160-508: Heling ( Javanese : Karajan Heling ; Chinese : 訶陵 ; pinyin : Hēlíng ; Middle Chinese : [hɑ.lɨŋ]) or She-po or She-bo ( Chinese : 闍婆 ; pinyin : Shépó ; Middle Chinese : [d͡ʑia.buɑ]) in Chinese sources, or Ho-ling in Arabic scriptures of Umayyad Caliphate era; was a 7th- to 9th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java , Indonesia . It
320-407: A dialect continuum from northern Banten in the extreme west of Java to Banyuwangi Regency in the eastern corner of the island. All Javanese dialects are more or less mutually intelligible . A table showing the number of native speakers in 1980, for the 22 Indonesian provinces (from the total of 27) in which more than 1% of the population spoke Javanese: According to the 1980 census, Javanese
480-511: A Meccan caravan led by Mu'awiya's father on its return from Syria, prompting Abu Sufyan to call for reinforcements. The Qurayshite relief army was routed in the ensuing Battle of Badr , in which Mu'awiya's elder brother Hanzala and their maternal grandfather, Utba ibn Rabi'a , were killed. Abu Sufyan replaced the slain leader of the Meccan army, Abu Jahl , and led the Meccans to victory against
640-757: A basis for further analysis about history of Islam in Minangkabau conference in 2011 and earlier conference about History of Islam in Indonesia in 1963, which researches suggested that the earliest contact of Nusantara civilizations with Islam were occurred in 7th AD century between Arabian peoples with southeast Asia, contrary to most popular belief that Islam were brought to Nusantara, particularly Java island, by Indian merchants and preachers. According to Indonesian historians seminar which organized by Aceh provincial government , and Hamka , queen Shima has managed to establish contact with Mu'awiya I ibn Abi Sufyan
800-538: A book composed in later period, Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya , who is the king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom , and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom . Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, presumably in response to the expansion of the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty. The oldest inscriptions from Central Java suggest that in the 7th century,
960-459: A caliph), from the initial arbitration document. According to the historian Hugh N. Kennedy , the agreement forced Ali "to deal with Mu'awiya on equal terms and abandon his unchallenged right to lead the community". Madelung asserts it "handed Mu'awiya a moral victory" before inducing a "disastrous split in the ranks of Ali's men". Indeed, upon Ali's return to his capital Kufa in September 658,
1120-705: A campaign against Cilicia and proceeded to Euchaita , deep in Byzantine Anatolia . In 644, he led a foray against the Anatolian city of Amorium . The successive promotions of Abu Sufyan's sons contradicted Umar's efforts to otherwise curtail the influence of the Qurayshite aristocracy in the Muslim state in favor of the earliest Muslim converts (i.e. the Muhajirun and Ansar groups). According to
1280-633: A crime newscast). In later broadcasts, JTV offers programmes in the Central Javanese dialect (called by them basa kulonan , "the western language") and Madurese. The speakers of Suroboyoan dialect are well known for being proud of their distinctive dialect and consistently maintain it wherever they go. Javanese is spoken throughout Indonesia, neighboring Southeast Asian countries, the Netherlands, Suriname , New Caledonia , and other countries. The largest populations of speakers are found in
1440-491: A cross) and credits him for restoring Roman-era bath facilities for the benefit of the sick. According to the historian Yizhar Hirschfeld , "by this deed, the new caliph sought to please" his Christian subjects. The caliph often spent his winters at his Sinnabra palace near the Sea of Galilee. Mu'awiya was also credited with ordering the restoration of Edessa 's church after it was ruined in an earthquake in 679. He demonstrated
1600-453: A curse against Mu'awiya and his close retinue as a ritual in the morning prayers. Mu'awiya reciprocated in kind against Ali and his closest supporters in his own domain. In July, Mu'awiya dispatched an army under Amr to Egypt after a request for intervention from pro-Uthman mutineers in the province who were being suppressed by the governor, Caliph Abu Bakr's son and Ali's stepson, Muhammad . The latter's troops were defeated by Amr's forces,
1760-559: A direct assault against Ali. Instead, his strategy was to bribe the tribal chieftains in Ali's army to his side and harry the inhabitants along Iraq's western frontier. The first raid was conducted by al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri against nomads and Muslim pilgrims in the desert west of Kufa. This was followed by Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari 's abortive attack on Ayn al-Tamr then, in the summer of 660, Sufyan ibn Awf 's successful raids against Hit and Anbar . In 659 or 660, Mu'awiya expanded
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#17327832833611920-471: A duel and definitively end hostilities. The battle climaxed on the so-called 'Night of Clamor' on 28 July, which saw Ali's forces take the advantage in a melée as the death toll mounted on both sides. According to the account of the scholar al-Zuhri (d. 742), this prompted Amr ibn al-As to counsel Mu'awiya the following morning to have a number of his men tie leaves of the Qur'an on their lances in an appeal to
2080-523: A keen interest in Jerusalem. Although archaeological evidence is lacking, there are indications in medieval literary sources that a rudimentary mosque on the Temple Mount existed as early as Mu'awiya's time or was built by him. Mu'awiya's primary internal challenge was overseeing a Syria-based government that could reunite the politically and socially fractured Caliphate and assert authority over
2240-670: A large army under Busr ibn Abi Artat to conquer the Hejaz and Yemen. He directed Busr to intimidate Medina's inhabitants without harming them, spare the Meccans and kill anyone in Yemen who refused to pledge their allegiance. Busr advanced through Medina, Mecca and Ta'if , encountering no resistance and gaining those cities' recognition of Mu'awiya. In Yemen, Busr executed several notables in Najran and its vicinity on account of past criticism of Uthman or ties to Ali, massacred numerous tribesmen of
2400-470: A large segment of his troops who had opposed the arbitration defected, inaugurating the Kharijite movement. The initial agreement postponed the arbitration to a later date. Information in the early Muslim sources about the time, place and outcome of the arbitration is contradictory, but there were likely two meetings between Mu'awiya's and Ali's respective representatives, Amr and Abu Musa al-Ash'ari ,
2560-527: A major contender for the caliphate. Following the breakdown of the arbitration talks, Amr and the Syrian delegates returned to Damascus, where they greeted Mu'awiya as amir al-mu'minin , signaling their recognition of him as caliph. In April or May 658, Mu'awiya received a general pledge of allegiance from the Syrians. In response, Ali broke off communications with Mu'awiya, mobilized for war and invoked
2720-567: A new Javanese language magazine, appeared in 2005 is not published in the Javanese heartlands, but in Jakarta. Since 2003, an East Java local television station ( JTV ) has broadcast some of its programmes in the Surabayan ( Suroboyoan ) dialect, including Pojok Kampung [ id ] ("Village Corner", main newscast), Kuis RT/RW ("RT/RW Quiz"), and Pojok Perkoro ("Case Corner",
2880-573: A number of clearly distinct status styles. Its closest relatives are the neighboring languages such as Sundanese , Madurese , and Balinese . Most speakers of Javanese also speak Indonesian for official and commercial purposes as well as a means to communicate with non-Javanese-speaking Indonesians . There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia (concentrated in the West Coast part of the states of Selangor and Johor ) and Singapore . Javanese
3040-630: A short period. Mu'awiya's reliance on the native Syrian Arab tribes was compounded by the heavy toll inflicted on the Muslim troops in Syria by the plague of Amwas, which caused troop numbers to dwindle from 24,000 in 637 to 4,000 in 639. Moreover, the focus of Arabian tribal migration was toward the Sasanian front in Iraq . Mu'awiya oversaw a liberal recruitment policy that resulted in considerable numbers of Christian tribesmen and frontier peasants filling
3200-570: A subordinate until his death in 664. He was permitted to retain the surplus revenues of the province. The caliph ordered the resumption of Egyptian grain and oil shipments to Medina, ending the hiatus caused by the First Fitna. After Amr's death, Mu'awiya's brother Utba ( r. 664–665 ) and an early companion of Muhammad, Uqba ibn Amir ( r. 665–667 ), successively served as governors before Mu'awiya appointed Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari in 667. Maslama remained governor for
3360-473: A variety of other pronoun whose use varies depending on the dialect or level of speech. I You He, She, It panjenenganipun Modern Javanese usually employs SVO word order. However, Old Javanese sometimes had VSO and sometimes VOS word order. Even in Modern Javanese, archaic sentences using VSO structure can still be made. Examples: Both sentences mean: "He (S) comes (V) into (pp.)
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#17327832833613520-570: Is a Malayo-Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family spoken primarily by the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java , Indonesia . There are also pockets of Javanese speakers on the northern coast of western Java. It is the native language of more than 68 million people. Javanese is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers . It has several regional dialects and
3680-538: Is a complex system of verb affixes to express differences of status in subject and object. However, in general the structure of Javanese sentences both Old and Modern can be described using the topic–comment model , without having to refer to conventional grammatical categories. The topic is the head of the sentence; the comment is the modifier. So the example sentence has a simpler description: Dhèwèké = topic ; teka = comment; ing karaton = setting. Javanese has many loanwords supplementing those from
3840-525: Is also called kawi or 'of poets, poetical's, although this term could also be used to refer to the archaic elements of New Javanese literature. The writing system used to write Old Javanese is a descendant of the Pallava script from India. Almost half of the entire vocabularies found in Old Javanese literature are Sanskrit loanwords, although Old Javanese also borrowed terms from other languages in
4000-669: Is also spoken by traditional immigrant communities of Javanese descent in Suriname , Sri Lanka and New Caledonia . Along with Indonesian , Javanese is an official language in the Special Region of Yogyakarta , Indonesia. Javanese is part of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family, although its precise relationship to other Malayo-Polynesian languages is hard to determine. Using
4160-636: Is also used for religious purposes. Modern Javanese emerged as the main literary form of the language in the 16th century. The change in the literary system happened as Islam started to gain influence in Java. In its early form, Modern Javanese literary form was based on the variety spoken in the north coast of Java , where Islam had already gained foothold among the local people. Many of the written works in this variety were Islamic in nature, and several of them were translation from works in Malay. The Arabic abjad
4320-646: Is on the right.] Mu%27awiya I Mu'awiya I ( Arabic : معاوية بن أبي سفيان , romanized : Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān ; c. 597, 603 or 605 –April 680) was the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate , ruling from 661 until his death. He became caliph less than thirty years after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and immediately after the four Rashidun ('rightly-guided') caliphs. Unlike his predecessors, who had been close, early companions of Muhammad , Mu'awiya
4480-537: Is reviled for opposing Ali, accused of poisoning his son Hasan, and held to have accepted Islam without conviction. Mu'awiya's year of birth is uncertain, with 597, 603 or 605 cited by early Islamic sources. His father Abu Sufyan ibn Harb was a prominent Meccan merchant who led trade caravans to Syria , then part of the Byzantine Empire . He emerged as the leader of the Banu Abd Shams clan of
4640-629: Is spoken among descendants of plantation migrants brought by the Dutch during the 19th century. In Madura, Bali, Lombok, and the Sunda region of West Java, it is also used as a literary language . It was the court language in Palembang , South Sumatra , until the palace was sacked by the Dutch in the late 18th century. Javanese is written with the Latin script , Javanese script , and Arabic script . In
4800-484: Is the only language of Western Indonesia to possess a distinction between dental and retroflex phonemes. The latter sounds are transcribed as "th" and "dh" in the modern Roman script, but previously by the use of an underdot : "ṭ" and "ḍ". Javanese, like many other Austronesian languages, is an agglutinative language, where base words are modified through extensive use of affixes . Javanese has no specific personal pronoun to express plural except for kita which
4960-471: Is unknown. Based on Chinese reports, it is thought to have been somewher along the north coast of Central Java, possibly between present-day Pekalongan or Jepara . A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern coast of Jepara Regency . however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang regency shows that Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an altered name of Pe-Kaling-an. According to Carita Parahyangan ,
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5120-407: Is used in media, ranging from books to TV programs, and the language is also taught at schools in primarily Javanese areas. Although Javanese is not a national language , it has recognized status as a regional language in the three Indonesian provinces with the biggest concentrations of Javanese people: Central Java , Yogyakarta, and East Java . Javanese is designated as the official language of
5280-523: Is written in Pallava script in Sanskrit tells about a clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue of holy Ganges 's source in India. The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such as trisula , kamandalu (water jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red lotus), those are symbols of Hindu gods . Another inscription dated from around
5440-569: The Rashidun ('rightly-guided') caliphs to distinguish them from Mu'awiya and his Umayyad dynastic successors. Having to contend with challenges to his leadership from the Ansar , the natives of Medina who had provided Muhammad safe haven from his erstwhile Meccan opponents, and the mass defections of several Arab tribes, Abu Bakr reached out to the Quraysh, particularly its two strongest clans,
5600-417: The ashraf (tribal chieftains), who served as intermediaries between the authorities and the tribesmen in the garrisons. Mu'awiya's statecraft was likely inspired by his father, who utilized his wealth to establish political alliances. The caliph generally preferred bribing his opponents over direct confrontation. In the summation of Kennedy, Mu'awiya ruled by "making agreements with those who held power in
5760-615: The Abbasid era, which began in 750. In the Yamama region in central Arabia, Mu'awiya confiscated from the Banu Hanifa the lands of Hadarim, where he employed 4,000 slaves, likely to cultivate its fields. The caliph gained possession of estates in and near Ta'if which, together with the lands of his brothers Anbasa and Utba, formed a considerable cluster of properties. One of the earliest known Arabic inscriptions from Mu'awiya's reign
5920-674: The Banu Makhzum and Banu Abd Shams, to shore up support for the Caliphate. Among those Qurayshites whom he appointed to suppress the rebel Arab tribes during the Ridda wars (632–633) was Mu'awiya's brother Yazid. Afterward, he was dispatched as one of four commanders in charge of the Muslim conquest of Byzantine Syria in c. 634 . The caliph appointed Mu'awiya commander of Yazid's vanguard. Through these appointments Abu Bakr gave
6080-602: The Dieng Plateau . According to a legendary account in the New Book of Tang , in 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima , famous for her fair yet harsh rule. According to tradition, one day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold at the intersection in Heling to test the fame truthfulness and honesty of the Heling people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not belong to them until 3 years later when Shima's son,
6240-673: The Greater North Borneo subgroup, which he proposes as an alternative to Malayo-Sumbawan grouping. However, Blust also expresses the possibility that Greater North Borneo languages are closely related to many other western Indonesian languages, including Javanese. Blust's suggestion has been further elaborated by Alexander Smith, who includes Javanese in the Western Indonesian grouping (which also includes GNB and several other subgroups), which Smith considers as one of Malayo-Polynesian's primary branches. In general,
6400-586: The Istakhr fortress in Fars . Busr had threatened to execute three of Ziyad's young sons in Basra to force his surrender, but Ziyad was ultimately persuaded by al-Mughira, his mentor, to submit to Mu'awiya's authority in 663. In a controversial step that secured the loyalty of the fatherless Ziyad, whom the caliph viewed as the most capable candidate to govern Basra, Mu'awiya adopted him as his paternal half-brother, to
6560-608: The Maritime Southeast Asia . The form of Old Javanese found in several texts from 14th century onward (mostly written in Bali) is sometimes referred to as "Middle Javanese". Both Old and Middle Javanese written forms have not been widely used in Java since early 16th century. However, Old Javanese works and poetic tradition continue to be preserved in the Javanese-influenced Bali, and the variety
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6720-839: The Muslims at the Battle of Uhud in 625. After his abortive siege of Muhammad in Medina at the Battle of the Trench in 627, he lost his leadership position among the Quraysh. Mu'awiya's father was not a participant in the truce negotiations at Hudaybiyya between the Quraysh and Muhammad in 628. The following year, Muhammad married Mu'awiya's widowed sister Umm Habiba , who had embraced Islam fifteen years earlier. The marriage may have reduced Abu Sufyan's hostility toward Muhammad and Abu Sufyan negotiated with him in Medina in 630 after confederates of
6880-531: The Second Muslim Civil War . While there is considerable admiration for Mu'awiya in the contemporary sources, he has been criticized for lacking the justice and piety of the Rashidun and transforming the office of the caliphate into a kingship. Besides these criticisms, Sunni Muslim tradition honors him as a companion of Muhammad and a scribe of Qur'anic revelation. In Shia Islam , Mu'awiya
7040-649: The Shaiva form of Hinduism flourished on the northern coast, the region now associated with the Heling Kingdom. Some of the oldest Javanese candis can also be found in the mountainous surrounding areas of northern Central Java, such as the Hindu temples of Dieng Plateau and the Gedong Songo temples, but they were probably built in a later period, during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historians suggest that there
7200-536: The Special Region of Yogyakarta under Yogyakarta Special Region Regulation Number 2 of 2021. Previously, Central Java promulgated a similar regulation—Regional Regulation 9/2012 —but this did not imply an official status for the language. Javanese is taught at schools and is used in some mass media , both electronically and in print. There is, however, no longer a daily newspaper in Javanese. Javanese-language magazines include Panjebar Semangat , Jaka Lodhang , Jaya Baya , Damar Jati , and Mekar Sari . Damar Jati ,
7360-751: The lexicostatistical method, Isidore Dyen classified Javanese as part of the "Javo-Sumatra Hesion", which also includes the Sundanese and "Malayic" languages. This grouping is also called "Malayo-Javanic" by linguist Berndt Nothofer, who was the first to attempt a reconstruction of it based on only four languages with the best attestation at the time (Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese , and Malay ). Malayo-Javanic has been criticized and rejected by various linguists. Alexander Adelaar does not include Javanese in his proposed Malayo-Sumbawan grouping (which also covers Malayic , Sundanese , and Madurese languages). Robert Blust also does not include Javanese in
7520-466: The polytheistic Quraysh , the dominant tribe of Mecca, during the early stages of the Quraysh's conflict with Muhammad. The latter also hailed from the Quraysh and was distantly related to Mu'awiya via their common paternal ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy . Mu'awiya's mother, Hind bint Utba , was also a member of the Banu Abd Shams. In 624, Muhammad and his followers attempted to intercept
7680-432: The (def. art.) palace (O)". In the Old Javanese sentence, the verb is placed at the beginning and is separated by the particle ta from the rest of the sentence. In Modern Javanese the definite article is lost, and definiteness is expressed by other means if necessary. Verbs are not inflected for person or number. There is no grammatical tense ; time is expressed by auxiliary words meaning "yesterday", "already", etc. There
7840-558: The 19th century, Madurese was also written in the Javanese script. The original inhabitants of Lampung , the Lampungese, make up only 15% of the provincial population. The rest are the so-called "transmigrants", settlers from other parts of Indonesia, many as a result of past government transmigration programs . Most of these transmigrants are Javanese who have settled there since the 19th century. In Suriname (the former Dutch colony of Surinam ), South America, approximately 15% of
8000-618: The Arab army's invasion in the summer. An Arab fleet reached the Sea of Marmara by autumn, while Yazid and Fadala, having raided Chalcedon through the winter, besieged Constantinople in spring 668, but due to famine and disease, lifted the siege in late June. The Arabs continued their campaigns in Constantinople's vicinity before withdrawing to Syria most likely in late 669. In 669, Mu'awiya's navy raided as far as Sicily. The following year,
8160-702: The Basran troops sent by Ziyad in 673 swelled Fustat's 15,000-strong garrison to 40,000 during Mu'awiya's reign. Utba increased the Alexandria garrison to 12,000 men and built a governor's residence in the city, whose Greek Christian population was generally hostile to Arab rule. When Utba's deputy in Alexandria complained that his troops were unable to control the city, Mu'awiya deployed a further 15,000 soldiers from Syria and Medina. The troops in Egypt were far less rebellious than their Iraqi counterparts, though elements in
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#17327832833618320-566: The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor (d. 818). However, the dating and the very historicity of this view has been challenged; the Oxford scholar James Howard-Johnston considers that no siege of Constantinople took place, and that the story was inspired by the actual siege a generation later. The historian Marek Jankowiak on the other hand, in a revisionist reconstruction of
8480-401: The Byzantine envoy Procopios in Damascus. In 653, Mu'awiya received the submission of the Armenian leader Theodore Rshtuni , which the Byzantine emperor practically conceded when he withdrew from Armenia that year. In 655, Mu'awiya's lieutenant commander Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri captured Theodosiopolis and deported Rshtuni to Syria, solidifying Arab rule over Armenia. Mu'awiya's domain
8640-445: The Byzantines began a counteroffensive against the Caliphate, first raiding Egypt in 672 or 673, while in winter 673, Mu'awiya's admiral Abd Allah ibn Qays led a large fleet that raided Smyrna and the coasts of Cilicia and Lycia. The Byzantines landed a major victory against an Arab army and fleet led by Sufyan ibn Awf, possibly at Sillyon , in 673 or 674. The next year, Abd Allah ibn Qays and Fadala landed in Crete and in 675 or 676,
8800-465: The Byzantines during one of his forces' Anatolian campaigns. Based on the histories of al-Tabari (d. 923) and Agapius of Hierapolis (d. 941), the first raid of Mu'awiya's caliphate occurred in 662 or 663, during which his forces inflicted a heavy defeat on a Byzantine army with numerous patricians slain. In the next year a raid led by Busr reached Constantinople and in 664 or 665, Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid raided Koloneia in northeastern Anatolia. In
8960-441: The Byzantines, including a failed siege of Constantinople . In Iraq and the eastern provinces, he delegated authority to the powerful governors al-Mughira and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan , the latter of whom he controversially adopted as his brother. Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest of Ifriqiya (central North Africa) was launched by the commander Uqba ibn Nafi in 670, while the conquests in Khurasan and Sijistan on
9120-427: The Caliphate. At least until Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid's death in 666, Homs served as the principal marshaling point for the offensives, and afterward Antioch served this purpose as well. The bulk of the troops fighting on the Anatolian and Armenian fronts hailed from the tribal groups that arrived from Arabia during and after the conquest. During his caliphate, Mu'awiya continued his past efforts to resettle and fortify
9280-477: The Egyptian and Syrian navies joined the assault, led by Uqba ibn Amir and Fadala ibn Ubayd respectively. According to Jankowiak, Mu'awiya likely ordered the invasion during an opportunity presented by the rebellion of the Byzantine Armenian general Saborios , who formed a pact with the caliph, in spring 667. The caliph dispatched an army under Fadala, but before it could be joined by the Armenians, Saborios died. Mu'awiya then sent reinforcements led by Yazid who led
9440-432: The Fustat garrison occasionally raised opposition to Mu'awiya's policies, culminating during Maslama's term with the widespread protest at Mu'awiya's seizure and allotment of crown lands in Fayyum to his son Yazid, which compelled the caliph to reverse his order. Although revenge for Uthman's assassination had been the basis upon which Mu'awiya claimed the right to the caliphate, he neither emulated Uthman's empowerment of
9600-592: The Hamdan and townspeople from Sana'a and Ma'rib . Before he could continue his campaign in Hadhramawt , he withdrew upon the approach of a Kufan relief force. News of Busr's actions in Arabia spurred Ali's troops to rally behind his planned campaign against Mu'awiya, but the expedition was aborted as a result of Ali's assassination by a Kharijite in January 661. After Ali was killed, Mu'awiya left al-Dahhak ibn Qays in charge of Syria and led his army toward Kufa, where Ali's son Hasan had been nominated as his successor. He successfully bribed Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas ,
9760-475: The Homs garrison. He employed the veteran commander and Kindite nobleman Shurahbil ibn Simt , who was widely respected in Syria, to rally the Yemenites to his side. He then enlisted support from the dominant tribal leader of Palestine, the Judham chief Natil ibn Qays , by allowing the latter's confiscation of the district's treasury to go unpunished. The efforts bore fruit and demands for war against Ali grew throughout Mu'awiya's domain. When Ali sent his envoy,
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#17327832833619920-477: The Iraqis to settle the conflict through consultation. According to the scholar al-Sha'bi (d. 723), al-Ash'ath ibn Qays , who was in Ali's army, expressed his fears of Byzantine and Persian attacks were the Muslims to exhaust themselves in the civil war. Upon receiving intelligence of this, Mu'awiya ordered the raising of the Qur'an leaves. Though this act represented a surrender of sorts as Mu'awiya abandoned, at least temporarily, his previous insistence on settling
10080-444: The Kharijites. Mu'awiya's ascent signaled the rise of the Kufan ashraf represented by Ali's erstwhile backers al-Ash'ath ibn Qays and Jarir ibn Abd Allah, at the expense of Ali's old guard represented by Hujr ibn Adi and Ibrahim , the son of Ali's leading aide Malik al-Ashtar . Mu'awiya's initial choice to govern Kufa in 661 was al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba , who possessed considerable administrative and military experience in Iraq and
10240-427: The Masts . Constans II was forced to sail to Sicily , opening the way for an ultimately unsuccessful Arab naval attack on Constantinople . The Arabs were commanded by either the governor of Egypt, Abd Allah ibn Abi Sarh , or Mu'awiya's lieutenant Abu'l-A'war . Meanwhile, after two previous attempts by the Arabs to conquer Armenia , the third attempt in 650 ended with a three-year truce reached between Mu'awiya and
10400-450: The Mu'awiyah possession of as many as around 5,000 ships in 655, were the reason why the caliphate envoys manage to safely reach Heling during queen Shima reign, despite the length of distance between two nations. Azyumardi Azra , an Indonesian culture expert, accepted this Arab theory regarding the earliest contact of Islam in Java, although he also noted that the spread of Islam during queen Shima and Mu'awiyah era were not as vigorous as
10560-530: The Muslim conquest had caused a mass flight of Greek Christian urbanites from Damascus, Aleppo , Latakia and Tripoli to Byzantine territory, while those who remained held pro-Byzantine sympathies. In contrast to the other conquered regions of the Caliphate, where new garrison cities were established to house Muslim troops and their administration, in Syria the troops settled in existing cities, including Damascus, Homs, Jerusalem, Tiberias , Aleppo and Qinnasrin . Mu'awiya restored, repopulated and garrisoned
10720-467: The Muslim government. As part of Muhammad's efforts to reconcile with the Quraysh, Mu'awiya was made one of his kātibs (scribes), being one of seventeen literate members of the Quraysh at that time. Abu Sufyan moved to Medina to maintain his newfound influence in the nascent Muslim community . After Muhammad died in 632, Abu Bakr became caliph (leader of the Muslim community). He and his successors Umar , Uthman , and Ali are often known as
10880-452: The Quraysh and the dispossessed elites of Kufa and Egypt to oppose the caliph. Uthman sent for assistance from Mu'awiya when rebels from Egypt besieged his home in June 656. Mu'awiya dispatched a relief army toward Medina, but it withdrew at Wadi al-Qura when word reached them of Uthman's killing. Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was recognized as caliph in Medina. Mu'awiya withheld allegiance to Ali and, according to some reports,
11040-402: The Quraysh violated the Hudaybiyya truce. When Muhammad captured Mecca in 630, Mu'awiya, his father, and his elder brother Yazid embraced Islam. According to accounts cited by the early Muslim historians al-Baladhuri and Ibn Hajar , Mu'awiya had secretly become a Muslim from the time of the Hudaybiyya negotiations. By 632 Muslim authority extended across Arabia with Medina as the seat of
11200-405: The Syrian port cities. Due to the reticence of Arab tribesmen to inhabit the coastlands, in 663 Mu'awiya moved Persian civilians and personnel that he had previously settled in the Syrian interior into Acre and Tyre, and transferred Asawira , elite Persian soldiers, from Kufa and Basra to the garrison at Antioch. A few years later, Mu'awiya settled Apamea with 5,000 Slavs who had defected from
11360-462: The Umayyad clan nor used them to assert his own power. With minor exceptions, members of the clan were not appointed to the wealthy provinces nor the caliph's court, Mu'awiya largely limiting their influence to Medina, the old capital of the Caliphate where most of the Umayyads and the wider Qurayshite former aristocracy remained headquartered. The loss of political power left the Umayyads of Medina resentful toward Mu'awiya, who may have become wary of
11520-459: The accession of Caliph Uthman ( r. 644–656 ), Mu'awiya's governorship was enlarged to include Palestine, while a companion of Muhammad, Umayr ibn Sa'd al-Ansari , was confirmed as governor of the Homs-Jazira district. In late 646 or early 647, Uthman attached the Homs-Jazira district to Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship, greatly increasing the military manpower at his disposal. During
11680-579: The basic vocabulary, such as pikir ("to think", from the Arabic fikr ), badan ("body"), mripat ("eye", thought to be derived from the Arabic ma'rifah , meaning "knowledge" or "vision"). However, these Arabic words typically have native Austronesian or Sanskrit alternatives: pikir = galih , idhep (Austronesian) and manah , cipta , or cita (from Sanskrit); badan = awak (Austronesian) and slira , sarira , or angga (from Sanskrit); and mripat = mata (Austronesian) and soca or nétra (from Sanskrit). Dutch loanwords usually have
11840-483: The caliph. Opposition to the confiscations raised by Hujr ibn Adi, whose pro-Alid advocacy had been tolerated by al-Mughira, was violently suppressed by Ziyad. Hujr and his retinue were sent to Mu'awiya for punishment and were executed on the caliph's orders, marking the first political execution in Islamic history and serving as a harbinger for future pro-Alid uprisings in Kufa. Ziyad died in 673 and his son Ubayd Allah
12000-541: The caliphal treasury there from Kufa. He relied on his Syrian tribal soldiery, numbering about 100,000 men, increasing their pay at the expense of the Iraqi garrisons, also about 100,000 soldiers combined. The highest stipends were paid on an inheritable basis to 2,000 nobles of the Quda'a and Kinda tribes, the core components of his support base, who were further awarded the privilege of consultation for all major decisions and
12160-777: The central government's entreaties to the Byzantines' principal Arab allies, the Christian Ghassanids , were rebuffed. Before the advent of Islam in Syria, the Kalb and the Quda'a, long under the influence of Greco-Aramaic culture and the Monophysite church, had served Byzantium as subordinates of its Ghassanid client kings to guard the Syrian frontier against invasions by the Sasanian Persians and
12320-465: The coastal cities of Antioch , Balda , Tartus , Maraclea and Baniyas . In Tripoli he settled significant numbers of Jews , while sending to Homs, Antioch and Baalbek Persian holdovers from the Sasanian occupation of Byzantine Syria in the early 7th century. Upon Uthman's direction, Mu'awiya settled groups of the nomadic Tamim , Asad and Qays tribes to areas north of the Euphrates in
12480-555: The commander of Hasan's vanguard, to desert his post and sent envoys to negotiate with Hasan. In return for a financial settlement, Hasan abdicated and Mu'awiya entered Kufa in July or September 661 and was recognized as caliph. This year is considered by a number of the early Muslim sources as 'the year of unity' and is generally regarded as the start of Mu'awiya's caliphate. Before and/or after Ali's death, Mu'awiya received oaths of allegiance in one or two formal ceremonies in Jerusalem,
12640-449: The conquest of the rest of Syria. Mu'awiya was among the Arab troops that entered Jerusalem with Caliph Umar in 637. Afterward, Mu'awiya and Yazid were dispatched by Abu Ubayda to conquer the coastal towns of Sidon , Beirut and Byblos . Following the death of Abu Ubayda in the plague of Amwas in 639, Umar split the command of Syria, appointing Yazid as governor of the military districts of Damascus , Jordan and Palestine , and
12800-562: The crown lands that he confiscated in Iraq and Arabia. He also received the customary fifth of the war booty acquired by his commanders during expeditions. In the Jazira, Mu'awiya coped with the tribal influx, which spanned previously established groups such as the Sulaym , newcomers from the Mudar and Rabi'a confederations and civil war refugees from Kufa and Basra, by administratively detaching
12960-417: The crown prince, accidentally touched the bag with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son but was overruled by a minister who appealed to the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the prince's foot that touched the bag of gold, it was decided that the foot must be punished through mutilation. The theory regarding contact between caliph Mu'awiyah with queen Shima of Heling has become
13120-399: The dispute with Ali militarily and pursuing Uthman's killers into Iraq, it had the effect of sowing discord and uncertainty in Ali's ranks. The caliph adhered to the will of the majority in his army and accepted the proposal to arbitrate. Moreover, Ali agreed to Amr's, or Mu'awiya's, demand to omit his formal title, amir al-mu'minin (commander of the faithful, the traditional title of
13280-440: The duration of Mu'awiya's reign, significantly expanding Fustat and its mosque and boosting the city's importance in 674 by relocating Egypt's main shipyard to the nearby Roda Island from Alexandria due to the latter's vulnerability to Byzantine naval raids. The Arab presence in Egypt was mostly limited to the central garrison at Fustat and the smaller garrison at Alexandria. The influx of Syrian troops brought by Amr in 658 and
13440-546: The eastern Mediterranean enabled Mu'awiya's naval forces to raid Crete and Rhodes in 653. From the raid on Rhodes, Mu'awiya remitted significant war spoils to Uthman. In 654 or 655, a joint naval expedition launched from Alexandria , Egypt and the harbors of Syria routed a Byzantine fleet commanded by the Byzantine Emperor Constans II ( r. 641–668 ) off the Lycian coast at the Battle of
13600-414: The eastern frontier were resumed. Although Mu'awiya confined the influence of his Umayyad clan to the governorship of Medina , he nominated his own son, Yazid I , as his successor. It was an unprecedented move in Islamic politics and opposition to it by prominent Muslim leaders, including Ali's son Husayn , and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr , persisted after Mu'awiya's death, culminating with the outbreak of
13760-569: The election of Ali . During the First Muslim Civil War , the two led their armies to a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin in 657, prompting an abortive series of arbitration talks to settle the dispute. Afterward, Mu'awiya gained recognition as caliph by his Syrian supporters and his ally Amr ibn al-As , who conquered Egypt from Ali's governor in 658. Following the assassination of Ali in 661, Mu'awiya compelled Ali's son and successor Hasan to abdicate and Mu'awiya's suzerainty
13920-405: The events reliant on the Arabic and Syriac sources, asserts that the assault came earlier than what is reported by Theophanes, and that the multitude of campaigns that were reported during 668–669 represented the coordinated efforts by Mu'awiya to conquer the Byzantine capital. Al-Tabari reports that Mu'awiya's son Yazid led a campaign against Constantinople in 669 and Ibn Abd al-Hakam reports that
14080-400: The family of Abu Sufyan a stake in the conquest of Syria, where Abu Sufyan already owned property in the vicinity of Damascus . Abu Bakr's successor Umar ( r. 634–644 ) appointed a leading companion of Muhammad, Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah , as the general commander of the Muslim army in Syria in 636 after the rout of the Byzantines at the Battle of Yarmouk , which paved the way for
14240-470: The first Umayyad caliph and fifth Qurayshite caliph . According to Reuben Levy , queen Shima regards Mu'awiyah as king of Ta-cheh in regards of Arab caliphate. Both Hamka, and Levy though that the envoys of Umayyad managed to reach Heling kingdom due to the improvements of caliphate maritime navigation, as Mu'awiyah were focusing the Early Caliphate navy at that time. Levy also gave figure that
14400-407: The first by an Egyptian and Medinese fleet and the second by an Egyptian and Syrian fleet. The culmination of the campaigns was an assault on Constantinople, but the chronologies of the Arabic, Syriac, and Byzantine sources are contradictory. The traditional view by modern historians is of a great series of naval-borne assaults against Constantinople in c. 674–678 , based on the history of
14560-578: The first in Dumat al-Jandal and the last in Adhruh . Ali abandoned the arbitration after the first meeting in which Abu Musa—who, unlike Amr, was not particularly attached to his principal's cause— accepted the Syrian side's claim that Uthman was wrongfully killed, a verdict that Ali opposed. The final meeting in Adhruh, which had been convened at Mu'awiya's request, collapsed, but by then Mu'awiya had emerged as
14720-621: The first in late 660 or early 661 and the second in July 661. The 10th-century Jerusalemite geographer al-Maqdisi holds that Mu'awiya had further developed a mosque originally built by Caliph Umar on the Temple Mount , the precursor of the Jami Al-Aqsa , and received his formal oaths of allegiance there. According to the earliest extant source about Mu'awiya's accession in Jerusalem, the near-contemporaneous Maronite Chronicles , composed by an anonymous Syriac author, Mu'awiya received
14880-455: The following form : CSVC, where C = consonant , S = sonorant ( /j/, /r/, /l/, /w/ , or any nasal consonant ), and V = vowel . As with other Austronesian languages, native Javanese roots consist of two syllables; words consisting of more than three syllables are broken up into groups of disyllabic words for pronunciation. In Modern Javanese, a disyllabic root is of the following type: nCsvVnCsvVC. Apart from Madurese , Javanese
15040-668: The gold mines of the Banu Sulaym tribe attributed to Mu'awiya by the historians al-Harbi (d. 898) and al-Samhudi (d. 1533). Mu'awiya possessed more personal experience than any other caliph fighting the Byzantines, the principal external threat to the Caliphate, and pursued the war against the Empire more energetically and continuously than his successors. The First Fitna caused the Arabs to lose control over Armenia to native, pro-Byzantine princes, but in 661 Habib ibn Maslama re-invaded
15200-517: The historian Leone Caetani , this exceptional treatment stemmed from Umar's personal respect for the Umayyads , the branch of the Banu Abd Shams to which Mu'awiya belonged. This is doubted by the historian Wilferd Madelung , who surmises that Umar had little choice, due to the lack of a suitable alternative to Mu'awiya in Syria and the ongoing plague in the region, which precluded the deployment of commanders more preferable to Umar from Medina. Upon
15360-486: The history of the Javanese language can be divided into two distinct phases: 1) Old Javanese and 2) New Javanese. The earliest attested form of Old Javanese can be found on the Sukabumi inscription at Kediri regency, East Java which dates from 804 CE. Between the 8th and the 15th century, this form of Javanese flourished in the island of Java. Old Javanese is commonly written in the form of verses. This language variety
15520-554: The island. In either case, the Cypriots were forced to pay a tribute equal to that which they had paid the Byzantines. Mu'awiya established a garrison and a mosque to maintain the Caliphate's influence on the island, which became a staging ground for the Arabs and the Byzantines to launch raids against each other's territories. The inhabitants of Cyprus were largely left to their own devices and archaeological evidence indicates uninterrupted prosperity during this period. Dominance of
15680-515: The land of Java (社婆 or 闍婆) as a whole, though this may be the result of later usage of the term "Java" supplanting the earlier "Heling". A number of other toponyms are mentioned, which are difficult to identify: the city of Polujiasi ( Chinese : 婆露伽斯 ; pinyin : Pólùjiāsī , Middle Chinese : [buɑ.luoH.ɡɨɑ.siᴇ]), located further east of Heling, and the highland country Langbeiye ( Chinese : 郎卑野 ; pinyin : Lángbēiyě , Middle Chinese : [lɑŋ.piᴇ.jiaX]), conjectured by Groeneveldt to be
15840-413: The late 660s, Mu'awiya's forces attacked Antioch of Pisidia or Antioch of Isauria . Following the death of Constans II in July 668, Mu'awiya oversaw an increasingly aggressive policy of naval warfare against the Byzantines. According to the early Muslim sources, raids against the Byzantines peaked between 668 and 669. In each of those years there occurred six ground campaigns and a major naval campaign,
16000-579: The later era in 15th AD century. The denomination of Arab theory which introduced by Hamka were supported by researcher who linked the founding of Islamic tomb in Barus , Sumatra island which traced in 7th AD century, thus establishing the theory regarding the existence of trade route between the Heling kingdom, the Srivijaya empire, and the Umayyad caliphate. The exact location of kingdom's capital
16160-466: The latter deposed him by sending his own governor to Syria, who was denied entry into the province by Mu'awiya. This is rejected by Madelung, according to whom no formal relations existed between the caliph and the governor of Syria for seven months from the date of Ali's election. Soon after becoming caliph, Ali was opposed by much of the Quraysh led by al-Zubayr and Talha , both prominent companions of Muhammad, and Muhammad's wife A'isha , who feared
16320-619: The latter's Arab clients, the Lakhmids . By the time the Muslims entered Syria, the Kalb and the Quda'a had accumulated significant military experience and were accustomed to hierarchical order and military obedience. To harness their strength and thereby secure his foothold in Syria, Mu'awiya consolidated ties to the Kalb's ruling house, the clan of Bahdal ibn Unayf , by wedding the latter's daughter Maysun in c. 650 . He also married Maysun's paternal cousin, Na'ila bint Umara, for
16480-521: The loss of their own influence under Ali. The ensuing civil war became known as the First Fitna . Ali defeated the triumvirate near Basra at the Battle of the Camel , which ended in the deaths of al-Zubayr and Talha, both potential contenders for the caliphate, and the retirement of A'isha to Medina. With his position in Iraq, Egypt and Arabia secure, Ali turned his attention toward Mu'awiya. Unlike
16640-399: The military district of Qinnasrin–Jazira from Homs, according to the 8th-century historian Sayf ibn Umar . However, al-Baladhuri attributes this change to Mu'awiya's successor Yazid I ( r. 680–683 ). Syria retained its Byzantine-era bureaucracy, which was staffed by Christians including the head of the tax administration, Sarjun ibn Mansur . The latter had served Mu'awiya in
16800-400: The native Austronesian base. Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting influence. The Old Javanese–English Dictionary contains approximately 25,500 entries, over 12,600 of which are borrowings from Sanskrit. Such a high number is no measure of usage, but it does suggest the extent to which the language adopted Sanskrit words for formal purposes. In a typical Old Javanese literary work about 25% of
16960-403: The new currency was rejected by the Syrians as it omitted the symbol of the cross. The sole epigraphic attestation to Mu'awiya's rule in Syria, a Greek inscription dated to 663 discovered at the hot springs of Hamat Gader near the Sea of Galilee , refers to the caliph as Abd Allah Mu'awiya, amir al-mu'minin ("God's Servant Mu'awiya, commander of the faithful"; the caliph's name is preceded by
17120-406: The number of troops on the payrolls and dispatching 50,000 Iraqi soldiers and their families to settle Khurasan . This also consolidated the previously weak and unstable Arab position in the Caliphate's easternmost province and enabled conquests toward Transoxiana . As part of his reorganization efforts in Kufa, Ziyad confiscated its garrison's crown lands, which thenceforth became the possession of
17280-442: The office under Uthman. During Mu'awiya's reign, Ibn Amir recommenced expeditions into Sistan , reaching as far as Kabul . He was unable to maintain order in Basra, where there was growing resentment toward the distant campaigns. Consequently, Mu'awiya replaced Ibn Amir with Ziyad ibn Abihi in 664 or 665. The latter had been the longest of Ali's loyalists to withhold recognition of Mu'awiya's caliphate and had barricaded himself in
17440-623: The operations to the Hejaz (western Arabia, where Mecca and Medina are located), sending Abd Allah ibn Mas'ada al-Fazari to collect the alms tax and oaths of allegiance to Mu'awiya from the inhabitants of the Tayma oasis. This initial foray was defeated by the Kufans, while an attempt to extract oaths of allegiance from the Quraysh of Mecca in April 660 also failed. In the summer, Mu'awiya dispatched
17600-401: The other provincial governors, Mu'awiya had a strong and loyal power base, demanded revenge for the slaying of his Umayyad kinsman Uthman, and could not be easily replaced. At this point, Mu'awiya did not yet claim the caliphate and his principal aim was keeping power in Syria. Ali's victory in Basra left Mu'awiya vulnerable, his territory wedged between Ali's forces in Iraq and Egypt, while
17760-463: The outer skin of bamboo. The land produces tortoise-shell, gold and silver, rhinoceros-horns and ivory. The country is very rich; there is a cavern from which salt water bubbles up spontaneously. They make wine of the hanging flowers of the coco palm , when they drink of it, they become rapidly drunk. They have letters and are acquainted with astronomy. In eating they do not use spoons or chopsticks. The New Book of Tang appears to identify Heling with
17920-652: The pledges of the tribal chieftains and then prayed at Golgotha and the Tomb of the Virgin Mary in Gethsemane , both adjacent to the Temple Mount. The Maronite Chronicles also maintain that Mu'awiya "did not wear a crown like other kings in the world". There is little information in the early Muslim sources about Mu'awiya's rule in Syria, the center of his caliphate. He established his court in Damascus and moved
18080-447: The political ambitions of the much larger Abu al-As branch of the clan—to which Uthman had belonged—under the leadership of Marwan ibn al-Hakam . The caliph attempted to weaken the clan by provoking internal divisions. Among the measures taken was the replacement of Marwan from the governorship of Medina in 668 with another leading Umayyad, Sa'id ibn al-As . The latter was instructed to demolish Marwan's house, but refused and when Marwan
18240-486: The population of Jakarta are of Javanese descent, so they speak Javanese or have knowledge of it. In the province of West Java , many people speak Javanese, especially those living in the areas bordering Central Java , the cultural homeland of the Javanese. Almost a quarter of the population of East Java province are Madurese (mostly on the Isle of Madura ); many Madurese have some knowledge of colloquial Javanese. Since
18400-551: The population of some 500,000 are of Javanese descent, among whom 75,000 speak Javanese. A local variant evolved: the Tyoro Jowo-Suriname or Suriname Javanese . The phonemes of Modern Standard Javanese as shown below. In closed syllables the vowels /i u e o/ are pronounced [ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ] respectively. In open syllables, /e o/ are also [ɛ ɔ] when the following vowel is /i u/ in an open syllable; otherwise they are /ə/ , or identical ( /e...e/, /o...o/ ). In
18560-496: The postal route ( barid ). According to al-Tabari, following an assassination attempt by the Kharijite al-Burak ibn Abd Allah on Mu'awiya while he was praying in the mosque of Damascus in 661, Mu'awiya established a caliphal haras (personal guard) and shurta (select troops) and the maqsura (reserved area) within mosques. The caliph's treasury was largely dependent on the tax revenues of Syria and income from
18720-568: The present day, the Latin script dominates writings, although the Javanese script is still taught as part of the compulsory Javanese language subject in elementary up to high school levels in Yogyakarta, Central and East Java. Javanese is the twenty-second largest language by native speakers and the seventh largest language without official status at the national level. It is spoken or understood by approximately 100 million people. At least 45% of
18880-416: The protests of his own son Yazid, Ibn Amir and his Umayyad kinsmen in the Hejaz. Following al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to Ziyad's Basran governorship, making him the caliph's virtual viceroy over the eastern half of the Caliphate. Ziyad tackled Iraq's core economic problem of overpopulation in the garrison cities and the consequent scarcity of resources by reducing
19040-442: The provinces, by building up the power of those who were prepared to co-operate with him and by attaching as many important and influential figures to his cause as possible". Challenges to central authority in general, and to Mu'awiya's rule in particular, were most acute in Iraq, where divisions were rife between the ashraf upstarts and the nascent Muslim elite, the latter of which was further divided between Ali's partisans and
19200-415: The provincial capital Fustat was captured and Muhammad was executed on the orders of Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj , leader of the pro-Uthman rebels. The loss of Egypt was a major blow to the authority of Ali, who was bogged down battling Kharijite defectors in Iraq and whose grip in Basra and Iraq's eastern and southern dependencies was eroding. Though his hand was strengthened, Mu'awiya refrained from launching
19360-480: The raid in person accompanied by his wife, Katwa bint Qaraza ibn Abd Amr of the Qurayshite Banu Nawfal , alongside the commander Ubada ibn al-Samit . Katwa died on the island and at some point Mu'awiya married her sister Fakhita. In a different narrative by the early Muslim sources, the raid was instead conducted by Mu'awiya's admiral Abd Allah ibn Qays , who landed at Salamis before occupying
19520-572: The ranks of his regular and auxiliary forces. Indeed, the Christian Tanukhids and the mixed Muslim–Christian Banu Tayy formed part of Mu'awiya's army in northern Syria. To help pay for his troops, Mu'awiya requested and was granted ownership by Uthman of the abundant, income-producing, Byzantine crown lands in Syria, which were previously designated by Umar as communal property for the Muslim army. Although Syria's rural, Aramaic -speaking Christian population remained largely intact,
19680-458: The region. The following year, Armenia became a tributary of the Caliphate and Mu'awiya recognized the Armenian prince Grigor Mamikonian as its commander. Not long after the civil war, Mu'awiya broke the truce with Byzantium, and on a near-annual or bi-annual basis the caliph engaged his Syrian troops in raids across the mountainous Anatolian frontier , the buffer zone between the Empire and
19840-563: The reign of Uthman, Mu'awiya allied with the Banu Kalb , the predominant tribe in the Syrian steppe extending from the oasis of Dumat al-Jandal in the south to the approaches of Palmyra and the chief component of the Quda'a confederation present throughout Syria. Medina consistently courted the Kalb, which had remained mostly neutral during the Arab–Byzantine wars, particularly after
20000-405: The reign of his Umayyad kinsman , Caliph Uthman ( r. 644–656 ). He allied with the province's powerful Banu Kalb tribe, developed the defenses of its coastal cities, and directed the war effort against the Byzantine Empire , including the first Muslim naval campaigns. In response to Uthman's assassination in 656, Mu'awiya took up the cause of avenging the murdered caliph and opposed
20160-748: The rights to veto or propose measures. The respective leaders of the Quda'a and the Kinda, the Kalbite chief Ibn Bahdal and the Homs-based Shurahbil, formed part of his Syrian inner circle along with the Qurayshites Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid , son of the distinguished commander Khalid ibn al-Walid , and al-Dahhak ibn Qays. Mu'awiya is credited by the early Muslim sources for establishing diwans (government departments) for correspondences ( rasa'il ), chancellery ( khatam ) and
20320-421: The same capacity before his attainment of the caliphate, and Sarjun's father was the likely holder of the office under Emperor Heraclius ( r. 610–641 ). Mu'awiya was tolerant toward Syria's native Christian majority. In turn, the community was generally satisfied with his rule, under which their conditions were at least as favorable as under the Byzantines. Mu'awiya attempted to mint his own coins, but
20480-554: The same form and meaning as in Indonesian, with a few exceptions such as: The word sepur also exists in Indonesian, but there it has preserved the literal Dutch meaning of "railway tracks", while the Javanese word follows Dutch figurative use, and "spoor" (lit. "rail") is used as metonymy for "trein" (lit. "train"). (Compare a similar metonymic use in English: "to travel by rail" may be used for "to travel by train".) Malay
20640-648: The same period is the Sojomerto inscription , discovered in Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency , Central Java. It is written in the Kawi script in Old Malay language and is estimated to be from the 7th century. The inscription tells about a ruler named Dapunta Selendra, the son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and the husband of Sampula. Indonesian historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra
20800-540: The six provinces of Java itself, and in the neighboring Sumatran province of Lampung . The language is spoken in Yogyakarta , Central and East Java , as well as on the north coast of West Java and Banten . It is also spoken elsewhere by the Javanese people in other provinces of Indonesia, who are numerous due to the government-sanctioned transmigration program in the late 20th century, including Lampung , Jambi , and North Sumatra provinces. In Suriname, Javanese
20960-409: The standard dialect of Surakarta, /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] in word-final open syllables, and in any open penultimate syllable before such an [ɔ] . The Javanese "voiced" phonemes are not in fact voiced but voiceless, with breathy voice on the following vowel. The relevant distinction in phonation of the plosives is described as stiff voice versus slack voice . A Javanese syllable can have
21120-413: The stratification of Javanese into speech levels such as ngoko and krama , which were unknown in Old Javanese. Books in Javanese have been printed since 1830s, at first using the Javanese script , although the Latin alphabet started to be used later. Since mid-19th century, Javanese has been used in newspapers and travelogues, and later, also novels, short stories, as well as free verses. Today, it
21280-664: The summer in Ta'if, [and] the winter in Mecca". He purchased several large tracts throughout Arabia and invested considerable sums to develop the lands for agricultural use. According to the Muslim literary tradition, in the plain of Arafat and the barren valley of Mecca he dug numerous wells and canals, constructed dams and dikes to protect the soil from seasonal floods, and built fountains and reservoirs. His efforts saw extensive grain fields and date palm groves spring up across Mecca's suburbs, which remained in this state until deteriorating during
21440-474: The total population of Indonesia are of Javanese descent or live in an area where Javanese is the dominant language. All seven Indonesian presidents since 1945 have been of Javanese descent. It is therefore not surprising that Javanese has had a deep influence on the development of Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia . There are three main dialects of the modern language: Central Javanese, Eastern Javanese, and Western Javanese. These three dialects form
21600-422: The tribes which formed its armies. He applied indirect rule to the Caliphate's provinces, appointing governors with full civil and military authority. Although in principle governors were obliged to forward surplus tax revenues to the caliph, in practice most of the surplus was distributed among the provincial garrisons and Damascus received a negligible share. During Mu'awiya's caliphate, the governors relied on
21760-477: The truce, Mu'awiya dispatched an embassy led by Habib ibn Maslama, who presented Ali with an ultimatum to hand over Uthman's alleged killers, abdicate and allow a shura (consultative council) to decide the caliphate. Ali rebuffed Mu'awiya's envoys and on 18 July declared that the Syrians remained obstinate in their refusal to recognize his sovereignty. On the following day, a week of duels between Ali's and Mu'awiya's top commanders ensued. The main battle between
21920-497: The two armies commenced on 26 July. As Ali's troops advanced toward Mu'awiya's tent, the governor of Syria ordered his elite troops forward and they bested the Iraqis before the tide turned against the Syrians the next day with the deaths of two of Mu'awiya's leading commanders, Ubayd Allah , a son of Caliph Umar, and Dhu'l-Kala Samayfa , the so-called 'king of Himyar'. Mu'awiya rejected suggestions from his advisers to engage Ali in
22080-519: The veteran commander Iyad ibn Ghanm governor of Homs and the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia ). When Yazid succumbed to the plague later that year, Umar appointed Mu'awiya the military and fiscal governor of Damascus, and possibly Jordan as well. In 640 or 641, Mu'awiya captured Caesarea , the district capital of Byzantine Palestine , and then captured Ascalon , completing the Muslim conquest of Palestine. As early as 640 or 641, Mu'awiya may have led
22240-455: The veteran commander and chieftain of the Bajila , Jarir ibn Abd Allah , to Mu'awiya, the latter responded with a letter that amounted to a declaration of war against the caliph, whose legitimacy he refused to recognize. In the first week of June 657, the armies of Mu'awiya and Ali met at Siffin near Raqqa and engaged in days of skirmishes interrupted by a month-long truce on 19 June. During
22400-451: The vicinity of Raqqa . Mu'awiya initiated the Arab naval campaigns against the Byzantines in the eastern Mediterranean, requisitioning the harbors of Tripoli, Beirut, Tyre , Acre , and Jaffa . Umar had rejected Mu'awiya's request to launch a naval invasion of Cyprus , citing concerns about the Muslim forces' safety at sea, but Uthman allowed him to commence the campaign in 647, after refusing an earlier entreaty. Mu'awiya's rationale
22560-556: The vocabulary is from Sanskrit. Many Javanese personal names also have clearly recognisable Sanskrit roots. Sanskrit words are still very much in use. Modern speakers may describe Old Javanese and Sanskrit words as kawi (roughly meaning "literary"); but kawi words may also be from Arabic . Dutch and Malay are influential as well; but none of these rivals the position of Sanskrit. There are far fewer Arabic loanwords in Javanese than in Malay, and they are usually concerned with Islamic religion. Nevertheless, some words have entered
22720-559: The war with the Byzantines was ongoing in the north. In 657 or 658 Mu'awiya secured his northern frontier with Byzantium by making a truce with the emperor, enabling him to focus the bulk of his troops on the impending battle with the caliph. After failing to gain the defection of Egypt's governor, Qays ibn Sa'd , he resolved to end the Umayyad family's hostility to Amr ibn al-As, the conqueror and former governor of Egypt, whom they accused of involvement in Uthman's death. Mu'awiya and Amr, who
22880-462: The way to 873, when "they sent an envoy to present female musicians". In book 222 of the New Book of Tang , it is stated that: Ka-ling ( sic ) is also called Djava, it is situated in the southern ocean, at the east of Sumatra and at the west of Bali. At its south it has the sea and towards the north lies Cambodia . The people make fortifications of wood and even the largest houses are covered with palm leaves. They have couches of ivory and mats of
23040-501: The wide-scale fortification of Alexandria was completed. While the histories of al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri report that Mu'awiya's forces captured Rhodes in 672–674 and colonized the island for seven years before withdrawing during the reign of Yazid I, the modern historian Clifford Edmund Bosworth casts doubt on these events and holds that the island was only raided by Mu'awiya's lieutenant Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi in 679 or 680. Under Emperor Constantine IV ( r. 668–685 ),
23200-693: Was a link between this old kingdom and the later kingdom that flourished in the southern part of Central Java, specifically the Kedu Plain , known as the Sailendra of the Mataram Kingdom. The Tuk Mas inscription is estimated to have originated from the Heling period, though it is located outside the region generally believed to have been under Heling's control. It was discovered on the western slope of Mount Merapi , at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village, Kecamatan Grabag, Magelang Regency , Central Java, and
23360-499: Was a relatively late follower of Muhammad. Mu'awiya and his father Abu Sufyan had opposed Muhammad, their distant Qurayshite kinsman and later Mu'awiya's brother-in-law, until Muhammad captured Mecca in 630. Afterward, Mu'awiya became one of Muhammad's scribes . He was appointed by Caliph Abu Bakr ( r. 632–634 ) as a deputy commander in the conquest of Syria . He moved up the ranks through Umar 's caliphate ( r. 634–644 ) until becoming governor of Syria during
23520-467: Was acknowledged throughout the Caliphate. Domestically, Mu'awiya relied on loyalist Syrian Arab tribes and Syria's Christian-dominated bureaucracy. He is credited with establishing government departments responsible for the postal route , correspondence, and chancellery. He was the first caliph whose name appeared on coins, inscriptions, or documents of the nascent Islamic empire. Externally, he engaged his troops in almost yearly land and sea raids against
23680-399: Was also adopted (as Pegon ) to write Javanese. The rise of Mataram in the 17th century shifted the main literary form of Javanese to be based on the inland variety. This written tradition was preserved by writers of Surakarta and Yogyakarta , and later became the basis of the modern written standard of the language. Another linguistic development associated with the rise of Mataram is
23840-400: Was appointed gradually by Mu'awiya to all of his father's former offices. In effect, by relying on al-Mughira and Ziyad and his sons, Mu'awiya franchised the administration of Iraq and the eastern Caliphate to members of the elite Thaqif clan, which had long-established ties to the Quraysh and were instrumental in the conquest of Iraq. In Egypt Amr governed more as a partner of Mu'awiya than
24000-414: Was found at a soil-conservation dam called Sayisad 32 kilometers (20 mi) east of Ta'if, which credits Mu'awiya for the dam's construction in 677 or 678 and asks God to give him victory and strength. Mu'awiya is also credited as the patron of a second dam called al-Khanaq 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) east of Medina, according to an inscription found at the site. This is possibly the dam between Medina and
24160-539: Was generally immune to the growing discontent prevailing in Medina, Egypt and Kufa against Uthman's policies in the 650s. The exception was Abu Dharr al-Ghifari , who had been sent to Damascus for openly condemning Uthman's enrichment of his kinsmen. He criticized the lavish sums that Mu'awiya invested in building his Damascus residence, the Khadra Palace , prompting Mu'awiya to expel him. Uthman's confiscation of crown lands in Iraq and his alleged nepotism drove
24320-546: Was highly familiar with the region's inhabitants and issues. Under his nearly decade-long administration, al-Mughira maintained peace in the city, overlooked transgressions that did not threaten his rule, allowed the Kufans to keep possession of the lucrative Sasanian crown lands in the Jibal district and, unlike under past administrations, consistently and timely paid the garrison's stipends. In Basra, Mu'awiya reappointed his Abd Shams kinsman Abd Allah ibn Amir , who had served in
24480-418: Was influenced by Indonesian’s first person plural inclusive pronoun. Pronoun pluralization can be ignored or expressed by using phrases such as aku kabèh 'we', awaké dhéwé 'us', dhèwèké kabèh 'them' and so on. Personal pronoun in Javanese, especially for the second and third person, are more often replaced by certain nouns or titles. In addition to the pronoun described in the table below, Javanese still has
24640-526: Was popular with the Arab troops of Egypt, made a pact whereby the latter joined the coalition against Ali and Mu'awiya publicly agreed to install Amr as Egypt's lifetime governor should they oust Ali's appointee. Although he had the firm backing of the Kalb, to shore up the rest of his base in Syria, Mu'awiya was advised by his kinsman al-Walid ibn Uqba to secure an alliance with the Yemenite tribes of Himyar , Kinda and Hamdan , who collectively dominated
24800-759: Was restored in 674, he also refused Mu'awiya's order to demolish Sa'id's house. Mu'awiya dismissed Marwan once more in 678, replacing him with his own nephew, al-Walid ibn Utba . Besides his own clan, Mu'awiya's relations with the Banu Hashim (the clan of Muhammad and Caliph Ali), the families of Muhammad's closest companions, the once-prominent Banu Makhzum, and the Ansar was generally characterized by suspicion or outright hostility. Despite his relocation to Damascus, Mu'awiya remained fond of his original homeland and made known his longing for "the spring in Juddah [sic] ,
24960-567: Was that the Byzantine-held island posed a threat to Arab positions along the Syrian coast, and that it could be easily neutralized. The exact year of the raid is unclear, with the early Arabic sources providing a range between 647 and 650, while two Greek inscriptions in the Cypriot village of Solois cite two raids launched between 648 and 650. According to the 9th-century historians al-Baladhuri and Khalifa ibn Khayyat , Mu'awiya led
25120-408: Was the lingua franca of the Indonesian archipelago before the proclamation of Indonesian independence in 1945; and Indonesian, which was based on Malay, is now the official language of Indonesia. As a consequence, there has been an influx of Malay and Indonesian vocabulary into Javanese. Many of these words are concerned with bureaucracy or politics. [Javanese Ngoko is on the left, and Javanese Krama
25280-999: Was the ancestor of the Sailendras who later ruled in the Mataram Kingdom . There is also evidence for the presence of Buddhism in the region. According to the Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing , in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining (會寧 Huìníng ) had arrived in Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and with the assistance of Jnanabhadra, a Kalinga Buddhist monk migrated from Kalinga Kingdom of Ancient India,he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures. Javanese language Javanese ( / ˌ dʒ ɑː v ə ˈ n iː z / JAH -və- NEEZ , / dʒ æ v ə -/ JAV -ə- , /- ˈ n iː s / - NEESS ; basa Jawa , Javanese script : ꦧꦱꦗꦮ , Pegon : باسا جاوا , IPA: [bɔsɔ d͡ʒɔwɔ] )
25440-528: Was the earliest reported Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are among the oldest known kingdoms in Indonesian history . The historical record of this kingdom is scarce and vague, consisting primarily of Tang Chinese sources. These sources record tribute being delivered from Heling to China, starting from the reign of Emperor Taizong (r. 626–649) all
25600-551: Was used daily in approximately 43% of Indonesian households. By this reckoning there were well over 60 million Javanese speakers, from a national population of 147,490,298. In Banten, the descendants of the Central Javanese conquerors who founded the Islamic Sultanate there in the 16th century still speak an archaic form of Javanese. The rest of the population mainly speaks Sundanese and Indonesian, since this province borders directly on Jakarta. At least one third of
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