new cardinals were named: Gonzalo Gudiel (Gundisalvus Rodericus Innojosa), Archbishop of Toledo, was appointed Bishop of Albano; Teodorico Ranieri, Archbishop-elect of Pisa and papal Chamberlain, became Cardinal Priest of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme; Niccolò Boccasini, OP, of Treviso, Master General of
1030-900: A heretical criminal to the French clergy. On 15 August 1303, the Pope suspended the right of all persons in the Kingdom of France to name anyone as Regent or Doctor, including the King. And in another document of the same day, he reserved to the Holy See the provision of all present and future vacancies in cathedral churches and monasteries, until King Philip should come to the Papal Court and make explanations of his behavior. On 7 September 1303, an army led by King Philip's minister Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna attacked Boniface at his palace in Anagni next to
1133-542: A man of foreign birth their chief magistrate, giving him every power, authority and jurisdiction over the city, as well over criminal as over civil causes, and in times of war as well as in times of peace, calling him praetor as being above the others, or podestà , as having every authority and power over the city. Podestà were first more widely appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa when he began to assert
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#17328025257871236-571: A member of a baronial family of the Papal States , the Caetani or Gaetani dell'Aquila . Through his mother, Emilia Patrasso di Guarcino, a niece of Pope Alexander IV (Rinaldo dei Conti di Segni—who was himself a nephew of Pope Gregory IX ), he was not far distant from the seat of ecclesiastical power and patronage. His father's younger brother, Atenolfo, was Podestà di Orvieto . Benedetto took his first steps into religious life when he
1339-483: A mission to France. Cardinal Simon had been appointed by Pope Urban IV (Jacques Pantaléon), between 25 and 27 April 1264, to engage in negotiations with Charles of Anjou , Comte de Provence , over the Crown of Naples and Sicily . On 1 May 1264 he was given permission to appoint two or three tabelliones (secretaries) for his mission, one of whom was Benedetto. On 26 February 1265, only eleven days after his coronation,
1442-519: A peace gesture toward the French, Clement V pardoned Guillaume Nogaret for his offences committed at Anagni against Boniface VIII and the Church, for which he had been excommunicated, with the condition that Nogaret personally go to the Holy Land in the next wave of soldiers and serve there in the military. By the end of Spring 1310, Clement was feeling the embarrassment and the pressure over the material being produced by Boniface's accusers. His patience
1545-482: A rich chapel which was built in his lifetime, he was honorably buried. He died of a violent fever on 11 October, in full possession of his senses and in the presence of eight cardinals and the chief members of the papal household, after receiving the sacraments and making the usual profession of faith. The body of Boniface VIII was buried in 1303 in a special chapel that also housed the remains of Pope Boniface IV (A.D. 608–615), which had been moved by Boniface VIII from
1648-544: A sixth part (or Book) these various papal decisions, including some 88 of his own legal decisions, as well as a collection of legal principles known as the Regulæ Juris . His contribution came to be known as the Liber Sextus . This material is still of importance to canon lawyers or canonists today, to interpret and analyze the canons and other forms of ecclesiastical law properly. The " Regulae Iuris " appear at
1751-538: A tomb outside the Vatican Basilica in the portico. The body was accidentally exhumed in 1605, and the results of the excavation recorded by Giacomo Grimaldi (1568–1623), Apostolic Notary and Archivist of the Vatican Basilica, and others. The body lay within three coffins, the outermost of wood, the middle of lead, and the innermost of pine . The corporal remains were described as being "unusually tall" measuring seven palms when examined by doctors. The body
1854-531: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This biographical article related to the French military is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Pope Boniface VIII Pope Boniface VIII ( Latin : Bonifatius PP. VIII ; born Benedetto Caetani ; c. 1230 – 11 October 1303) was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 December 1294 until his death in 1303. The Caetani family
1957-487: Is an eight-year period in which nothing is known about his life. This period, however, included the long vacancy of the papal throne from 29 November 1268 to February 1272, when Pope Gregory X accepted the papal throne. It also includes the time span when Pope Gregory and his cardinals went to France in 1273 for the second Council of Lyon, as well as the Eighth Crusade , led by Louis IX, in 1270. The Pope and some of
2060-569: Is no evidence that the Pope was beaten or physically harmed. He died a month afterwards. King Philip IV pressured Pope Clement V of the Avignon Papacy into staging a posthumous trial of Boniface. He was accused of heresy and sodomy but no verdict against him was delivered. Benedetto Caetani was born in Anagni , some 50 kilometres (31 mi) southeast of Rome . He was a younger son of Roffredo Caetani (Podestà of Todi in 1274–1275),
2163-430: Is said that on one particular day some 30,000 people were counted. Giovanni Villani estimated that some 200,000 pilgrims came to Rome. Boniface and his aides managed the affair well, food was plentiful, and it was sold at moderate prices. It was an advantage to the pope that the great sums of money he collected could be used according to Boniface's own judgment. After King Edward I of England invaded Scotland and forced
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#17328025257872266-702: Is the title of mayors in Italian -speaking municipalities of Graubünden in Switzerland , but it is not the case for the Canton of Ticino , which uses the title sindaco (the same currently in use throughout Italy). The term derives from the Latin word potestas ('power'). There is a similar derivation for the Arabic term سلطان sulṭān , originally meaning 'power' or 'authority'; it eventually became
2369-796: The Lex Frisionum . According to later tradition, it was Charlemagne who granted the Frisians the title of freemen and permitted them to choose their own podestat or imperial governor from among the chieftains, to organize and lead the defense of two of the three districts of Frisia, in Middle Frisia , from the Flie to the Lauwers and in East Frisia from the Lauwers to the Weser , later
2472-651: The Kingdom of Sicily . He also commended to the Cardinal the Sienese bankers who had been working for Urban IV to raise funds for Charles of Anjou, and that he should transfer to them some 7,000 pounds Tournois from the decima (ten percent tax) of France. On 20 March 1265, in order to expedite the business with Charles of Anjou, Cardinal Simon was authorized to provide benefices from cathedrals or otherwise within his province to five of his clerics. This may have been
2575-459: The Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, which saw Pedro's son Frederick III recognized as king of Sicily while Charles II was recognized as the king of Naples . To prepare for a Crusade, Boniface ordered Venice and Genoa to sign a truce; they fought each other for three more years, and turned down his offer to mediate peace. Boniface also placed the city of Florence under an interdict and invited
2678-531: The secular arm . By July 1297, Boniface yielded completely in the bull Etsi de statu , conceding that kings could raise taxes on church property and incomes during emergencies without prior papal approval. Philip rescinded his embargoes and even accepted Boniface's nuncios as arbitrators to delay and conclude his war with the English, with the 1303 Treaty of Paris restoring the status quo but obliging Edward to come to France in person to do homage for
2781-518: The 12th and 13th centuries. This was probably due to their lesser concern (at the time) than other Italians in the affairs of the mainland. Afterwards, in a few cases, the term of office was extended to cover a period of years, or even a lifetime. They were confined in a luxury palace to keep them from being influenced by any of the local families. The architectural arrangement of the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena , built starting in 1297, evokes
2884-410: The 73-year-old Boniface was probably beaten and nearly executed, but was released from captivity after three days. He died a month later. The famous Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani, wrote: And when Sciarra and the others, his enemies, came to him, they mocked at him with vile words and arrested him and his household which had remained with him. Among others, William of Nogaret, who had conducted
2987-616: The Apostolic See, and caused an alliance between Her and your enemies?." In the face of the support of French clergy such as Pierre de Mornay for Philip's general position and the need for French revenue to combat unrest in Rome from the Colonna family , Boniface retreated still further. In February 1297, the bull Romana mater ecclesia permitted voluntary clerical donations without papal approval in times of emergency as determined by
3090-489: The Council of Vienne, opened on 16 October 1311, with more than 300 bishops in attendance. When the Council met (so it is said), three cardinals appeared before it and testified to the orthodoxy and morality of the dead pope. Two knights, as challengers, threw down their gauntlets to maintain his innocence by trial by combat . No one accepted the challenge, and the Council declared the matter closed. Clement's order disbanding
3193-697: The Countship of Ostfriesland . The Italians probably became aware of the Frisian Potestaat, in Dutch "op poten staan" in English 'on legs standing', like for instance king Henry on his painting (Dutch: potestaat ; German: Potestat ; English: potestate ) during the Sixth Crusade in 1228. According to privileges that were falsely ascribed to the Carolingian era, the potestate
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3296-579: The Dominicans, became Cardinal Priest of Santa Sabina; and Riccardo Petroni of Siena, Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, was named a Cardinal Deacon. A pattern begins to emerge, though one sees the pattern only in terms of negatives: of the ten new cardinals, only two are monks, and neither of them Benedictine (Celestine V had been excessively partial to Benedictines); and there are no Frenchmen (Celestine had named seven Frenchmen, under
3399-492: The French clergy. To forestall the ecclesiastical council proposed by Boniface, Philip summoned the three estates of his realm to meet at Paris in April. At this first French Estates-General in history, all three classes – nobles, clergy, and commons – wrote separately to Rome in defence of the king and his temporal power. Some forty-five French prelates, despite Philip's prohibition, and the confiscation of their property, attended
3502-542: The Italian republics; sometimes each province had one, and sometimes the federal diet elected a podestà -general for the whole country, the term of office being for a limited period or for life. The concept of a local man empowered to represent the Holy Roman Emperor was also a feature of medieval Frisia . From apocryphal beginnings, important rights were granted or confirmed under the code of law known as
3605-526: The Order of Cardinal Priests , with the title of SS. Silvester and Martin. Given the fact that there were only a dozen cardinals, Cardinal Benedetto was assigned the care ( commenda ) of the deaconry of S. Agata, and his old deaconry of S. Nicola in Carcere. As cardinal, he served as papal legate in diplomatic negotiations to France, Naples, Sicily, and Aragon. Pope Celestine V (who had been Brother Peter,
3708-516: The Order of the Knights Templar was signed at the Council of Vienne on 2 May 1312. The pope is said to have been short-tempered, kicking an envoy in the face on one occasion, and on another, throwing ashes in the eyes of an archbishop who was kneeling to receive them as a blessing atop his head. Footnotes Citations Podest%C3%A0 Podestà ( Italian: [podeˈsta] ), also potestate or podesta in English,
3811-695: The Papal Curia to Rome, where he was crowned at the Vatican Basilica on Sunday, 23 January 1295. One of his first acts as pontiff was to imprison his predecessor in the Castle of Fumone in Ferentino , where he died on 19 May 1296 at the age of 81. In 1300, Boniface VIII formalized the custom of the Roman Jubilee , which afterwards became a source of both profit and scandal to the church. Boniface VIII founded Sapienza University of Rome in 1303. In
3914-568: The Papal States. These measures had the effect of blocking a main source of papal revenue. Philip also banished from France the papal agents who were raising funds for a new crusade in the Middle East. In the bull Ineffabilis amor of September 1296, Boniface pledged approval of reasonable taxation for genuine emergencies but contested Philip's demands, asking him rhetorically: "What would happen to you—God forbid!—if you gravely offended
4017-443: The Pope formally excused the King for everything that he had said against the memory of Pope Boniface, on the grounds that he was speaking with good intentions. This statement was written down and published as a bull, and the bull contained the statement that the matter would be referred by the Pope to the forthcoming Council. The Pope then announced that he was reserving the whole matter to his own judgment. The XV Ecumenical Council,
4120-506: The Sacred College at Boniface's death, only five regular clergy (only one Benedictine). When Frederick III of Sicily attained his throne after the death of his father Peter III of Aragon , Boniface tried to dissuade him from accepting the throne of Sicily . When Frederick persisted, Boniface excommunicated him in 1296, and placed the island under interdict . Neither the king nor the people were moved. The conflict continued until
4223-498: The abdication of the Scottish King John Balliol , the deposed king was released into the custody of Pope Boniface on condition that he remain at a papal residence. The hard-pressed Scottish Parliament, then in the early stages of what came to be known as First Scottish War of Independence , condemned Edward I's invasion and occupation of Scotland and appealed to the Pope to assert a feudal overlordship over
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4326-588: The ambitious Charles, Count of Valois to enter Italy in 1300 to end the feud of the Black and White Guelphs , the poet Dante Alighieri being in the party of the Whites. Boniface's political ambitions directly affected Dante when the pope invited Count Charles to intervene in the affairs of Florence. Charles's intervention allowed the Black Guelphs to overthrow the ruling White Guelphs, whose leaders, including
4429-584: The archbishop of Toledo, who had died in 1299, as Cardinal Bishop of Albano. The second was Gentile Partino , OFM, Doctor of Theology and Lector of Theology in the Roman Curia, who was made Cardinal Priest of S. Martin in montibus. The third was Luca Fieschi , of the Counts of Lavagna, of Genoa, named Cardinal Deacon of S. Maria in Via Lata (the deaconry which had once belonged to Jacopo Colonna). A relative,
4532-524: The autonomous powers and functions of comuni (municipalities), including elected town councils and mayors . Instead, all comuni , except for Rome , were to be headed by a podestà , an authoritarian mayor with full executive and legislative powers. He was appointed by royal charter (in practice, by the National Fascist Party ) for a renewable five-year term (which could be revoked at any time with immediate effect). In Rome,
4635-464: The bull Ausculta Fili ("Listen, [My] Son", December 1301) Boniface VIII appealed to Philip IV to listen modestly to the Vicar of Christ as the spiritual monarch over all earthly kings. He protested against the trial of churchmen before Philip's royal courts and the continued use of church funds for state purposes and he announced that he would summon the bishops and abbots of France to take measures "for
4738-496: The cardinals began their return to Italy at the end of November 1275. Pope Gregory celebrated Christmas in Arezzo and died there on 10 January 1276. In 1276, however, Benedetto was sent to France to supervise the collection of a tithe , which is perhaps when he held the office of Advocatus in the Roman Curia, and then was appointed a papal Notary in the late 1270s. During this time, Benedetto accumulated seventeen benefices, which he
4841-463: The cathedral. The Pope responded with a bull dated 8 September 1303, in which Philip and Nogaret were excommunicated. The French Chancellor and the Colonnas demanded the Pope's abdication; Boniface VIII responded that he would "sooner die". In response, Colonna allegedly slapped Boniface, a "slap" historically remembered as the schiaffo di Anagni ("Anagni slap"). According to a modern interpreter,
4944-477: The citizens or by the citizens' representatives, rather like the older consuls (but not collegial). The podestà exercised the supreme power in the city, both in peace and war, and in foreign and domestic matters alike; but their term of office lasted only about a year. In order to avoid the intense strife so common in Italian civic life, it soon became the custom to hire a stranger to fill this position. Venetians were in special demand for this purpose during
5047-528: The city as "the dwelling place of his early youth", the city which "nourished him while still of tender years", and as a place where he "held lasting memories". Later in life he repeatedly expressed his gratitude to Anagni, Todi, and his family. In 1264, Benedetto entered the Roman Curia , perhaps with the office of Advocatus. He served as secretary to Cardinal Simon de Brion, the future Pope Martin IV , on
5150-555: The council at Rome in October 1302. Following that council, on 18 November 1302, Boniface issued the bull Unam sanctam ("One holy [catholic and apostolic Church]"). It declared that both spiritual and temporal power were under the pope's jurisdiction, and that kings were subordinate to the power of the Roman pontiff. The Pope also appointed Cardinal Jean le Moine as Apostolic Legate to King Philip, to attempt to find some resolution of
5253-509: The country. The Pope assented, condemning Edward's invasions and occupation of Scotland in the papal bull Scimus, Fili (Latin for "We know, my son") of 27 June 1299. The bull ordered Edward to desist from his attacks and start negotiations with the Scots. However, Edward ignored the bull; in 1301, a letter was composed in which the English rejected its authority, but it was never sent. The feud between Boniface and Philip IV reached its peak in
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#17328025257875356-518: The diocese of Vasio (Vaison), on 18 October 1309. Both the King of Aragon and the King of Castile immediately sent ambassadors to Pope Clement, complaining that scandal was being poured into the ears of the Faithful, when they heard that a Roman pontiff was being charged with a crime of heresy. Complaints also came from Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands. On 27 April 1310, in what was certainly
5459-412: The early 14th century, when Philip began to launch a strong anti-papal campaign against Boniface. A quarrel arose between Philip's aides and a papal legate, Bernard Saisset . The legate was arrested on a charge of inciting an insurrection, was tried and convicted by the royal court, and committed to the custody of the archbishop of Narbonne , Giles Aycelin – one of his key ministers and allies, in 1301. In
5562-549: The end of the Liber Sextus (in VI°) , and now published as part of the five Decretales in the Corpus Juris Canonici . They appear as simple aphorisms, such as "Regula VI: Nemo potest ad impossibile obligari." ('No one can be obligated for something impossible.') Other systems of law also have their own Regulæ Juris , whether by the same name or something serving a similar function. Boniface VIII put forward some of
5665-445: The entire system was abandoned with the return to democracy. Literally, this derived word means the office of a podestà or its term, but podesteria can also designate a district administered by a podestà within a larger state. In the Domini di Terraferma that the dogal Republic of Venice gradually established in the basin of the river Po, annexing various former principalities and self-governing cities, mostly in
5768-424: The events of the abdication and election, said that Benedetto Caetani was only one of several cardinals who pressured Celestine to abdicate. However, it is also on record that Celestine V abdicated by his own design after consultation with experts, and that Benedetto merely showed that it was allowed by Church law. Either way, Celestine V vacated the throne and Benedetto Caetani was elected in his place as pope, taking
5871-405: The field of canon law Boniface VIII had considerable influence. Earlier collections of canon law had been codified in the Decretales Gregorii IX , published under the authority of Pope Gregory IX in 1234, but in the succeeding sixty years, numerous legal decisions were made by one pope after another. By Boniface's time a new and expanded edition was needed. In 1298 Boniface ordered published as
5974-442: The fifteenth century, podesteria ( Venetian : podestarie ) were one of the intermediate levels of the hierarchical administrative organization, the highest ("provincial") level being the territorio (roughly a modern administrative region). After the other dogal republic, Genoa , was in 1273 granted control of Pera and Galata , commercial suburbs of Constantinople , by the Byzantine emperor, it governed them jointly by
6077-407: The first creation, in 1295, only one cardinal was appointed, the Pope's nephew Benedetto Caetano. This was no surprise. Nor was the second creation, on 17 December 1295. Two more relatives were appointed, Francesco Caetano, the son of Boniface VIII's brother Peter; and Jacopo (Giacomo) Tomassi Caetani, OFM, a son of the Pope's sister, was made Cardinal Priest of S. Clemente. Giacomo Caetani Stefaneschi,
6180-426: The great Pope Boniface abode prisoner among his enemies for three days.... the People of Anagni beholding their error and issuing from their blind ingratitude, suddenly rose in arms... and drove out Sciarra della Colonna and his followers, with loss to them of prisoners and slain, and freed the Pope and his household. Pope Boniface... departed immediately from Anagni with his court and came to Rome and St. Peter's to hold
6283-435: The head of the municipal administration, particularly in the Italian-speaking territories of the Austrian Empire . The title was taken up again during the Fascist regime with the same meaning. The podestà 's office, its duration and the residence and the local jurisdiction were called podesteria , especially during the Middle Ages, and in later centuries, more rarely during the Fascist regime. Currently, podestà
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#17328025257876386-455: The hermit of Mount Murrone near Sulmone) abdicated on 13 December 1294 at Naples , where, much to the discomfort of a number of cardinals, he had established the papal court under the patronage of Charles II of Naples . He had continued to live like a monk there, even turning a room in the papal apartment into the semblance of a monastic cell. A contemporary, Bartholomew of Lucca , who was present in Naples in December 1294 and witnessed many of
6489-442: The impasse that had developed; he was granted the specific power of absolving King Philip from excommunication. On Maundy Thursday , 4 April 1303, the Pope again excommunicated all persons who were impeding French clerics from coming to the Holy See, "etiam si imperiali aut regali fulgeant dignitati." This included King Philip IV, though not by name. In response, Guillaume de Nogaret , Philip's chief minister, denounced Boniface as
6592-402: The influence of Charles II of Naples). Pope Boniface was distinctly changing the complexion of the membership of the Sacred College. Without the Colonnas, the influence of the King of France was greatly diminished. On 2 March 1300, during the Great Jubilee, Boniface VIII created three more cardinals. The first was Leonardo Patrasso, Archbishop of Capua, who was Boniface VIII's uncle; he replaced
6695-411: The king. On 3 April 1297, seven French archbishops and forty bishops, provided this authorisation, agreed to concede to the King the fifth part of their ecclesiastical revenues under the form of two tithes, the first of which to be paid by Pentecost , the second at the end of September. This subsidy could be collected just in case the war with England should go on, with Church authority and not by means of
6798-499: The land and furthermore to hand over the family's strongholds of Colonna, Palestrina , and other towns to the Papacy. Jacopo refused. Jacopo Colonna and his nephew, Pietro Colonna, had also seriously compromised themselves by maintaining highly questionable relations with the political enemies of the pope, James II of Aragon and Frederick III of Sicily. In May, Boniface removed them from the College of Cardinals and excommunicated them and their followers. The Colonna family (aside from
6901-414: The latter sought to reinforce the nascent nation state by imposing taxes on the clergy and barring them from administration of the law. Boniface excommunicated Philip and all others who prevented French clergy from traveling to the Holy See , after which the king sent his troops to attack the pope's residence in Anagni on 7 September 1303 and capture him. Boniface was held for three days; however, there
7004-421: The latter, supposing him to be ahead of his time. The conflict between Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France (1268–1314) came at a time of expanding nation states and the desire for the consolidation of power by the increasingly powerful monarchs. The increase in monarchical power and its conflicts with the Church of Rome were only exacerbated by the rise to power of Philip IV in 1285. In France,
7107-420: The memory of Boniface VIII to proceed." He gave a mandate to the Bishop of Paris, Guillaume de Baufet d'Aurillac, and to Guillaume Pierre Godin, OP, that the complainants should choose prosecutors and determine a day on which the Inquiry would begin in the presence of the Pope ( coram nobis Avinione ). The Pope signed his mandate at his current place of residence, the Priory of Grauselle near Malusan (Malausène) in
7210-411: The name Boniface VIII. The regulations promulgated in the 1274 papal bull Ubi periculum had not envisioned an abdication, but declared that election proceedings should begin ten days after the death of the incumbent. The 1294 papal conclave accordingly began on 23 December, ten days after Celestine's abdication. This gave all twenty-two cardinals the chance to assemble at the Castel Nuovo in Naples,
7313-427: The negotiations for the king of France, scorned him and threatened him, saying that he would take him bound to Lyons on the Rhone, and there in a general council would cause him to be deposed and condemned.... no man dared to touch [Boniface], nor were they pleased to lay hands on him, but they left him robed under light arrest and were minded to rob the treasure of the Pope and the Church. In this pain, shame and torment,
7416-424: The new pope, Pope Clement IV wrote to Cardinal Simon, telling him to break off negotiations and travel immediately to Provence , where he would receive further instructions. On the same day, Clement wrote to Charles of Anjou, informing him that the pope had 35 conditions that Charles must agree to in accepting the crown; he also wrote to Henry III of England and his son Edmund that they had never been possessors of
7519-402: The novice through the requirements of the office, the salary, the address of welcome given by the retiring podestà to the new one, the choice of counsellors, the handling of money accounts. The fifth chapter offers some model speeches on public occasions, such as the death of prominent citizens. A final chapter touches upon making war (in a paragraph), and the training of urban officials. In
7622-416: The occasion on which Benedetto Caetani acquired at least some of his French benefices. On 9 April 1265, on the petition of Cardinal Simon de Brion, the legation which had been assigned him by Pope Urban was declared not to have expired on the death of Urban IV. There would have been no point in making such a ruling if Cardinal Simon had already ceased to be Legate . On 4 May 1265 Cardinal Ottobono Fieschi
7725-553: The offence of sodomy , although there is no substantive evidence for this, and it is likely that this was the standard accusation Philip made against enemies. The same charge was brought against the Templars. Before the actual trial could be held, Clement persuaded Philip to leave the question of Boniface's guilt to the Council of Vienne , which met in 1311. On 27 April 1311, in a public Consistory, with King Philip's agents present,
7828-634: The poet Dante, allegedly in Rome at the time to argue Florence's case before Boniface, were sentenced to exile. Dante settled his score with Boniface in the first canticle of the Divine Comedy , the Inferno , by damning the pope, placing him within the circles of Fraud , in the bolgia (ditch) of the simoniacs . In the Inferno , Pope Nicholas III , mistaking the Poet for Boniface, is surprised to see
7931-467: The pope to soon arrive at the eighth circle of Hell in his Divine Comedy , among the simoniacs . Boniface systematized canon law by collecting it in a new volume, the Liber Sextus (1298), which continues to be important source material for canon lawyers. He established the first Catholic jubilee year to take place in Rome . Boniface had first entered into conflict with King Philip IV in 1296 when
8034-445: The preservation of the liberties of the Church". When the bull was presented to Philip IV, Robert II, Count of Artois , reportedly snatched it from the hands of Boniface's emissary and flung it into the fire. On 10 February 1302 the bull Ausculta Fili was officially burned at Paris before Philip IV and a large crowd. Nonetheless, on 4 March 1302, Pope Boniface sent cardinal Jean Lemoine as his legate to reassert papal control over
8137-538: The process of centralizing royal power and developing a genuine national state began with the Capetian kings. During his reign, Philip surrounded himself with the best civil lawyers and decidedly expelled the clergy from all participation in the administration of the law. With the clergy beginning to be taxed in France and England to finance their ongoing wars against each other, Boniface took a hard stand against it. He saw
8240-421: The return of Aquitaine. Boniface proclaimed 1300 a " jubilee " year, the first of many such jubilees to take place in Rome . He probably wanted to gather money from pilgrims to Rome as a substitute for the missing money from France, or it may be that he was seeking moral and political support against the hostile behaviour of the French king. The event was a success; Rome had never received such crowds before. It
8343-421: The rights that his Imperial position gave him over the cities of northern Italy; at the second imperial diet at Roncaglia , November 1158, Frederick appointed in several major cities imperial podestà "as if having imperial power in that place". The elected consuls, which Frederick had claimed the right to ratify, began to designate directly. The business of the podestà was to enforce imperial rights. From
8446-500: The site of the abdication. Hugh Aycelin presided over the papal conclave as the senior cardinal bishop. Benedetto Caetani was elected by ballot and accession on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1294, taking the name Boniface VIII. On the first (secret) ballot, he had a majority of the votes, and at the accessio a sufficient number joined his majority to form the required two-thirds. He was consecrated bishop of Rome in Rome by Cardinal Hugh Aycelin on 23 January 1295. He immediately returned
8549-421: The sixteenth century. The officials sent by the Italian republics to administer the affairs of dependent cities were also sometimes called podestà . Into the 20th century the cities of Trento and Trieste gave the name of podestà to their chief magistrate . The Fascist regime created its own version of the podestà figure. In February 1926, Mussolini's Senate issued a decree which abolished
8652-555: The start, this was very unpopular, and their often arbitrary behaviour was a factor in bringing about the formation of the Lombard League and the uprising against Frederick in 1167. Although the Emperor's experiment was short-lived, the podestà soon became important and common in northern Italy, making their appearance in most communes around the year 1200, with an essential difference. These officials were now appointed by
8755-853: The strongest claims of any pope to temporal as well as spiritual power. He involved himself often with foreign affairs. In his Papal bull of 1302, Unam sanctam , Boniface VIII stated that since the Church is one, since the Church is necessary for salvation, and since Christ appointed Peter to lead it, it is "absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff". These views, and his chronic intervention in "temporal" affairs, led to many bitter quarrels with Albert I of Germany , Philip IV of France , and Dante Alighieri , who wrote his treatise De Monarchia to dispute Boniface's claims of papal supremacy. In 1297, Cardinal Jacopo Colonna disinherited his brothers Ottone, Matteo, and Landolfo of their lands. The latter three appealed to Pope Boniface VIII, who ordered Jacopo to return
8858-695: The taxation as an assault on traditional clerical rights and ordered the bull Clericis laicos in February 1296, forbidding lay taxation of the clergy without prior papal approval. In the bull, Boniface states "they exact and demand from the same the half, tithe , or twentieth, or any other portion or proportion of their revenues or goods; and in many ways they try to bring them into slavery, and subject them to their authority. And also whatsoever emperors, kings, or princes, dukes, earls or barons...presume to take possession of things anywhere deposited in holy buildings... should incur sentence of excommunication." It
8961-601: The thirteenth century in Florence, in Orvieto (1251) and some other cities, a capitano del popolo ( lit. ' captain of the people ' ) was chosen to look after the interests of the lower classes (to this day, the heads of government of the little independent republic of San Marino are still called " capitani "). In other ways the power of the podestà was reduced—they were confined more and more to judicial functions until they disappeared early in
9064-643: The three brothers allied with the Pope) declared that Boniface had been elected illegally following the unprecedented abdication of Pope Celestine V. The dispute led to open warfare, and in September Boniface appointed Landolfo to the command of his army to put down the revolt of Landolfo's relatives. By the end of 1298 Landolfo had captured Colonna, Palestrina and other towns and razed them to the ground after they had surrendered peacefully under Boniface's assurances that they would have been spared. Dante says it
9167-705: The title of the person holding power. The first documented usage of podestà was in Bologna in 1151, when it was applied to Guido di Ranieri di Sasso of Canossa, brought in from Faenza to be rettore e podestà , noted in numerous documents. Leander Albertus gives the particulars: The citizens, seeing that there often arose among them quarrels and altercations, whether from favoritism or friendship, from envy or hatred that one had against another, by which their republic suffered great harm, loss and detriment; therefore, they decided, after much deliberation, to provide against these disorders. And thus they began to create
9270-575: The uneasy relation of the commune with the podestà , who in Siena's case was a disinterested nobleman at the head of the judiciary. It provided a self-contained lodging round its own interior court for the podestà , separate but housed within the Palazzo Pubblico where the councillors and their committee of nine habitually met. During the later part of the twelfth and the whole of the thirteenth century, most Italian cities were governed by
9373-684: Was accompanied by Benedetto Caetani. He was in England until July 1268, working to suppress the remnants of Simon de Montfort's barons who were still in arms against King Henry III of England. To finance their rebellion, the barons had imposed a 10% tax on church property, which the Pope wanted back because the tithe was uncanonical. This drawback was a major concern of Cardinal Ottobono and his entourage. While in England, Benedetto Caetani became rector of St. Lawrence's church in Towcester , Northamptonshire . Upon Benedetto's return from England, there
9476-552: Was appointed Apostolic Legate to England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland by the new Pope Clement IV. In fact, he was sent as the successor of Cardinal Guy Folques, who had been elected Clement IV on 5 February 1265. On 29 August 1265 the Cardinal was received at the French Court by King Louis IX . There he learned that Simon de Montfort and his son Henry had been killed at the Battle of Evesham earlier that month. Cardinal Ottobono did not reach Boulogne until October 1265. He
9579-622: Was chosen by council and he must be able to slay knights. Apocryphal historical writings mention the potestate as early as the Viking Age . The only potestates chosen to lead Friesland between the Vlie and Lauwers were Juw Juwinga (1396) and Juw Dekema (1494), both were chosen by the Schieringers . However, in 1399 the districts of Westergo and Oostergo elected potestates, Haring Harinxma and Sjoerd Wiarda respectively, in
9682-418: Was during the issuing of Clericis laicos that hostilities between Boniface and Philip began. At war with both his English and his Flemish vassals , Philip was convinced that the wealth of the Catholic Church in France should be used in part to support the state. He countered the papal bull by decreeing laws prohibiting the export of gold, silver, precious stones, horses, arms, or food from France to
9785-494: Was found quite intact, especially the shapely hands, thus disproving the myth that he had died in a frenzy, gnawing his hands, beating his brains out against the wall. The body wore ecclesiastical vestments common for Boniface's lifetime: long stockings covered legs and thighs, and it was garbed also with the maniple , cassock , and pontifical habit made of black silk, as well as stole , chasuble , rings, and bejeweled gloves. After this exhumation and examination, Boniface's body
9888-573: Was got by treachery by "long promises and short performances" as Guido of Montefeltro counselled, but this account by the implacable Ghibelline has long since been discredited. Palestrina was razed to the ground, the plough driven through and salt strewn over its ruins . A new city — the Città Papale — later replaced it. Only the city's cathedral was spared. To deal with the problem of the cardinals left to him by his predecessors, Boniface created new cardinals on five occasions during his reign. In
9991-455: Was moved to the Chapel of Pope Gregory and Andrew. His body now lies in the crypt (grotte) of St. Peter's in a large marble sarcophagus, inscribed BONIFACIVS PAPA VIII. After the papacy had been removed to Avignon in 1309, Pope Clement V , under extreme pressure from King Philip IV, consented to a posthumous trial . He said, "[I]t was permissible for any persons who wanted to proceed against
10094-668: Was of baronial origin, with connections to the papacy. He succeeded Pope Celestine V , who had abdicated from the papal throne. Boniface spent his early career abroad in diplomatic roles. Boniface VIII put forward some of the strongest claims of any pope to temporal as well as spiritual power. He involved himself often with foreign affairs, including in France, Sicily, Italy, and the First War of Scottish Independence . These views, and his chronic intervention in temporal affairs, led to many bitter quarrels with Albert I of Germany , Philip IV of France , and Dante Alighieri , who expected
10197-433: Was permitted to keep when he was promoted. Some of these are enumerated in a bull by Pope Martin IV, in which he bestowed the deaconry of S. Nicolas in Carcere on Cardinal Benedetto Caetani. At Orvieto, on 12 April 1281, Pope Martin IV created Benedetto Caetani cardinal deacon of Saint Nicholas in Carcere. In 1288 he was sent as Legate to Umbria to attempt to calm the strife between Guelphs and Ghibellines , which
10300-724: Was sent to the monastery of the Friars Minor in Velletri , where he was put under the care of his maternal uncle Fra Leonardo Patrasso. He was granted a canonry at the cathedral in the family's stronghold of Anagni , with the permission of Pope Alexander IV. The earliest record of him is as a witness to an act of Bishop Pandulf of Anagni on 16 October 1250. In 1252, when his paternal uncle Pietro Caetani became Bishop of Todi , in Umbria , Benedetto followed him to Todi and began his legal studies there. His uncle Pietro granted him
10403-618: Was taking the form of a war between the cities of Perugia and Foligno . In the winter of 1289, he was one of Pope Nicholas IV's advisors as he decided on a settlement of the disputes over the election or appointment of Portuguese bishops, in which King Denis played a major role. To give greater authority to the final mandate of the Pope, Cardinal Latino Orsini of Ostia , Cardinal Pietro Peregrosso of S. Marco , and Cardinal Benedetto of S. Nicola in Carcere appended their signatures and seals. Three years later, on 22 September 1291, Pope Nicholas IV (Girolamo Maschi d'Ascoli, O.Min.) promoted him to
10506-466: Was the name given to the holder of the highest civil office in the government of the cities of central and northern Italy during the Late Middle Ages . Sometimes, it meant the chief magistrate of a city-state, the counterpart to similar positions in other cities that went by other names, e.g. rettori ('rectors'). In the following centuries up to 1918, the term was used to designate
10609-707: Was wearing thin. He issued a mandate on 28 June 1310, in which he complained about the quality of the testimony and the corruption of the various accusers and witnesses. Then he ordered the Quaesitores that future examinations should proceed under threat of excommunication for perjury. A process (judicial investigation) against the memory of Boniface was held by an ecclesiastical consistory at Priory Groseau, near Malaucène , which held preliminary examinations in August and September 1310. and collected testimonies that alleged many heretical opinions of Boniface VIII. This included
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