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150-672: Francisco Suárez was born in Granada , Andalusia (southern Spain ), on 5 January 1548. He was the youngest son of a noble family formed by the lawyer Gaspar Suárez de Toledo and his wife Antonia Vázquez de Utiel. After 3 years of preliminary studies from age 10 onwards, in 1561 Suárez matriculated at the University of Salamanca , and studied law. In 1564, at age sixteen, Suárez entered the Society of Jesus in Salamanca and went through

300-569: A Roman colony and in 27   BC it became a Roman municipium named Florentia Iliberritana ('Flourishing Iliberri'). The identification of present-day Granada with the Roman-era Iliberis and the historical continuity between the two settlements has long been debated by scholars. Modern archeological digs on the Albaicín hill have uncovered finds demonstrating the presence of a significant Roman town on that site. Little

450-404: A monarch . In his massive work, Tractatus de legibus ac deo legislatore (1612), he is to some extent the precursor of Grotius and Pufendorf , in making an important distinction between natural law and international law, which he saw as based on custom. Though his method is throughout scholastic, he covers the same ground, and Grotius speaks of him with great respect. The fundamental position of

600-472: A different, stronger argument. René Descartes (1596–1650) proposed a number of ontological arguments that differ from Anselm's formulation. Generally speaking, they are less formal arguments than they are natural intuition . In Meditation , Book V , Descartes wrote: But, if the mere fact that I can produce from my thought the idea of something entails that everything that I clearly and distinctly perceive to belong to that thing really does belong to it,

750-446: A factual, but only an essential or ideal unity ("In such a way, that many individuals, which are said to be of the same nature, are so: only through the operation of the intellect, not through a substance or essence of things which unites them"). The formal unity, however, is not an arbitrary creation of the mind, but exists "in the nature of the thing, prior [ontologically] to any operation of the intellect". His metaphysical work, giving

900-401: A formal argument for God's existence . The argument was constructed by Gödel but not published until long after his death. He provided an argument based on modal logic; he uses the conception of properties, ultimately concluding with God's existence. Definition 1 : x is God-like if and only if x has as essential properties those and only those properties which are positive Definition 2 : A

1050-498: A further argument in the same vein: This contains the notion of a being that cannot be conceived not to exist. He argued that if something can be conceived not to exist, then something greater can be conceived. Consequently, a thing than which nothing greater can be conceived cannot be conceived not to exist and so it must exist. This can be read as a restatement of the argument in Chapter 2, although Norman Malcolm believes it to be

1200-526: A greater being—that which exists in the mind and in reality—can be conceived (this argument is generally regarded as a reductio ad absurdum because the view of the fool is proven to be inconsistent). Therefore, if we can conceive of a being than which nothing greater can be conceived, it must exist in reality. Thus, a being than which nothing greater could be conceived, which Anselm defined as God, must exist in reality. Anselm's argument in Chapter 2 can be summarized as follows: In Chapter 3, Anselm presents

1350-473: A left-bank tributary of the former, also passes through the city, discharging into the Genil to the west of the city centre. Granada has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csa ) close to a cold semi-arid climate ( BSk ). Summers are hot and dry with daily temperatures averaging 34 °C (93 °F) in the hottest month (July); however, temperatures reaching over 40 °C (104 °F) are not uncommon in

1500-711: A lesser extent, with the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Portuguese. It provided connections with Muslim and Arab trade centers, particularly for gold from sub-Saharan Africa and the Maghreb , and exported silk and dried fruits produced in the area. Despite its frontier position, Granada was also an important Islamic intellectual and cultural center, especially in the time of Muhammad   V, with figures such as Ibn Khaldun and Ibn al-Khatib serving in

1650-416: A modal one." In the phrase 'that than which none greater can be conceived', the word 'can' could be construed as referring to a possibility. Nevertheless, the authors write that "the logic of the ontological argument itself doesn't include inferences based on this modality." However, there have been newer, avowedly modal logic versions of the ontological argument, and on the application of this type of logic to

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1800-520: A new argument, known as Seddiqin Argument or Argument of the Righteous . The argument attempts to prove the existence of God through the reality of existence, and to conclude with God's pre-eternal necessity. In this argument, a thing is demonstrated through itself, and a path is identical with the goal. In other arguments, the truth is attained from an external source, such as from the possible to

1950-478: A priori and necessary premises" and conclude that God exists. Oppy admits, however, that not all of the "traditional characteristics" of an ontological argument (i.e. analyticity, necessity, and a priority) are found in all ontological arguments and, in his 2007 work Ontological Arguments and Belief in God , suggested that a better definition of an ontological argument would employ only considerations "entirely internal to

2100-650: A process which continued for most of the century. In December 1568, during a period of renewed persecution against moriscos , the Second Morisco Rebellion broke out in the Alpujarras. Although the city's morisco population played little role in the rebellion, King Philip II ordered the expulsion of the vast majority of the morisco population from the Kingdom of Granada , with the exception of those artisans and professionals judged essential to

2250-521: A program of forced baptisms , creating the converso class for Muslims and Jews. Cisneros's new strategy, which was a direct violation of the terms of the treaty, provoked the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501) centered in the rural Alpujarras region southeast of the city. The rebellion lasted until 1500 in Granada and continued until 1501 in the Alpujarras. Responding to the rebellion of 1501,

2400-640: A remarkable effort of systematisation, is a real history of medieval thought, combining the three schools available at that time: Thomism , Scotism and Nominalism . He is also a deep commentator of Arabic or high medieval works. He enjoyed the reputation of being the greatest metaphysician of his time. He thus founded a school of his own, Suarism or Suarezianism , the chief characteristic principles of which are: Suárez made an important investigation of being, its properties and division in Disputationes Metaphysicae (1597), which influenced

2550-609: A reputation as a major center of flamenco song and dance, including the Zambra Gitana , an Andalusian dance originating in the Middle East. The zone is a protected cultural environment under the auspices of the Centro de Interpretación del Sacromonte , a cultural center dedicated to the preservation of Gitano cultural forms. This formerly blue collar but now upmarket neighborhood houses 100,000 residents of Granada, making it

2700-544: A ruler, only if the ruler behaves badly towards them, and they must act moderately and justly. In particular, the people must refrain from killing the ruler, no matter how tyrannical he may have become. If a government is imposed on people, on the other hand, they have the right to defend themselves by revolting against it and even kill the tyrannical ruler. Though Suárez was greatly influenced by Aquinas in his philosophy of law, there are some notable differences. Aquinas broadly defined "law" as "a rule and measure acts, whereby man

2850-581: A self-contained palace-city, with its own mosque, hammams, fortress, and residential quarters for workers and servants. The most celebrated palaces that survive today, such as the Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions , generally date from the reigns of Yusuf   I (r. 1333–1354) and his son Muhammad   V (r. 1354–1391, with interruptions). Some smaller examples of Nasrid palace architecture in

3000-570: A set of 36 neighborhoods . All boundaries of districts and neighborhoods were modified in February 2013. The municipal government team has organized the distribution of management responsibilities, structuring itself in the following service areas: Weddings and Palaces, Equal opportunities, Economy, Education, Communication office, Unified license management, Youth, Environment, Municipal Office of Consumer Information, Citizen Participation, Group of Civil Protection Volunteers, Local Police . Realejo

3150-403: A set, there is no reason to believe that any such set exists which is theologically interesting, or that there is only one set of positive properties which is theologically interesting. Modal logic deals with the logic of possibility as well as necessity. Paul Oppenheimer and Edward N. Zalta note that, for Anselm's Proslogion chapter 2, "Many recent authors have interpreted this argument as

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3300-512: A similar structure as Descartes' ontological argument. Descartes attempts to prove God's existence by arguing that there "must be some one thing that is supremely good, through which all good things have their goodness". Spinoza's argument differs in that he does not move straight from the conceivability of the greatest being to the existence of God, but rather uses a deductive argument from the idea of God. Spinoza says that man's ideas do not come from himself, but from some sort of external cause. Thus

3450-634: A small yet densely-populated territory which was more uniformly Muslim and Arabic-speaking than before. The city itself expanded and new neighbourhoods grew around the Albaicín (named after refugees from Baeza ) and in Antequeruela (named after refugees from Antequera after 1410). A new set of walls was constructed further north during the 13th–14th centuries, with Bab Ilbirah (present-day Puerta de Elvira ) as its western entrance. A major Muslim cemetery existed outside this gate. The city's heart

3600-401: A social nature bestowed upon them by God, and this includes the potential to make laws. However, when a political society is formed, the authority of the state is not of divine but of human origin; therefore, its nature is chosen by the people involved, and their natural legislative power is given to the ruler. Because they gave this power, they have the right to take it back and to revolt against

3750-580: A succession of different places: Ávila (1575), Segovia (1575), Valladolid (1576) Rome (1580–85), Alcalá (1585–92) and Salamanca (1592–97). In 1597, he moved to Coimbra , some years after the accession of the Spanish (elder line) House of Habsburg to the Portuguese Throne, to take up the principal chair of Theology at the University of Coimbra . He remained there, aside from a brief time teaching at Rome, until his death in 1617. He wrote on

3900-875: A supremely perfect being. In the early 18th century, Gottfried Leibniz augmented Descartes' ideas in an attempt to prove that a "supremely perfect" being is a coherent concept. A more recent ontological argument came from Kurt Gödel , who proposed a formal argument for God's existence. Norman Malcolm also revived the ontological argument in 1960 when he located a second, stronger ontological argument in Anselm's work; Alvin Plantinga challenged this argument and proposed an alternative, based on modal logic . Attempts have also been made to validate Anselm's proof using an automated theorem prover . Other arguments have been categorised as ontological, including those made by Islamic philosophers Mulla Sadra and Allama Tabatabai . Just as

4050-583: A wide variety of subjects, producing a vast amount of work (his complete works in Latin amount to twenty-six volumes). Suárez's writings include treatises on law , the relationship between Church and State, metaphysics , and theology. He is considered the godfather of International Law. His Disputationes metaphysicae (Metaphysical Disputations ) were widely read in Europe during the 17th century and are considered by some scholars to be his most profound work. Suárez

4200-725: Is a provincial delegation from each of the governmental departments to the Junta de Andalucía , coordinated by a government delegate under the Ministry of the Interior. The national government of Spain has a sub-delegation in Granada, subordinate to the government delegate in the autonomous community. The headquarters of the Superior Court of Justice of Andalusia, Ceuta and Melilla is in Granada, located in Plaza Nueva, in

4350-586: Is advanced in support of the existence of God . Such arguments tend to refer to the state of being or existing . More specifically, ontological arguments are commonly conceived a priori in regard to the organization of the universe, whereby, if such organizational structure is true, God must exist . The first ontological argument in Western Christian tradition was proposed by Saint Anselm of Canterbury in his 1078 work, Proslogion ( Latin : Proslogium , lit.   'Discourse [on

4500-676: Is also made in the city. Vineyards and wines are also a significant contributor to the city and region. In 2020, Granada exported a total of $ 1.3 billion products. The University of Granada (UGR), founded in 1531 by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , meant the continuation of higher studies in La Madraza, when the city was the capital of the last Nasrid Kingdom . The university has become internationally recognised in many university fields: teaching, research, cultural and services to its members and its surroundings. It

4650-416: Is an essence of x if and only if for every property B, x has B necessarily if and only if A entails B Definition 3 : x necessarily exists if and only if every essence of x is necessarily exemplified Axiom 1 : If a property is positive, then its negation is not positive Axiom 2 : Any property entailed by—i.e., strictly implied by—a positive property is positive Axiom 3 : The property of being God-like

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4800-412: Is between ens increatum and ens creatum , i.e., uncreated being and created, or creaturely, being. A final distinction is between being as actus purus and being as ens potentiale , i.e., being as pure actuality and being as potential being. Suárez decided in favor of the first classification of the being into ens infinitum and ens finitum as the most fundamental, in connection with which he accords

4950-550: Is from itself and being that is from another. A second distinction corresponding to this one: ens necessarium and ens contingens , i.e., necessary being and contingent being. Still another formulation of the distinction is between ens per essentiam and ens per participationem , i.e., being that exists by reason of its essence and being that exists only by participation in a being that exists on its own ( eigentlich ). This distinction had just been formerly adopted by St. Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologica . A further distinction

5100-404: Is granted to the elect a grace which is so adapted to their peculiar dispositions and circumstances that they infallibly, though at the same time quite freely, yield themselves to its influence. This mediatizing system was known by the name of "congruism." Here, Suárez's main importance stems probably from his work on natural law , and from his arguments concerning positive law and the status of

5250-493: Is induced to act or is restrained from acting" (ST 1-11, qu. 90, art. 1). Suárez argues that this definition is too broad, since it applies to things that are not strictly laws, such as unjust ordinances and counsels of perfection. Suárez also takes issue with Aquinas' more formal definition of "law" as "an ordinance of reason for the common good, made by him who has care of the community, and promulgated" (ST 1-11, qu. 90, art. 4). This definition, he claims, fails to recognize that law

5400-514: Is known, however, about the history of the city in the period between the end of the Roman era and the 11th century. An important Christian synod circa 300 AD, the Synod of Elvira , took place near this area (the name Elvira being derived from the name Iliberri ), but there is no concrete archeological or documentary evidence establishing the exact location of the meeting. It may have taken place in

5550-412: Is no difference between its parts, unless in terms of perfection and imperfection, strength, and weakness... And the culmination of its perfection, where there is nothing more perfect, is its independence from any other thing. Nothing more perfect should be conceivable, as every imperfect thing belongs to another thing and needs this other to become perfect. And, as it has already been explicated, perfection

5700-535: Is not this a possible basis for another argument to prove the existence of God? Certainly, the idea of God, or a supremely perfect being, is one that I find within me just as surely as the idea of any shape or number. And my understanding that it belongs to his nature that he always exists is no less clear and distinct than is the case when I prove of any shape or number that some property belongs to its nature. Descartes argues that God's existence can be deduced from his nature, just as geometric ideas can be deduced from

5850-481: Is other than Him, and is regarded as His acts and effects, and for other than Him there is no subsistence, unless through Him. For there is no imperfection in the reality of existence, and imperfection is added to existence only because of the quality of being caused, as it is impossible for an effect to be identical with its cause in terms of existence. In response to Kant's rejection of traditional speculative philosophy in his First Critique , and to Kant's rejection of

6000-416: Is positive Axiom 4 : If a property is positive, then it is necessarily positive Axiom 5 : Necessary existence is positive Axiom 6 : For any property P, if P is positive, then being necessarily P is positive Theorem 1 : If a property is positive, then it is consistent, i.e., possibly exemplified Corollary 1 : The property of being God-like is consistent Theorem 2 : If something is God-like, then

6150-488: Is primarily an act of will rather than an act of reason, and would wrongly count orders to particular individuals as being laws. Finally, Suárez disagrees with Aquinas's claim that God can change or suspend some of the secondary precepts of the natural law, such as the prohibitions on murder, theft, and adultery (ST 1-11, qu. 94, art. 5). Suárez argues that the natural law is immutable as long as human nature remains unchanged, and that what may appear to be divinely-made changes in

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6300-538: Is prior to imperfection, actuality to potency, and existence to non-existence. Also, it has been explained that the perfection of a thing is the thing itself, and not a thing in addition to it. Thus, either existence is independent of others or it is in need of others. The former is the Necessary, which is pure existence. Nothing is more perfect than Him. And in Him there is no room for non-existence or imperfection. The latter

6450-747: Is the capital city of the province of Granada , in the autonomous community of Andalusia , Spain . Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence of four rivers, the Darro , the Genil , the Monachil and the Beiro. Ascribed to the Vega de Granada comarca , the city sits at an average elevation of 738 m (2,421 ft) above sea level , yet is only one hour by car from

6600-670: Is therefore one of the destinations that receives more exchange students from the Erasmus Program13 and the fourth Spanish university in number of students, after the Complutense University of Madrid, and the University of Seville. The university has around 47,000 undergraduate students. Ontological argument In the philosophy of religion , an ontological argument is a deductive philosophical argument , made from an ontological basis, that

6750-526: The Alcaicería , is made up of several narrow streets, which start from this place and continue as far as the cathedral. The Sacromonte neighborhood is located on the extension of the hill of Albaicín, along the Darro River. This area, which became famous by the nineteenth century for its predominantly Gitano inhabitants, is characterized by cave houses, which are dug into the hillside. The area has

6900-509: The 2023 Spanish local elections Cuenca was ousted by Marifrán Carazo of the PP. Carazo increased the PP's number of seats from 7 to 14, gaining her a slim majority and making her the first female mayor of the city. The municipality of Granada consists of eight districts whose population is distributed in the attached chart according to the 2009 census of the City of Granada. These districts formed

7050-589: The Corral del Carbón ), built in the early 14th century, the Maristan (hospital), built in 1365–1367 and demolished in 1843, and the main mosque of the Albaicín, dating from the 13th century. When Ibn Al-Ahmar established himself in the city he moved the royal palace from the old Zirid citadel on the Albaicín hill to the Sabika hill, beginning construction on what became the present Alhambra. The Alhambra acted as

7200-598: The Crown of Castile rescinded the Treaty of Granada, and mandated that Granada's Muslims convert or emigrate. Many of the remaining Muslim elites subsequently emigrated to North Africa. The majority of the Granada's mudéjares converted (becoming the so-called moriscos or Moorish) so that they could stay. Both populations of converts were subject to persecution, execution, or exile, and each had cells that practiced their original religion in secrecy (the so-called marranos in

7350-707: The Disputationes served as a textbook in philosophy. In a similar way, Suárez had major influence in the Reformed tradition of German and Dutch schools for both metaphysics and law, including international law. His work was highly praised, for example, by Hugo Grotius (1583–1645). His influence is evident in the writings of Bartholomaeus Keckermann (1571–1609), Clemens Timpler (1563–1624), Gilbertus Jacchaeus (1578–1628), Johann Heinrich Alsted (1588–1638), Antonius Walaeus (1573–1639), and Johannes Maccovius (Jan Makowski; 1588–1644), among others. This influence

7500-515: The Kingdom of Granada , where the hammer of depopulation caused by the expulsion of the moriscos had taken a far greater toll in the previous century. The 17th-century demographic stagnation in the city and overall steady population increase in the wider kingdom went in line with the demographic disaster experienced throughout the century in the rest of the Crown of Castile. The city was overshadowed in importance by other cities including Seville and

7650-729: The Mediterranean coast, the Costa Tropical . Nearby is the Sierra Nevada Ski Station , where the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1996 were held. In the 2021 national census , the population of the city of Granada proper was 227,383, and the population of the entire municipal area was estimated to be 231,775, ranking as the 20th-largest urban area of Spain . About 3.3% of the population did not hold Spanish citizenship,

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7800-709: The Nasrids , who ruled the Emirate of Granada . On multiple occasions Ibn al-Ahmar aligned himself with Ferdinand III, eventually agreeing to become his vassal in 1246. Granada thereafter became a tributary state to the Kingdom of Castile, although this was often interrupted by wars between the two states. The political history of the emirate was turbulent and intertwined with that of its neighbours. The Nasrids sometimes provided refuge or military aid to Castilian kings and noblemen, even against other Muslim states, while in turn

7950-569: The Neoplatonists , the mainstream view is that the ontological argument was first clearly stated and developed by Anselm of Canterbury . Some scholars argue that Islamic philosopher Avicenna (Ibn Sina) developed a special kind of ontological argument before Anselm, while others have doubted this position. Daniel Dombrowski marked three major stages in the development of the argument: Theologian and philosopher Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) proposed an ontological argument in

8100-512: The University of Coimbra in order to give it prestige, and when Suárez visited the University of Barcelona , the doctors of the university went out to meet him wearing the insignia of their faculties . After his death in Portugal (in either Lisbon or Coimbra ) his reputation grew still greater, and he had a direct influence on such leading philosophers as Hugo Grotius , René Descartes , John Norris , and Gottfried Leibniz . His library

8250-494: The theistic worldview." Oppy subclassified ontological arguments, based on the qualities of their premises, using the following qualities: William Lane Craig criticised Oppy's study as too vague for useful classification. Craig argues that an argument can be classified as ontological if it attempts to deduce the existence of God, along with other necessary truths, from his definition. He suggests that proponents of ontological arguments would claim that, if one fully understood

8400-459: The 10th century. The word Gárnata (or Karnata ) possibly meant "hill of strangers". Another meaning might be "hill of pilgrims". It could even have been of Berber origin. Another theory is that it derived from Latin granum (or its plural grana ), meaning "seed", "beads", or a "scarlet color", which would have been adapted into Arabic as Ġarnāṭa or Iġranāṭa . The Arab chronicler Al-Maqqari believed that it came from

8550-467: The 1490s. Many of the city's affluent Muslims and its traditional ruling classes emigrated to North Africa in the early years after the conquest, but these early emigrants numbered only a few thousand, with the rest of the population unable to afford leaving. By 1499, Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros grew frustrated with the slow pace of the efforts of the first archbishop of Granada , Hernando de Talavera , to convert non-Christians and undertook

8700-473: The 2nd and 3rd chapters of his Proslogion . Anselm's argument was not presented in order to prove God's existence; rather, Proslogion was a work of meditation in which he documented how the idea of God became self-evident to him. In Chapter 2 of the Proslogion , Anselm defines God as a "being than which no greater can be conceived." While Anselm has often been credited as the first to understand God as

8850-603: The 90's, there has been a slight decrease in the population of Granada city, in favour of smaller towns in the metropolitan area. According to the population pyramid: 18,455 people living in the municipality of Granada in 2021 were of foreign nationality, which represents 7.95% of total population, rate lower than the national average. Resident foreigners come from all continents, the most numerous being Moroccan (4,890), Chinese (1,047), Senegalese (947), Colombian (889), Italian (854), and Bolivian (763). Granada's metropolitan area consists of about fifty municipalities and

9000-571: The Albaicin citadel, have survived to the present day, along with two of its gates: Bāb al-Unaydar (now called Puerta Monaita in Spanish) and Bāb al-Ziyāda (now known as Arco de las Pesas or Puerta Nueva ). The city and its residences were supplied with water through an extensive network of underground cisterns and pipes. On the Darro River, along the wall connecting the Zirid citadel with

9150-596: The Alhambra , which revived some international interest in southern Spain and in its Islamic-era monuments. In the 1930s the tensions that eventually divided Spain were evident in Granada, with frequent riots and friction between landowners and peasants. When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Granada was one of the cities that joined the Nationalist uprising. There was local resistance against

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9300-731: The Almohads. Remnants of the Almohad period in the city include the Alcázar Genil , built in 1218–1219 (but later redecorated under the Nasrids), and possibly the former minaret attached to the present-day Church of San Juan de los Reyes in the Albaicin. In 1228 Idris al-Ma'mun , the last effective Almohad ruler in al-Andalus, left the Iberian Peninsula. As Almohad rule collapsed local leaders and factions emerged across

9450-683: The Castilians provided refuge and aid to some Nasrid emirs against other Nasrid rivals. On other occasions the Nasrids attempted to leverage the aid of the North African Marinids to ward off Castile, although Marinid interventions in the Peninsula ended after Battle of Rio Salado (1340). The population of the emirate was also swollen by Muslim refugees from the territories newly conquered by Castile and Aragon, resulting in

9600-512: The East, Avicenna's Proof of the Truthful argued, albeit for very different reasons, that there must be a "necessary existent". Seventeenth-century French philosopher René Descartes employed a similar argument to Anselm's. Descartes published several variations of his argument, each of which center on the idea that God's existence is immediately inferable from a "clear and distinct" idea of

9750-591: The Existence of God]'), in which he defines God as "a being than which no greater can be conceived," and argues that such a being must exist in the mind, even in that of the person who denies the existence of God. From this, he suggests that if the greatest possible being exists in the mind, it must also exist in reality, because if it existed only in the mind, then an even greater being must be possible—one who exists both in mind and in reality. Therefore, this greatest possible being must exist in reality. Similarly, in

9900-475: The Fitna, afterwards it was not restored at its previous place and instead Ġarnāṭa , the former Jewish town, replaced it as the main city. In a short time this town was transformed into one of the most important cities of al-Andalus . Until the 11th century it had a mixed population of Christians, Muslims, and Jews. The Zirids built their citadel and palace, known as the al-Qaṣaba al-Qadīma ("Old Citadel"), on

10050-471: The Jews"). The district around the city was known as Kūrat Ilbīra (roughly "Province of Elvira"). After 743 the town of Ilbīra was settled by soldiers from the region of Syria who played a role in supporting Abd al-Rahman I , the founder of the Emirate of Córdoba and a new Umayyad dynasty. In the late 9th century, during the reign of Abdallah (r. 844–912), the city and its surrounding district were

10200-533: The Latin word for pomegranate , granata . In either case, the Latin word may have been used not in its primary sense, but in the more derived sense of "red", referring to the color of the area's soil and its buildings. This would also mirror the etymology of the name of the Alhambra . The region surrounding what today is Granada has been populated since at least 5500   BC. Archeological artifacts found in

10350-457: The Nasrid court. Ibn Battuta , a famous traveller and historian, visited the Emirate of Granada in 1350. He described it as a powerful and self-sufficient kingdom in its own right, although frequently embroiled in skirmishes with the Kingdom of Castile. In his journal, Ibn Battuta called Granada the "metropolis of Andalusia and the bride of its cities." On 2 January 1492, the last Muslim ruler in Iberia, Emir Muhammad XII , known as "Boabdil" to

10500-435: The Nationalists, particularly from the working classes in the Albaicín, which was violently repressed. During the 1950s and 1960s, under the Franco regime , the province of Granada was one of the poorest areas in Spain. In recent decades tourism has become a major industry in the city. The city of Granada sits on the Vega de Granada , one of the depressions or plains located within the Baetic mountain ranges , continued to

10650-450: The Natural Power of Kings . Filmer believed Calvinists and Catholics like Suarez to be dangerous opponents of divine right monarchy, legitimized by the supremacy of fathers upon their offspring, which Filmer claimed could be traced back to Adam . In the 18th century, the Venice edition of Opera Omnia in 23 volumes in folio (1740–1751) appeared, followed by the Parisian Vivès edition, 26 volumes + 2 volumes of indices (1856–1861); in 1965

10800-510: The Ontological Argument, Friedrich Hegel proposed throughout his lifetime works that Immanuel Kant was mistaken. Hegel took aim at Kant's famous 100 thaler argument. Kant had said that "it is one thing to have 100 thalers in my mind , and quite a different thing to have 100 thalers in my pocket ". According to Kant, we can imagine a God, but that does not prove that God exists . Hegel argued that Kant's formulation

10950-452: The Ontological Argument. Hegel died before beginning sections 2 and 3. His work is published today as incomplete, with only part of his Cosmological Argument intact. To peruse Hegel's ideas on the ontological argument, scholars have had to piece together his arguments from various paragraphs from his other works. Certain scholars have suggested that all of Hegel's philosophy composes an ontological argument. Mathematician Kurt Gödel provided

11100-540: The Sabika hill, was a sluice gate called Bāb al-Difāf ("Gate of the Tambourines"), which could be closed or opened to control the flow of the river and retain water if necessary. The nearby Bañuelo , a former hammam (bathhouse), also likely dates from this time, as does the former minaret of a mosque in the Albaicín, now part of the Church of San José. Under the Zirid kings Habbus ibn Maksan and Badis ,

11250-694: The Socialist Party, four belonging to Citizens Party, three to Vamos, Granada and one to the United Left-Socialist Alternative-For the People. Luis Salvador , leader of Citizens , became mayor with support from the PP and Vox. Salvador resigned in 2021, having lost the support of the PP. He was succeeded by the Socialist Francisco Cuenca who had previously served as mayor from 2016-2019. In

11400-624: The Spanish, surrendered complete control of the Emirate of Granada to the Catholic Monarchs ( Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile ), after the last episode of the Granada War . The 1492 capitulation of the Kingdom of Granada to the Catholic Monarchs is one of the most significant events in Granada's history. It brought the demise of the last Muslim-controlled polity in the Iberian Peninsula. The terms of

11550-554: The Vivés edition of the Disputationes Metaphysicae (vols. 25–26) was reprinted by Georg Olms, Hildesheim. From 1597 to 1636 the Disputationes Metaphysicae were published in seventeen editions; no modern edition of Suárez's complete works is yet available and only few of Suárez's Disputations have been translated into English. Granada Granada ( / ɡ r ə ˈ n ɑː d ə / grə- NAH -də ; Spanish: [ɡɾaˈnaða] , locally [ɡɾaˈna] )

11700-532: The argument, James Franklin Harris writes: [D]ifferent versions of the ontological argument, the so-called "modal" versions of the argument, which arguably avoid the part of Anselm's argument that "treats existence as a predicate," began to emerge. The [modal logic version] of these forms of defense of the ontological argument has been the most significant development. Norman Malcolm and Charles Hartshorne are primarily responsible for introducing modal versions of

11850-535: The army. During this period, the Muslim king was looked upon as a mainly symbolic figurehead. Granada was the center of Jewish Sephardi culture and scholarship. According to Daniel Eisenberg: Granada was in the eleventh century the center of Sephardic civilization at its peak, and from 1027 until 1066 Granada was a powerful Jewish state. Jews did not hold the foreigner ( dhimmi ) status typical of Islamic rule. Samuel ibn Nagrilla, recognized by Sephardic Jews everywhere as

12000-399: The axioms, so most criticisms of the theory focus on those axioms or the assumptions made. For instance, axiom 5 does not explain why necessary existence is positive instead of possible existence, an axiom which the whole argument follows from. Or, for Axiom 1, to use another example, the negation of a positive property both includes the lack of any properties and the opposite property, and only

12150-644: The building of the historic Royal Chancery , as well as the Superior Prosecutor's Office of Andalusia, located in the building of the Bank of Spain. It has a Provincial Court, located in Corteza del Carmen Street, and is also head of the Judicial Party No. 3 of the province, whose demarcation includes the city and 49 towns, some of them very populated, in the metropolitan area region. Most of

12300-492: The capital of the Emirate of Granada under Nasrid rule, the last Muslim -ruled state in the Iberian Peninsula . Granada was conquered in 1492 by the Catholic Monarchs and progressively transformed into a Christian city over the course of the 16th century. The Alhambra , a medieval Nasrid citadel and palace, is located in Granada. It is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of

12450-578: The capital, Madrid . Between 1810 and 1812 Granada was occupied by Napoleon 's army during the Peninsular War . The French troops occupied the Alhambra as a fortified position and caused significant damage to the monument. Upon evacuating the city, they attempted to dynamite the whole complex, successfully blowing up eight towers before the remaining fuses were disabled by Spanish soldier José Garcia, thus saving what remains today. In 1830 Washington Irving lived in Granada and wrote his Tales of

12600-400: The capital. Although it is not formally constituted as a political and administrative body, there are several public services that are combined. The arrival of many inhabitants of the capital and other towns in the province, influences a large population growth . Despite the fact that the capital loses inhabitants, who move to neighboring towns. The main causes of the exodus towards the towns of

12750-465: The case of the conversos accused of the charge of crypto-Judaism ). Over the course of the 16th century, Granada took on an ever more Catholic and Castilian character, as immigrants arrived from other regions of Castile, lured by the promise of economic opportunities in the newly conquered city. At the time of the city's surrender in 1492 it had a population of 50,000 which included only a handful of Christians (mostly captives), but by 1561 (the year of

12900-680: The city have survived in the Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo (late 13th century) and the Dar al-Horra (15th century). Partly due to the heavy tributary payments to Castile, Granada's economy specialized in the trade of high-value goods. Integrated within the European mercantile network, the ports of the kingdom fostered intense trading relations with the Genoese , but also with the Catalans, and to

13050-592: The city indicate that the site of the city, including the area around the present-day avenue of Gran Vía de Colón , was inhabited since the Bronze Age . The most ancient ruins found in the area belong to an oppidum called Ilturir , founded by the Iberian Bastetani tribe around 650   BC. The name Elibyrge is also attested in reference to this area. This settlement became later known as Iliberri or Iliberis . In 44   BC Iliberis became

13200-477: The city with two massive heat waves that broke long-standing record temperatures starting on June 13, 2017, with a new maximum high for the month at 40.6 °C (old record 40.0), which was topped three times within the span of four days at 40.9 °C on June 14, 41.3 (June 15) and, eventually, 41.5 (June 17). The second extreme surge in temperatures followed roughly a month later when readings soared to 45.7 and 45.3 °C on July 12 and 13, respectively, surpassing

13350-574: The city. The pomegranate (in Spanish, granada ) is the heraldic device of Granada. Granada's historical name in the Arabic language was غرناطة ( Ġarnāṭa ). Both the name's meaning and origin are uncertain and have been debated. The toponym definitely existed prior to the Zirid period in the 11th century. It probably first appeared in the 9th century and it is found in Arabic sources from

13500-435: The coherence of a supremely perfect being could be demonstrated, the ontological argument fails. Leibniz saw perfection as impossible to analyse; therefore, it would be impossible to demonstrate that all perfections are incompatible. He reasoned that all perfections can exist together in a single entity, and that Descartes' argument is still valid. Mulla Sadra (c. 1571/2–1640) was an Iranian Shia Islamic philosopher who

13650-403: The common hangman and forbade its perusal under the 'severest penalties, complaining bitterly to Philip III of Spain for harbouring in his dominions a declared enemy of the throne and majesty of kings. The contributions of Suarez to metaphysics and theology exerted significant influence over 17th and 18th century scholastic theology among both Roman Catholics and Protestants. Thanks in part to

13800-753: The completion of his course, Suárez began to teach Philosophy, first at Salamanca as a Scholastic tutor, and then as a professor in the Jesuit college at Segovia . He was ordained in March 1572 in Segovia. He continued to teach Philosophy in Segovia until, in September 1574, he moved to the Jesuit College in Valladolid to teach Theology, a subject he would then teach for the rest of his life. He taught in

13950-414: The concept of God, one must accept his existence. William L. Rowe defines ontological arguments as those which start from the definition of God and, using only a priori principles, conclude with God's existence. Although a version of the ontological argument appears explicitly in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes and variations appear in writings by Parmenides , Plato , and

14100-421: The courts are located in two administrative buildings, in Plaza Nueva and Avenida del Sur. The set of judicial bodies is as follows: Its political administration is carried out through a City Council, of democratic management, whose components are chosen every four years by universal suffrage. The electoral roll is composed of all residents registered in Granada over 18 years of age, of Spanish nationality and of

14250-734: The creation of a number of other new institutions such as the Cathedral Cabildo, the Captaincy–General  [ es ] , the Royal Chapel and the Royal Chancellery . For the rest of the 16th century the Granadan ruling oligarchy featured roughly a 40% of (Jewish) conversos and about a 31% of hidalgos . From the 1520s onward, the mosque structures themselves began to be replaced with new church buildings,

14400-407: The economy. The expelled population was redistributed to other cities throughout the Crown of Castile. The final expulsion of all moriscos from Castile and Aragon was carried out between 1609 and 1614. During the 17th century, despite the importance of immigration, the population of the city stagnated at about 55,000, contrary to the trend of population increase experienced in the rural areas of

14550-536: The essence of a being. Thus, a "supremely perfect" being can be conceived not to exist. Finally, philosophers such as C. D. Broad dismissed the coherence of a maximally great being, proposing that some attributes of greatness are incompatible with others, rendering "maximally great being" incoherent. Contemporary defenders of the ontological argument include Alvin Plantinga , Yujin Nagasawa , and Robert Maydole . The traditional definition of an ontological argument

14700-423: The first royal census of the city) the population was composed of over 30,000 Christian immigrants and approximately 15,000 moriscos . After 1492 the city's first churches had been installed in some converted mosques. The vast majority of the city's remaining mosques were subsequently converted into churches during and after the mass conversions of 1500. In 1531, Charles V founded the University of Granada on

14850-411: The former Roman town or it may have taken place somewhere in the surrounding region, which was known as Elvira. The Umayyad conquest of Hispania , starting in 711   AD, brought large parts of the Iberian Peninsula under Moorish control and established al-Andalus . The earliest Arabic historical sources mention that a town named Qashtīliya , later known as Madīnat Ilbīra (Elvira), was located on

15000-404: The founder of the city of Granada. His surviving memoirs – the only ones for the Spanish "Middle Ages" – provide considerable detail for this brief period. Because Madīnat Ilbīra was situated on a low plain and, as a result, difficult to protect from attacks, the ruler decided to transfer his residence to the higher situated area of Ġarnāṭa . According to Arabic sources Ilbīra was razed during

15150-526: The freedom of the human will and the predestinarian teachings of the Dominicans by saying that the predestination is consequent upon God's foreknowledge of the free determination of man's will, which is therefore in no way affected by the fact of such predestination. Suárez endeavoured to reconcile this view with the more orthodox doctrines of the efficacy of grace and special election, maintaining that, though all share in an absolutely sufficient grace, there

15300-468: The further development of theology within Catholicism. In the second part of the book, disputations 28–53, Suárez fixes the distinction between ens infinitum (God) and ens finitum (created beings). The first division of being is that between ens infinitum and ens finitum . Instead of dividing being into infinite and finite, it can also be divided into ens a se and ens ab alio , i.e., being that

15450-405: The greatest possible being, this perception was actually widely described among ancient Greek philosophers and early Christian writers. He suggests that even "the fool" can understand this concept, and this understanding itself means that the being must exist in the mind. The concept must exist either only in our mind, or in both our mind and in reality. If such a being exists only in our mind, then

15600-491: The hill now occupied by the Albaicín neighborhood. It was connected to two smaller fortresses on the Sabika hill (site of the future Alhambra) and Mauror hill to the south. The city around it grew during the 11th century to include the Albaicín, the Sabika, the Mauror, and a part of the surrounding plains. The city was fortified with walls encompassing an area of approximately 75 hectares . The northern part of these walls, near

15750-677: The instigation of Pope Paul V , Suárez wrote a treatise dedicated to the Christian princes of Europe, entitled Defensio catholicae fidei contra anglicanae sectae errores ("Defense of the Universal Catholic Faith Against the Errors of the Anglican Sect"). This was directed against the oath of allegiance which James I required from his subjects. James (himself a talented scholar) caused it to be burned by

15900-469: The lack of any properties is a privation of a property, not the opposite property (for instance, the lack of happiness can symbolize either sadness or having no emotion, but only lacking emotion could be seen as a privation, or negative property). Either of these axioms being seen as not mapping to reality would cause the whole argument to fail. Oppy argued that Gödel gives no definition of "positive properties". He suggested that if these positive properties form

16050-599: The largest neighborhood or 'barrio'. Traditionally populated by Romani people, now many residents are from North and West Africa, China, and many South American countries. Every Saturday morning it hosts a large outdoor market or "mercadillo", where many people come and sell their wares of fruits and vegetables, clothes and shoes, and other bits and bobs. Granada produces agricultural products such as barley, wheat, sugarcane and tobacco. Besides these crops, olive trees as well as oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, and pomegranates are also commonly grown. For manufacturing, sugar refining

16200-460: The largest number of these people (31%; or 1% of the total population) coming from South America . Its nearest airport is Federico García Lorca Granada-Jaén Airport . The area was settled since ancient times by Iberians , Romans , and Visigoths . The current settlement became a major city of Al-Andalus in the 11th century during the Zirid Taifa of Granada . In the 13th century it became

16350-528: The late 11th century to the early 13th century, Al-Andalus was dominated by two successive North African Berber empires. The Almoravids ruled Granada from 1090 and the Almohads from 1166. Granada also served as an administrative capital of Almoravid rule in al-Andalus. Evidence from the artistic and archeological remains of this period suggest that the city thrived under the Almoravids but declined under

16500-429: The metropolitan area are, mainly, the difficulty of accessing a home in the capital because of the high prices it has and labor reasons, because in the towns of the periphery the majority are being located of industrial estates. The city of Granada is the capital of the province of the same name, thus all administrative entities of provincial scope dependent on the regional government and the state are located there. There

16650-628: The most powerful figure was the Jewish administrator known as Samuel ha-Nagid (in Hebrew ) or Isma'il ibn Nagrilla (in Arabic). Samuel was a highly educated member of the former elites of Cordoba, who fled that city after the outbreak of the Fitna. He eventually found his way to Granada, where Habbus ibn Maksan appointed him his secretary in 1020 and entrusted him with many important responsibilities, including tax collection. Under Badis, he even took charge of

16800-512: The most visited tourist sites in Spain. Islamic-period influence and Moorish architecture are also preserved in the Albaicín neighborhood and other medieval monuments in the city. The 16th century also saw a flourishing of Mudéjar architecture and Renaissance architecture , followed later by Baroque and Churrigueresque styles. The University of Granada has an estimated 47,000 undergraduate students spread over five different campuses in

16950-439: The natural law are really just alterations of subject matter. For example, when God orders Hosea to take a "wife of fornications" (i.e., have sex with a prostitute), this is not an exemption from God's prohibition of adultery. "For God has power to transfer to a man dominium over a woman without her consent, and to effect such a bond between them that, by virtue of this bond, the union is no longer one of fornication." In 1613, at

17100-406: The nature of shapes—he used the deduction of the sizes of angles in a triangle as an example. He suggested that the concept of God is that of a supremely perfect being, holding all perfections. He seems to have assumed that existence is a predicate of a perfection. Thus, if the notion of God did not include existence, it would not be supremely perfect, as it would be lacking a perfection. Consequently,

17250-417: The necessary, from the originated to the eternal origin, or from motion to the unmoved mover . In the argument of the righteous, there is no middle term other than the truth. His version of the ontological argument can be summarized as follows: Mulla Sadra describes this argument in his main work al-asfar al-arba‘a [four journeys] as follows: Existence is a single, objective and simple reality, and there

17400-448: The notion of a supremely perfect God who does not exist, Descartes argues, is unintelligible. Therefore, according to his nature, God must exist. In Spinoza 's Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being , he wrote a section titled "Treating of God and What Pertains to Him", in which he discusses God's existence and what God is. He starts off by saying: "whether there is a God, this, we say, can be proved". His proof for God follows

17550-478: The old July record by almost 3 degrees. In the municipality of Granada there are five urban areas: Granada city, Alquería del Fargue, Bobadilla, Cerrillo de Maracena and Lancha del Genil. Due to the expansion of Granada city, Cerrillo de Maracena has been integrated into it. According to the municipal register of inhabitants, in 2021 the municipality of Granada had a population of 231,775 people, of whom 106,987 were men (46.15%) and 124,738 were women (53.85%). Since

17700-419: The ontological argument has been popular, a number of criticisms and objections have also been mounted. Its first critic was Gaunilo of Marmoutiers , a contemporary of Anselm's. Gaunilo, suggesting that the ontological argument could be used to prove the existence of anything, uses the analogy of a perfect island. Such would be the first of many parodies, all of which attempted to show the absurd consequences of

17850-452: The ontological argument. Later, Thomas Aquinas rejected the argument on the basis that humans cannot know God's nature. David Hume also offered an empirical objection, criticising its lack of evidential reasoning and rejecting the idea that anything can exist necessarily . Immanuel Kant 's critique was based on what he saw as the false premise that existence is a predicate , arguing that "existing" adds nothing (including perfection) to

18000-418: The other classifications their due. In the last disputation 54 Suárez deals with entia rationis (beings of reason), which are impossible intentional objects, i.e. objects that are created by our minds but cannot exist in actual reality. In theology, Suárez attached himself to the doctrine of Luis Molina , the celebrated Jesuit professor of Évora. Molina tried to reconcile the doctrine of predestination with

18150-768: The other member countries of the European Union. According to the provisions of the General Electoral Regime Law, which establishes the number of eligible councilors according to the population of the municipality, the Municipal Corporation of Granada is made up of 27 councilors. In the municipal elections held in 2019 the constitution of the City Council was eleven councilors belonging to the Popular Party , eight to

18300-738: The prime minister of Caliph Hisham II (r. 976–1009) and successor to Ibn Abi ʿAmir al-Mansur (Almanzor) as de facto ruler of the Caliphate of Córdoba . For their service, the Zirids were granted control of the province of Elvira. When the Caliphate collapsed after 1009 and the Fitna (civil war) began, the Zirid leader Zawi ben Ziri established an independent kingdom for himself, the Taifa of Granada . Arab sources such as al-Idrisi consider him to be

18450-754: The property of being God-like is an essence of that thing Theorem 3 : Necessarily, the property of being God-like is exemplified Gödel defined being "god-like" as having every positive property. He left the term "positive" undefined. Gödel proposed that it is understood in an aesthetic and moral sense, or alternatively as the opposite of privation (the absence of necessary qualities in the universe). He warned against interpreting "positive" as being morally or aesthetically "good" (the greatest advantage and least disadvantage), as this includes negative characteristics. Instead, he suggested that "positive" should be interpreted as being perfect, or "purely good", without negative characteristics. Gödel's listed theorems follow from

18600-469: The quasi-political ha-Nagid ('The Prince'), was king in all but name. As vizier he made policy and—much more unusual—led the army. [...] It is said that Samuel's strengthening and fortification of Granada was what permitted it, later, to survive as the last Islamic state in the Iberian peninsula. All of the greatest figures of eleventh-century Hispano-Jewish culture are associated with Granada. Moses Ibn Ezra

18750-466: The region. With the Reconquista in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon – under kings Ferdinand III and James I , respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus. Castile captured Cordoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248 . Meanwhile, the ambitious Ibn al-Ahmar (Muhammad I) established what became the last and longest reigning Muslim dynasty in the Iberian peninsula,

18900-662: The same name: Cartuja. This is an old monastery started in a late Gothic style with Baroque exuberant interior decorations. In this district also, many buildings were created with the extension of the University of Granada . The toponym derives from a gate (Bab al-Ramla, or the Gate of the Ears ) that was built when Granada was controlled by the Nasrid dynasty . Nowadays, Bib-Rambla is a high point for gastronomy, especially in its terraces of restaurants, open on beautiful days. The Arab bazaar ,

19050-469: The site of conflict between muwallad s (Muslim converts) who were loyal to the central government and Arabs, led by Sawwār ibn Ḥamdūn, who resented them. At the beginning of the 11th century, the area became dominated by the Zirids, a Sanhaja Berber group and offshoot of the Zirids who ruled parts of North Africa . This group became an important contingent in the army of ʿAbd al-Malik al-Muẓaffar ,

19200-589: The site of the former madrasa built by Yusuf I. Granada's Town Council did not fully establish until almost nine years after the Castilian conquest, upon the concession of the so-called 'Constitutive Charter' of the Ayuntamiento of Granada on 23 September 1500. From then on, the municipal institution became a crucible for the " Old Christian " and the converted morisco elites, resulting in strong factionalism, particularly after 1508. The new period also saw

19350-492: The southern slopes of the Sierra de Elvira mountains (near present-day Atarfe ) and became the most important settlement in the area. A smaller settlement and fortress ( ḥiṣn ) named Ġarnāṭa (also transliterated as Gharnāṭa) existed on the south side of the Darro River or on the site of the current Albaicín neighbourhood. The latter had a mainly Jewish population and thus was also known as Gharnāṭat al-Yahūd (" Gharnāṭa of

19500-511: The strength of Suárez's Jesuit order, his Disputationes Metaphysicae was widely taught in the Catholic schools of Spain, Portugal and Italy. It also spread from these schools to many Lutheran universities in Germany, where the text was studied especially by those who favoured Melanchthon rather than Luther's attitude towards philosophy. In a number of seventeenth-century Lutheran universities

19650-516: The summer months. Winters are cool and damp, with most of the rainfall concentrated from November through to January. The coldest month is January with daytime temperatures hovering at 13 °C (55 °F) and dropping to around 1 °C (34 °F) during the night. Frost is common as temperatures usually reach below-freezing in the early morning. Snow is rare and occurs once every few years. Spring and autumn are unpredictable, with temperatures ranging from mild to warm. Early summer in 2017 confronted

19800-524: The surrender, outlined in the Treaty of Granada at the end of 1491, explicitly allowed the Muslim inhabitants, known as mudéjares , to continue unmolested in the practice of their faith and customs. This had been a traditional practice during Castilian (and Aragonese ) conquests of Muslim cities since the takeover of Toledo in the 11th century. The terms of the surrender pressured Jewish inhabitants to convert or leave within three years, but this provision

19950-400: The things whose characteristics a man knows must have come from some prior source. So, if man has the idea of God, then God must exist before this thought, because man cannot create an idea of his own imagination. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz saw a problem with Descartes' ontological argument: that Descartes had not asserted the coherence of a "supremely perfect" being. He proposed that, unless

20100-480: The two years of intense spiritual training under the guidance of Fr. Alonso Rodriguez . In August 1566, Suárez took his first vows as a Jesuit; he then began in October 1566 to study Theology at Salamanca. It seems he was not a promising student at first; in fact, he nearly gave up his matters of study after failing the entrance exam twice. After passing the exam at third attempt, though, things changed. In 1570, with

20250-430: The vexed subject of universals , he endeavored to steer a middle course between the realism of Duns Scotus and the nominalism of William of Occam . His position is a little bit closer to nominalism than that of Thomas Aquinas . Sometimes he is classified as a moderate nominalist , but his admitting of objective precision ( praecisio obiectiva ) ranks him with moderate realists. The only veritable and real unity in

20400-512: The west by those of Archidona and Antequera and to the East by those of Guadix , Baza and Huéscar. The fertile soil of the Vega, apt for agriculture, is irrigated by the water streams originated in Sierra Nevada , as well as minor secondary ranges, all drained by the catchment basin of the Genil River , that cuts across the city centre following an east to west direction. The Monachil ,

20550-538: The whole. According to Hegel, when regarded as the whole of being, unseen as well as seen, and not simply "one being among many", then the ontological argument flourishes, and its logical necessity becomes obvious. Hegel signed a book contract in 1831, the year of his death, for a work entitled Lectures on the Proofs of the Existence of God . Hegel died before finishing the book. It was to have three sections: (1) The Cosmological Argument; (2) The Teleological Argument; and (3)

20700-747: The work is that all legislative as well as all paternal power is derived from God, and that the authority of every law stems ultimately from God's eternal law. Suárez denies the patriarchal theory of government and the divine right of kings founded upon it, doctrines popular at that time in England and to some extent on the Continent. He argued against the sort of social contract theory that became dominant among early-modern political philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke , but some of his thinking, as transmitted by Grotius, found echoes in later liberal political theory. He argued that human beings have

20850-462: The world of existences is the individual; to assert that the universal exists separately ex parte rei would be to reduce individuals to mere accidents of one indivisible form. Suárez maintains that, though the humanity of Socrates does not differ from that of Plato, yet they do not constitute realiter one and the same humanity; there are as many "formal unities" (in this case, humanities) as there are individuals, and these individuals do not constitute

21000-469: Was from Granada; on his invitation Judah ha-Levi spent several years there as his guest. Ibn Gabirol ’s patrons and hosts were the Jewish viziers of Granada, Samuel ha-Nagid and his son Joseph. After Samuel's death, his son Joseph took over after his position but proved to lack his father's diplomacy, bringing on the 1066 Granada massacre , which ended the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain . From

21150-534: Was given by Immanuel Kant . He contrasted the ontological argument (literally any argument "concerned with being") with the cosmological and physio-theoretical arguments. According to the Kantian view, ontological arguments are those founded through a priori reasoning. Graham Oppy , who elsewhere expressed that he "see[s] no urgent reason" to depart from the traditional definition, defined ontological arguments as those which begin with "nothing but analytic,

21300-466: Was inaccurate. He referred to Kant's error in all of his major works from 1807 to 1831: for Hegel, the "true" is the "whole" (PhG, para. 20), and the "true" is the Geist —which is to say "spirit", or "God". Thus, God is the whole of the cosmos, both unseen as well as seen. This error of Kant, therefore, was his comparison of a finite, contingent entity such as 100 thalers, with infinite, necessary Being, i.e.

21450-454: Was influenced by earlier Muslim philosophers such as Avicenna and Suhrawardi , as well as the Sufi metaphysician Ibn 'Arabi . Sadra discussed Avicenna's arguments for the existence of God, claiming that they were not a priori . He rejected the argument on the basis that existence precedes essence , or that the existence of human beings is more fundamental than their essence. Sadra put forward

21600-577: Was its Great Mosque (on the site of the present-day Granada Cathedral ) and the commercial district known as the qaysariyya (the Alcaicería ). Next to this was the only major madrasa built in al-Andalus, the Madrasa al-Yusufiyya (known today as the Palacio de la Madraza ), founded in 1349. Other monuments from this era include the al-Funduq al-Jadida ("New Inn" or caravanserai , now known as

21750-476: Was quickly superseded by the Alhambra Decree , issued only a few months later on March 31, which instead forced all Jews in Spain to convert or be expelled within four months. Those who converted became known as conversos (converts). This move, along with the progressive erosion of other guarantees provided by the surrender treaty, raised tensions and fears within the remaining Muslim community during

21900-458: Was regarded during his lifetime as being the greatest living philosopher and theologian, and given the nickname Doctor Eximius et Pius ("Exceptional and Pious Doctor"); Pope Gregory XIII attended his first lecture in Rome. Pope Paul V invited him to refute the arguments of James I of England , and wished to retain him near his person, to profit by his knowledge. Philip II of Spain sent him to

22050-604: Was sent to Ethiopia in the mid-17th century, although many of the books went missing, with some of the books arriving in Portuguese Goa . He is buried in the Igreja de São Roque (formerly a Jesuit church) in Lisbon. His most important philosophical achievements were in metaphysics and the philosophy of law. He adhered to a moderate form of Thomism and developed metaphysics as a systematic enquiry. For Suárez, metaphysics

22200-673: Was so pervasive that by 1643 it provoked the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Revius to publish his book-length response: Suarez repurgatus. Suárez's De legibus was cited as among the best books on law by the Puritan Richard Baxter , and Baxter's friend Matthew Hale drew on it for his natural-law theory. The views of Suarez upon the human origin of political order, and his defense of tyrannicide emanating from popular dissent were heavily criticized by English philosopher Robert Filmer in his work Patriarcha, Or

22350-603: Was the Jewish district in the time of the Nasrid Granada. (The centuries since the Jewish population were so important that Granada was known in Al-Andalus under the name of "Granada of the Jews", Arabic : غرناطة اليهود Gharnāṭah al-Yahūd .) It is today a district made up of many Granadinian villas, with gardens opening onto the streets, called Los Cármenes . This district contains the Carthusian monastery of

22500-564: Was the science of real essences (and existence); it was mostly concerned with real being rather than conceptual being, and with immaterial rather than with material being. He held (along with earlier scholastics) that essence and existence are the same in the case of God (see ontological argument ), but disagreed with Aquinas and others that the essence and existence of finite beings are really distinct. He argued that in fact they are merely conceptually distinct: rather than being really separable, they can only logically be conceived as separate. On

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