106-448: A kalari is a gymnasium or training space primarily associated with the martial art of Kalaripayattu . The word kalari comes from Malayalam . In the past, village schools in Kerala , typically run by the traditional astrologer families, were known by the name kalari . Later schools for teaching language and grammar started calling in the name Ezhuthu Kalari . The teacher of a kalari
212-636: A Portuguese explorer who visited Kerala in the 16th century, noted that the physical exercise complexes of the Nairs and Thiyyars created a network of martial culture in Malabar, and wrote about Nair military training in Kalaripayattu: The more part of Nayars (Nairs), when they are seven years of age, are sent to schools, where they are taught many tricks of nimbleness and dexterity; there they teach them to dance and turn about and to twist on
318-577: A vajra . References to marmam are also found in the Atharva Veda . With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial artists knew about and practiced attacking or defending vital points. Sushruta (c. 6th century BCE) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his Sushruta Samhita . Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with
424-494: A Kalaripayattu gurukkal , and founder of Sree Bharat Kalari (formerly known as Rajkumar Kalari). He is known for writing the first books on Kalaripayattu. His first work, Kalaripayattu , written in Malayalam and published in 1937, was the first book written on Kalaripayattu. He also authored first authoritative text and primer on Kalaripayattu, called Kalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art. The text
530-460: A combination of steps ( Chuvadu ) and postures ( Vadivu ). Chuvadu literally means 'steps', the basic steps of the martial arts. Vadivu literally means 'postures' or stances which are the foundations of Kalaripayattu training. They are named after animals, and are usually presented in eight forms. Styles differ considerably from one tradition to another. Not only do the names of poses differ, but their utilization and interpretation vary depending on
636-647: A decade of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered. Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from Kumari to the Himalayas (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu. The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly Kadambas ) whom he defeated in battles. Nedum Cheral Athan
742-419: A duel to the death, between two ankachekavar s, each ruler being represented by one ankachekavar . The ruler represented by the surviving ankachekavar was considered the winner. Kalaripayattu Traditional Kalaripayattu ( IPA: [kɐɭɐɾipːɐjɐtːɨ̆] ; also known simply as Kalari ) is an Indian martial art that originated in Kerala , a state on the southwestern coast of India during
848-631: A fist or stick. Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda , which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma kalai and Marma adi. In India, the Indian Kalaripayattu Federation (IKF) in Thiruvananthapuram is one of the primary governing bodies of Kalaripayattu. It is recognized by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports of
954-472: A little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank. The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai", "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai" were also discovered from Karur . The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins. All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained
1060-697: A notable Bharatanatyam dancer. In 2017, a 73-year-old gurukkal from Vadakara , Sri Meenakshi Amma , was awarded the Padma Sri by the Government of India for her contributions to the preservation of Kalaripayattu. In January 2021, the Government of Kerala announced the opening of The Kalaripayattu Academy in Kerala 's capital, Thiruvananthapuram , under the management of the Kerala Department of Tourism . The Kalaripayattu Academy will comprise an area of 3,500 feet, and will be part of
1166-546: A number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend. Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the Maurya coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to
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#17327725553581272-504: A person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family. A large body of Tamil works collectively known as the Sangam (Academy) texts ( c. 2nd century BCE - 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers. Among them,
1378-503: A presiding deity known as Bhagavathy or Paradevata . Children in Kerala who finished their education in local schools would join their local kalari to receive further military training. This was especially common amongst martial sects of various communities in Kerala, such as the Nairs and Thiyyars . The local legendary poems of Kerala, popularly known as Vadakkan Pattu , have been passed down through oral tradition and describe
1484-617: A strong case of identification with the location. Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni). A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the Amaravati riverbed in Tamil Nadu, are a major source of early Chera historiography. This includes
1590-461: A temple ( virakkallu ) for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi . A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with Gajabahu , king of Sri Lanka (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi. In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE. as per akananuru Kaluvul was a velir chieftain of Kamur who fought against
1696-727: A war deity from Kerala, learned Kalaripayattu in the Cheerappanchira Kalari in Muhamma . According to Philip Zarrilli, the Tamil combat techniques of the Sangam period (600 BCE–300 CE) and Sanskritic Dhanur Vedic traditions, which arrived with northern Brahmins from the 7th CE onwards, were the earliest precursors to Kalaripayattu. Each warrior in the Sangam era received regular military training in target practice, horse and elephant riding. They specialized in one or more of
1802-436: Is also credited with writing the first authoritative text and primer on Kalaripayattu, called Kalarippayattu – A Complete Guide to Kerala’s Ancient Martial Art. The text, alongside a compilation of Sreedharan Nair's teaching notes, were translated into English by his sons S. R. A. Das and S. R. D. Prasad and then published by Westland Books . The book contains over 1,700 action photographs as well as explanations behind all of
1908-538: Is also known as, Vadakkan Kalari , and is generally regarded as the "original," form of Kalaripayattu. This system places more emphasis on physical flexibility exercises rooted on the slogan Meyy kanavanam , meaning, "make the body an eye." These exercises are done individually, as well as in combinations. After that meypayattu (a concept similar to kata in Karate) is taught. These are a combination of flexibility exercises with offensive and defensive techniques, however,
2014-417: Is also taught to the student if deemed appropriate by the gurukkal . It is claimed that experienced Kalari warriors could disable or kill their opponents by merely striking the correct marmam (vital point) on their opponent's body. This technique is taught only to the most promising and level-headed students so as to discourage misuse of the technique. Marmashastram stresses on the knowledge of marmam and
2120-492: Is also used for marma treatment ( marmachikitsa ). This system of marma treatment originated from Ayurveda , as well as Siddha medicine . Critics of Kalaripayattu have pointed out that the application of marmam techniques against neutral outsiders has not always produced verifiable results. The earliest mention of marmam is found in the Rig Veda , where Indra is said to have defeated Vritra by attacking his marmam with
2226-522: Is also widely credited for reviving and preserving Kalaripayattu by writing the first books ever written on Kalaripayattu, as well as writing the first authoritative text on the martial art. Sreedharan Nair is credited with writing Kalaripayattu , the first book ever written on Kalaripayattu, in 1937. This book was written in Malayalam , and listed the vaithari or oral commands, of all the exercises relating to meypayattu , or conditioning techniques. He
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#17327725553582332-574: Is believed to have been adapted and modified during wars with Tamil kingdoms to counter martial arts like Silambam , which was one of the main martial art forms practiced by Tamil soldiers at the time. As a result of learning about the human body, Indian martial artists became knowledgeable in the fields of traditional medicine and massage. Kalaripayattu teachers often provide massages ( uzhichil ) with medicinal oils to their students in order to increase their physical flexibility or to treat muscular injuries. Such massages are generally termed thirumal and
2438-471: Is called a Gurukkal or Asan . Teachers of Ezhuthu Kalari or Ezhuthu Palli were referred to as Asan or Ezhuthassan . Traditionally, the kalari is constructed by digging a hollow in the ground, forming a sunken area four feet in depth, forty-two feet in length and twenty-one feet in breadth. This is usually called kuzhikalari . Kuzhi means "portions formed by caving in the earth" in Tamil . The entrance to
2544-480: Is considered to be a distinct and separate martial art from Varma Adi due to its similarities to Northern Kalaripayattu. The similarities between the southern form of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi are likely due to geographic proximity to each other, with the Southern style of Kalaripayattu being considered a mixture of Kalaripayattu and Varma Adi. While the Southern style is less commonly practiced in Kerala compared to
2650-472: Is considered to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day. For their contributions to the preservation of Kalaripayattu, Meenakshi Amma , a 73 year old gurukkal from Vadakara and Sankara Narayana Menon Chundayil , a gurukkal from Chavakkad , were awarded the Padma Sri by the Government of India . Chera dynasty Kongu Cheras Chera Perumals The Chera dynasty ( or Cēra , IPA: [t͡ʃeːɾɐr] ),
2756-570: Is known about Cheras during this period. Cheras of Kongu country ( Karur ) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala . There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule). The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre- Pallava (early historic) south India. There are clear attestations of repeated Pandya conquests of
2862-511: Is primarily practiced in the southern regions of Kerala, and specializes in hard, impact based techniques with emphasis on hand-to-hand combat and pressure point strikes. Both systems make use of internal and external concepts. A third style, the Central style, or Madhya Kalari , is also practiced, but it is less commonly practiced than its northern and southern counterparts. A smaller, regional style of Kalaripayattu called Tulunadan Kalari ,
2968-447: Is rarely taught today. The Southern style is also known as Thekkan Kalari . Traditionally, it is believed to be a style of Kalaripayattu that is said to have been altered and influenced by Agastya . It is an essentially the northern style of Kalaripayattu that has been influenced by martial arts from neighboring regions, such as Varma Adi or Adi Murai . While the Southern form of Kalaripayattu has notable similarities to Varma Adi, it
3074-548: Is referenced in texts such as the Vadakkan Pattukal , but it is largely restricted to the Tulu Nadu region in northern Kerala and southern Karnataka. Other smaller, regional styles are also said to exist in isolated regions of Kerala, but these styles are becoming increasingly rare, and difficult to find. Examples include Dronamballi , Odimurassery , Tulu Nadan Shaiva Mura , and Kayyangali . The Northern style
3180-628: Is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean. Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai. He also punished and extracted ransom from the Yavanas. Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle) Kauthamanar Headquarters
3286-725: Is taught in accordance with the Indian guru-shishya system. Development and mastery of Kalaripayattu comes from the tradition of constantly learning, adapting and improving the techniques by observing what techniques are practical and effective. While importance is placed on observation of tradition, Kalaripayattu gurukkuls have contributed to the evolution of Kalaripayattu by way of their experience and reasoning. Kalaripayattu includes strikes, kicks, grappling, preset forms, weaponry, and healing methods. Warriors trained in Kalaripayattu would use very light, and basic body armor, as it
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3392-735: Is the kachakettal , a loincloth that is either red and white or red and black in colour. Along with traditional attire, oral commands, or vaithari , are given by the guru during training sessions, and are given in Sanskrit or Malayalam. A number of South Asian fighting styles remain closely connected to yoga , dance and performing arts. Some of the choreographed sparring in Kalaripayattu can be applied to dance and Kathakali dancers who knew Kalaripayattu were believed to be markedly better than other performers. Some traditional Indian classical dance schools still incorporate martial arts as part of their exercise regimen. Kalaripayattu techniques are
3498-456: Is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c. 1st - 2nd century CE. Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts. Ilango Adigal author of the legendary Tamil epic poem Chilapathikaram describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate
3604-473: Is usually done with two combatants, armed with a stick or dagger. These are primarily defensive techniques. Fighting techniques with two combatants having the same weapons include sparring with long stick, sword, etc. During the duration of this training, the refining of un-armed combat also progresses. As the student gains more experience, a small amount of knowledge pertaining to the Marma points (pressure points)
3710-590: The Vastu Shastras along with various religious traditions and customs native to Kerala . Specifications are made regarding the physical dimensions of the kalari , how deep the ground in a kalari must be, along with the material that the floor of the kalari must consist of. The floor of each kalari consists of red sand which is mixed with specific herbs that are said to aid in the treatment of small wounds suffered during training. The directional aspects of kalari construction are also specified, such as
3816-471: The Chekavars : They may be justly entitled soldiers, as by virtue of their descent they must always bear arms. In spite of the fact that Chekavar were also practitioners of payatt (Kalaripayattu) and had a unavoidable presence in the militia of the ruler, they were allowed in the military services. The widespread practice and prevalence of Kalaripayattu in Kerala began to decline in the 17th century, when
3922-577: The Chera Perumal kingdom and Kongu Chera kingdom (c. 9th–12th century CE). The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers are unclear. After this, the present day parts of Kerala and Kongunadu became autonomous. Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seem to have conquered the Kongu Chera country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into
4028-622: The Cholas and the Pandyas . The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East). When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in the 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent. The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from
4134-604: The Government of India . It received affiliation as a regional sports federation in 2015. The Kalaripayattu Federation of India (KFI), based in Kozhikode , is another governing body of Kalaripayattu, as has been recognized by the Indian Olympic Association . The Kerala Kalaripayattu Association (KKA) in Thiruvananthapuram is also a governing body of the martial art which is recognised by
4240-519: The Graeco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to the Cheras as Keprobotras . All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with northern India . The term Chera , derived from Dravidian words Cheran (meaning island), is a Classical Tamil name of Sri Lanka that takes root from the term "Chera". Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that
4346-682: The Guru " in Malayalam) is the area of the kalari that is reserved for worship of the Guru of the kalari, who represents the tradition of gurukkals in Kerala who protected and taught Kalaripayattu to the next generation. In the Ganapatithara, Ganapati is symbolically invoked by the placing of an otta , or tusk-shaped wooden stick. The paduka , or footwear, is placed at the Guruthara to symbolize
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4452-516: The Kalaris (schools that teach Kalaripayattu) start training with weapons within 3 to 6 months. Some Kalaris only allow one weapon to be learned per year. After long stick and small stick fighting, iron weapons are introduced. Weapons training begins with the dagger and sword, followed by the spear. Not all modern schools use specialized weapons. Traditionally, bows and arrows were commonly used in Kerala and students were trained in these techniques, but
4558-427: The gurukkal , and the traditions of the kalari . Each stance has its own style, combination, and function. These techniques vary from one style to another. A Kalari practitioner might encounter new fighting techniques from an enemy combatant. The Kalari practitioner would need to learn how to anticipate, adapt to and neutralize these new techniques. This is especially seen in the Southern style of Kalaripayattu, which
4664-404: The 11th–12th century CE. Kalaripayattu is a martial art which developed out of combat-techniques of the 11th-12th century battlefield, with weapons and combative techniques that are unique to Kerala. The word Kalaripayattu is a combination of two Malayalam words - kalari (training ground or battleground) and payattu (training of martial arts), which is roughly translated as "practice in
4770-538: The 1st century CE, in the Periplus of the 1st century CE, and by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. There are brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator Katyayana (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher Patanjali (c. 5th century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher Kautilya (Chanakya) ( c. 3rd - 4th century BCE ) [though Sanskrit grammarian Panini (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either
4876-461: The Cheras, have been discovered from Pattanam in central Kerala. Bronze dyes for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur. Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend " Kuttuvan Kotai " above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c. 1st century CE or
4982-462: The Himalayas to sculpt the idol of goddess Pattini. Controlled the port of Naravu. He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas . Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli. Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan. He is sometimes identified as
5088-613: The Indian Ocean coast ( Kerala ) and Kongunadu . They governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during the Sangam period between c. 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu . However
5194-686: The Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs). According to Chilapathikaram , Chenguttuvan led his army to north India to get the sacred stone from
5300-540: The Kalari is in the east, to let in the morning sunlight, and leads into the 42-foot leg running east–west while the 21-foot leg runs north–south. Another consideration taken when constructing the kalari is that it is built in the south-west side of the main plot. The floor of the kalari is leveled using mud. In southern and central Tamilnadu , some kalaris were constructed in a circular form, with weapons and other instruments being placed on one end, and students sitting outside
5406-547: The Kerala State Sports Council. Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal (1850-1935), also known as the “ Dronacharya of Kalaripayattu,” was a gurukkal of Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair. Korrakkal Kanaran Gurukkal is recognized as one of the gurukkals who preserved Kalaripayattu in Kerala and allowed it to survive into the twentieth century after studying it from several gurukkals in the Malabar region of
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#17327725553585512-614: The Kerala or Chera country in the 7th and 8th centuries CE. While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in Tamil Nadu emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in Kerala took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE. Scholars tend to identify Alvar saint Kulasekhara and Nayanar saint Cherman Perumal (literally "the Chera king") with some of
5618-561: The Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur ( c. 2nd century CE ). Described as the descendant of Nedum Cheral Athan . The following Cheras are knowns from Purananuru collection (some of the names are re-duplications) . After the 5th century CE, the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably. Comparatively little
5724-578: The Malabar and Kerala parts became autonomous of Karur. The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East. The port of Kollam , in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in
5830-612: The Northern style, it is revered in Kerala as a combination of the teachings of both Parashurama and Agastya. It is predominantly practiced in some regions of the southern parts of Kerala, particularly in areas near Kanyakumari . While many of the exercises of the Southern style are identical to the Northern Style, it is more combative and martial in nature, and places heavy emphasis on hand-to-hand combat, hard impact techniques, and footwork, rather than emphasizing flexibility like
5936-528: The Northern style, or Vadakkan Kalari , and the Southern style, or Thekkan Kalari. These two systems have marked similarities in their styles or vazhi ("way" or "method" in Malayalam), such as Hanuman Vazhi , Bhiman Vazhi , and Bali Vazhi among others. The northern style of Kalaripayattu, or Vadakkan Kalari, is primarily practiced in the Malabar region of Kerala , and is based on elegant and flexible movements, evasions, jumps and weapons training. The southern style of Kalaripayattu, or Thekkan Kalari,
6042-476: The Northern style. It starts with the training in Chuvadu, a system of various combinations of fighting techniques similar to Muay Thai and Judo . Immediately after that, sparring with a partner is introduced as part of the training. These pre-determined techniques are repeatedly trained. After a basic proficiency in unarmed combat is established, weapons training begins with a small stick. Small stick training
6148-514: The Pandya political system by 10th/11th century CE. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas". The rulers of Venad (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of Kollam in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from
6254-663: The Perumals. Cheranad was also the name of an erstwhile province in the kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut , which had included parts of present-day Tirurangadi and Tirur Taluks of Malappuram district in it. Later it became a Taluk of Malabar District , when Malabar came under the British Raj . The headquarters of Cheranad Taluk was the town of Tirurangadi . Later the Taluk was merged with Eranad Taluk. The term Chera — and its variant form "Keralaputas" — stands for
6360-448: The Sangam epic poem Cilappatikaram . After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. Cheras of the Kongu country are known to have controlled eastern Kerala and only a few kilometres of current western Tamil Nadu in the early medieval period. Present-day central Kerala and Kongu Cheras detached around 8th–9th century CE to form
6466-619: The Sangam texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decade of Pathitrupattu ). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" ( Purananuru ) . His headquarters were at Kuzhumur near Kuttanad ( Akananuru ). He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the Kurukshetra War ( Purananuru and Akananuru ). He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and
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#17327725553586572-721: The Vadakkan Pattukal, it is stated that the cardinal principle of Kalaripayattu was that knowledge of the art be used to further worthy causes, and not for the advancement of one's own selfish interests. In 1804, the British banned Kalaripayattu in Kerala in response to the Kottayathu War , a rebellion against British rule in Kerala led by the Keralite king Pazhassi Raja . The ban came into effect shortly after Pazhassi Raja's death on November 30, 1805, resulting in
6678-422: The Vellar Crafts Village. The Kalaripayattu classes will be taught by a group of gurukkals from Kerala, led by Sri Meenakshi Amma , a Kalaripayattu gurukkal and Padma Sri recipient. The Kalaripayattu Academy will initially teach 100 students, both adults and children, in both morning and evening classes. Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan is set to announce the syllabus of the academy in 2021. Kalaripayattu
6784-409: The actual techniques are taught very much later. Traditionally, the number of meypayattu may differ as per the teaching methods of the guru. Training is usually done in four stages, the first stage being Meipayattu (training stances), followed by Kolthari (practice with wooden weapons), Angathari (practice with metal weapons) and finally Verum kai (barehanded combat). Generally, the majority of
6890-434: The arts of the battlefield". The name 'Kalari' may also be derived from the Malayalam or Sanskrit term 'Khaloorika,' which is the name of a goddess associated with Shaktism who is worshipped in Kalaripayattu. The 5th century CE South Indian ancient text on Shaiva Siddhanta , known as the 'Kamika Agama,' discusses the construction of the 'Khaloorika', as place for military exercise. According to legend, Parashurama ,
6996-576: The beginning of the twentieth century, as well as sparking the revival of Kalaripayattu in Kerala in the 1920s. The resurgence of public interest in Kalaripayattu began in the 1920s in Thalassery , as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout southern India and continued through the 1970s surge of general worldwide interest in martial arts. During this period of renewed public interest in Kerala's native martial art, Kalaripayattu gurukkals such as Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair, and Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair rose to prominence as
7102-455: The behalf of others. In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The next to arrive were the Dutch , with their main base in Ceylon . They established ports in Malabar . Following the Dutch, the British —who set up in the west coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India. Duarte Barbosa ,
7208-400: The bow and arrow symbol. An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur. The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin. A silver coin with the portrait of
7314-413: The bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the Palghat Gap to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence. Historians have yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at Pattanam (near Cochin ) suggest
7420-405: The chera supremacy. Perum chera irumporai along with fourteen chieftains attacked kamur but perum chera irumporai was impressed with Kaluvuls resistance in battle field and let him rule kamur and accepted friendship from him. .Some of the velirs under Kaluvul joined the chera after the defeat. Uthiyan Cheral Athan is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from
7526-442: The circular arc to watch the training. Ankathattu is a 4 to 6 foot high platform constructed temporarily for the purpose of fighting duels. Ankam means war in Malayalam . This platform is constructed as per tradition and is in the center of the ground from where people can watch the fight. The entire arrangement is called a nkakalar . Historically, in Tamilnadu , quarrels between local rulers were resolved by fixing an ankam ,
7632-423: The closure of most of the major kalari training grounds in Kerala. Following the ban, many Keralite gurukkals of Kalaripayattu resisted the ban and continued to teach Kalaripayattu to their students in secret. Gurukkals such as Kottackkal Kanaran Gurukkal , Kelu Kurup Gurukkal and Maroli Ramunni Gurukkal, learned and preserved the martial art for posterity and were responsible for preserving Kalaripayattu into
7738-687: The conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe." The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with
7844-466: The deeds of warriors, indicating the practice of Kalarippayattu. These ballads, dating back as early as the 12th century, depict a social system in which every youth was required to undergo martial training. In the late medieval period Kalaripayattu extended into the Kerala practice of ankam ("combat" or "battle" in Malayalam ) as a way to settle disputes that could not be settled by local governmental assemblies. A variant of ankam , called poithu
7950-605: The earliest Perumals. The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure. The Later arrived Nambutiris from Northern land asked for a regent of the Chera king from Karur in Coimbatore and were granted lands from Tamil kings hailing from Pundurai . Hence the Tamil kings lost their power to Newly arrived Namboothris who created Zamorin and started to call themselves title 'Punthurakkon' (King from Punthura). After this,
8056-479: The early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative Nalam Killi on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which
8162-524: The entrance of the kalari facing east, and the location of ritualistic structures such as the Poothara , Ganapatithara , and Guruthara , are to face the west. The Poothara ("Flower ground" or "Flower floor" in Malayalam ) in a kalari is a seven-step raised platform with a lotus-shaped kumbha or figure, at its apex. The art uses concepts similar to the ancient Indian medical text, the Ayurveda , and
8268-431: The exercises. It continues to be the most authentic reference material on Kalaripayattu to this day. In the modern era, Kalaripayattu is also used by practitioners of Keralite dance styles, such as Kathakali and Mohiniyattam , as part of their training regimens. Recently, dancers from other, non-Keralite dance forms have also begun to incorporate Kalaripayattu into their training regimes, such as Vasundhara Doraswamy ,
8374-486: The grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai. Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam A short Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at Edakkal in the Western Ghats. Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as
8480-485: The grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan. Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names, with the Chera symbols of the bow and the arrow depicted in the reverse. The anthologies of early Sangham texts are a major source of information about the early Cheras. Cenguttuvan , or the good Chera, is famous for the traditions surrounding Kannaki , the principal female character of
8586-519: The ground, to take royal leaps and other leaps and this they learn twice a day as long as they are children and they become so loose jointed and supple and they make them turn their bodies contrary to nature; and when they are fully accomplished in this, they teach them to play with the weapon they are most inclined, some play with bows and arrows, some with poles to become spearmen, but most with swords and are ever practising. The Nayars (Nairs) are bound, however old they may be, to always go (for training) in
8692-485: The important weapons of the period including the spear ( vel ), sword ( val ), shield ( kedaham ), and bow and arrow ( vil ambu ). According to Zarrilli, Kalaripayattu has been practiced "since at least the twelfth century" CE. During the 11th century, the second Chera kingdom fought a century-long war with the Chola kingdom, which ended with disintegration of the Chera kingdom. During this period, military combat training
8798-457: The life of a gurukkal. The presiding deity of Kalaripayattu is said to be Bhadrakali or Bhagavathy . Before every training session in the kalari, salutations are provided to the presiding deities and obedience is paid to the kalari temple. Students apply tilak or tikka on their foreheads and upon the forehead of the idol of the presiding deity using soil from the ground of the kalari. The traditional training uniform used in Kalaripayattu
8904-683: The most important sources for the Cheras are the Pathitrupattu , the Akananuru , and the Purananuru . The Pathitrupattu , the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family. Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet. However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far. A method known as Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism ,
9010-497: The people or the land]. Archaeologists have found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras. Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near Karur ) dated to c. 1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and
9116-449: The present day northern-central Kerala and Kongu region western Tamil Nadu. The rest of Kerala was under Ay dynasty (southern tip of Kerala) and Mushika dynasty (northern tip of Kerala).The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources". There
9222-494: The primary gurukkals who preserved and transmitted the martial during the twentieth century and into the modern era. Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair, a student of Kottackkal Kanaran Gurukkal , and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris are named, opened several kalaris , and began to spread Kalaripayattu across its native state of Kerala, revitalizing the art across the state in the twentieth century. Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair
9328-493: The ruling lineage and the country associated with them. The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from Cheral , a corruption of Charal meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil , suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala . Another theory argues that the "Cheralam" is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land". Apart from
9434-434: The seven steps represent the seven dhatu and the kosha of the human body as per Ayurvedic traditions. The kumbha at the apex of the poothara is said to represent Bhagavathy or the heart of the individual. The Ganapatithara ("Ground of Ganapati " in Malayalam) is the area of the kalari that is reserved for the worship of Ganapati, a Hindu deity that is said to be the remover of obstacles. The Guruthara ("Ground of
9540-460: The sixth avatar of Vishnu , learned the art from Shiva , and taught it to the original settlers of Kerala shortly after bringing Kerala up from the ocean floor. A song in Malayalam refers to Parashurama's creation of Kerala, and credits him with the establishment of the first 108 kalaris throughout Kerala, along with the instruction of the first 21 Kalaripayattu gurus in Kerala on the destruction of enemies. According to another legend, Ayyappa ,
9646-545: The southern region of the present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and southern Alappuzha ) was under Ay dynasty , who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai . The early historic pre-Pallava polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics". Old Tamil Brahmi cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and
9752-525: The speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies. In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor Ashoka 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE). While Pliny the Elder and Claudius Ptolemy refer to the Cheras as Kaelobotros and Kerobottros respectively,
9858-459: The state. During the British ban of Kalaripayattu, he is said to have sold his lands and property to finance the study of Kalaripayattu. Chambadan Veetil Narayanan Nair (1905-1944), a Kalaripayattu gurukkal and student of Kottakal Kanaran Gurukkal, who was popularly known as "CVN" and in whose memory the CVN Kalaris sprang up across Kerala , enabling the revival of Kalaripayattu across its native state. Chirakkal T. Sreedharan Nair (1909-1984),
9964-469: The structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a Tamil military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century. Nambudiri-Brahmin settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom. "A naval campaign led to
10070-540: The three major rulers – the Pandya , the Chera and the Chola – based originally in Madurai in Tamil Nadu, Vanchi , present day Karur , in Tamilnadu and Uraiyur ( Tiruchirappalli ) in Tamil Nadu, respectively. They had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely Korkai , Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveripattinam respectively. Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava ) consisted of
10176-421: The unique massage given to increase flexibility is known as katcha thirumal . Each style, or vazhi , in Kalaripayattu has a different purpose. The styles are variations that various masters have adapted and modified according to their understanding of the art. There are two major styles that are generally acknowledged within traditional Kalaripayattu, and are based on the regions in which they are practiced,
10282-818: The usage of guns and cannons became widespread. This also coincided with the European invasions into Kerala, after which, firearms began to surpass the usage of traditional weaponry such as swords and spears. The late medieval "golden age" of Kalaripayattu is preserved in the Vadakkan Pattukkal (17th–18th century ), a collection of ballads about warrior heroes and heroines from earlier periods in Kerala, such as Aromal Chekavar (16th century), Unniyarcha (16th century), and Thacholi Othenan, who were celebrated for their martial prowess, chivalry and idealism. The heroes and heroines belong mainly to two matrilinear families, one of Tiyya origin and another Nair . In
10388-531: The winter (the rainy season or monsoon season) to take their fencing lessons until they die. Hendrik van Rheede , governor of Dutch Malabar between 1669 and 1676, wrote about Chekavar training in Kalaripayattu in Hortus Malabaricus : Chekavas ( Chekavar ) are bound to war and arms. The Chekavars usually serve to teach Nayros (Nair) in the fencing in kalari school. Jacob Canter Visscher (1692–1735), in his Letters from Malabar , wrote about
10494-498: Was a Sangam age Tamil dynasty which unified various regions of the western coast and western ghats in southern India to form the early Chera empire. The dynasty, known as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam alongside the Chola and Pandya , has been documented as early as the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE. Their governance extended over diverse territories until the 12th century CE. The Chera country
10600-433: Was also practiced, and was a duel between two individuals. Combatants participating in ankam or poithu used Kalaripayattu, and the combatants were given up to 12 years to prepare and train prior to the ankam itself, so that all combatants could achieve the highest level of proficiency with Kalaripayattu traditional weaponry. In some cases, professional mercenaries trained in Kalaripayattu were paid to engage in ankam on
10706-446: Was compulsory, and according to Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai , Kalaripayattu took shape in this period. According to historian A. Sreedharan Menon , Kalaripayattu was among the most important aspects of feudal Keralite society, as it helped impart military training and Spartan -like discipline amongst the youth of Kerala , irrespective of caste, community or sex. Each village in late medieval Kerala had its own kalari , which contained
10812-434: Was difficult to maintain flexibility and mobility while in heavy armor. Kalaripayattu differs from many other martial arts systems in the world in that weapon based techniques are taught first, and barehanded techniques are taught last. Kalaripayattu is taught in a specialized training ground known as a kalari . The location and construction of each kalari is built in accordance to Hindu architectural treatises such as
10918-456: Was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks . Exchange of spices, especially black pepper , with Middle Eastern and Graeco-Roman merchants are attested in several sources. The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE ) are known to have had their original centre at Kuttanad in Kerala, and harbours at Muchiri (Muziris) and Thondi (Tyndis) on
11024-400: Was located on the mouth river Periyar. Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief). In
11130-407: Was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu). The Cheras are referred to as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor Ashoka 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII). The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by Pliny the Elder in
11236-589: Was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan ( Pathitrupattu (II) ). Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler Karikala . Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. As the name Pathitrupattu indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting
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