The Khalkha ( / ˈ k æ l k ə , ˈ k ɑː l k ə / ; Mongolian : Халх ᠬᠠᠯᠬᠠ [ˈχa̠ɬχ] ) have been the largest subgroup of the Mongols in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars , Ordos and Tumed , were directly ruled by Borjigin khans until the 20th century; unlike the Oirats , who were ruled by Dzungar nobles or the Khorchins , who were ruled by Qasar 's descendants.
102-681: The two original major Khalkha groups were ruled by the direct male line descendants of Dayan Khan . The Baarin , Khongirad , Jaruud , Bayaud and the O'zeed (Ujeed) became Dayan Khan's fifth son Achibolod's subjects, thus formed the Southern Five Halhs. Seven northern Khalkha otogs: 1) Jalairs , Olkhonud ; 2) Besut, Iljigin ; 3) Gorlos , Keregut; 4) Khuree, Khoroo, Tsookhor; 5) Khukhuid, Khatagin ; 6) Tanghut , Sartuul ; 7) Uriankhai became Dayan Khan's youngest (could be third) son Geresenje's ( Mongolian : Гэрсэне Жалайр Хан ) subjects. Khotogoids are close in culture and language to
204-504: A gūsa (banner, Chinese : 旗 ; pinyin : qí , Mongolian : Хошуу ), with a total of 60 companies, or 18,000 men. The actual sizes often varied substantially from these standards. Initially, the banner armies were primarily made up of individuals from the various Manchu tribes. As new populations were incorporated into the empire, the armies were expanded to accommodate troops of different ethnicities. The banner armies would eventually encompass three principal ethnic components :
306-575: A Manchu banner in the reign of the Kangxi emperor . The transfer of families from Han Banners or Bondservant status ( Booi Aha ) to Manchu Banners, switching their ethnicity from Han to Manchu was called Taiqi ( 抬旗 ) in Chinese. They would be transferred to the "upper three" Manchu Banners. It was a policy of the Qing to transfer to immediate families (the brothers, father) of the mother of an Emperor into
408-514: A Qing tributary instead. Initially, Han troops were incorporated into the existing Manchu Banners. When Hong Taiji captured Yongping in 1629, a contingent of artillerymen surrendered to him. In 1631, these troops were organized into the so-called Old Han Army under the Han commander Tong Yangxing. These artillery units were used decisively to defeat Ming general Zu Dashou 's forces at the siege of Dalinghe that same year. In 1636, Hong Taiji proclaimed
510-462: A Scots missionary who served in Manchuria in the 19th century, wrote of the bannermen, "Their claim to be military men is based on their descent rather than on their skill in arms; and their pay is given them because of their fathers' prowess, and not at all from any hopes of their efficiency as soldiers. Their soldierly qualities are included in the accomplishments of idleness, riding, and the use of
612-433: A battalion, and ten battalions a banner. Four banners were originally created: Yellow, White, Red, and Blue, each named after the color of its flag. By 1614, the number of companies had grown to around 400. In 1615, the number of banners was doubled through the creation of "bordered" banners. The troops of each of the original four banners would be split between a plain and a bordered banner. The bordered variant of each flag
714-697: A block to the Russians to escape paying tribute to the Khalkhas. Smaller Mongol clan fragments also defected north to the protection of Cossack forts. The invasion of Khalkha by Galdan Boshogtu Khan in 1688 stopped Khalkha resistance to the Cossack advance and sent more Mongol refugees fleeing into Russian control. Finally, the Selenge Mongols, cut off by the new border from their Khalkha kinsmen and mixed with displaced Buriats and Khori, gradually accepted
816-546: A century. Despite this decentralization there was a remarkable concord within the Dayan Khanid aristocracy and intra-Chinggisid civil war remained unknown until the reign of Ligden Khan (1604–34). Dayan's early life is also fictionalized in books three and four of the historical fiction Fractured Empire Saga , by Starr Z. Davies, published 2021-2022, a four-book series: Daughter of the Yellow Dragon , Lords of
918-523: A minority, which conquered the Central Plain for the Qing. Hong Taiji recognized that Han defectors were needed by the Qing in order to assist in the conquest of the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General Hung Ch'eng-ch'ou leniently. The Qing showed in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military that the Qing valued military skills to get them to defect to
1020-597: A new level of organization. Dayan Khan intended to maintain good relations with Ming dynasty at first. His envoys were sent to sign open-trade contract with gifts, but one of them was killed by the Ming court, so he launched military expeditions into the Ming China. Dayan Khan as a mature ruler had no interest in joining the Ming's tribute system . Dayan Khan allied with the Monggoljins under Toloogen and Khooshai of Ordos . With Dayan Khan and Mandukhai's movement to
1122-682: A poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarian", both Han Green Standard Army and Han Bannermen were involved in the fighting for the Qing side and carried out the worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories besides 200,000 Bannermen. In the Revolt of the Three Feudatories Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by
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#17327649511191224-541: A series of permanent bases along the Ming border where the Mongols could keep watch on the Ming troops. Batumongke Dayan Khan repeatedly sought trade relation with the Ming, but rejection turned him more and more to outright warfare. The high point of Mongol power came in 1517, when Dayan Khan moved on Beijing itself. Although the Ming dynasty held the Mongols off in a major battle, Dayan Khan and his successors continued to threaten China until 1526. The Mongol armies raided
1326-539: A skirmish raid on one of the rebel groups, the imperial army killed Ibrahim’s younger brother. Dayan Khan dispatched to the Tumens his sons Ulusbaikh (Ulusbold) and Barsubolad Sainalag. As Ulusbold was being enthroned as jinong, he was killed in a riot and Barsubolad escaped. In revenge, Dayan Khan attacked the Three Right Wing Tumens with his three Left Wing Tumens ( Chakhar , Khalkha and Uriankhai ),
1428-693: A wife to the Han official Feng Quan, who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. The Manchu queue hairstyle was willingly adopted by Feng Quan before it was enforced on the Han population and Feng learned the Manchu language. To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or
1530-2656: Is a representative of this ethnic group. His father belonged to the Yungshiebu tribe and his mother was a direct descendant of Genghis Khan through Khalkha's Tsogtu Khan. Three Eastern Tumens Khalkha Chahar Uriankhai Three Western Tumens Ordos Tumed Yunshebu Tümen Choros Torghut Khoid Dörbet Oirat Yingchang Karakorum Hohhot Khagan Khan Khatun Taishi Jinong Khong Tayiji Noyan Tarkhan Councellor Wang Ukhaantu Khan Toghun-Temur (1368–1370) Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (1370–1378) Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür (1378–1388) Jorightu Khan Yesüder (1388–1391) Engke Khan (1391–1394) Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan (1394–1399) Gün Temür Khan (1399–1402) Örüg Temür Khan Gulichi (1402–1408) Öljei Temür Khan Bunyashiri (1403–1412) Delbeg Khan (1411–1415) Oyiradai Khan (1415–1425) Adai Khan (1425–1438) Tayisung Khan Toghtoa Bukha (1433–1452) Agbarjin (1453) Esen Taishi (1453–1454) Markörgis Khan (Ükegtü) (1454–1465) Molon Khan (1465–1466) Manduul Khan (1475–1479) Dayan Khan (1480–1516) Bars Bolud Jinong (deputy) Bodi Alagh Khan (1516–1547) Darayisung Gödeng Khan (1547–1557) Tümen Jasaghtu Khan (1557–1592) Buyan Sechen Khan (1592–1604) Ligdan Khan (1604–1634) Ejei Khan (1634–1635) Altan Khan (1521–1582) Sengge Düüreng Khan (1583–1585) Namudai Sechen Khan (1586–1607) Boshugtu Khung Taiji (1608–1636) Barsu-Bolod (d. 1521) Mergen Jinong (d. 1542) Noyandara Jinong (1543–1572) Buyan Baatur Taiji (1573–1576) Boshugtu Jinong (1577–1624) Erinchen Jinong (1624–1636) Abtai Sain Khan (1567–1588) Eriyekhei Mergen Khan (1589–?) Gombodorji Khan (d. 1655) Chakhun Dorji Khan (1654–1698) Laikhur Khan Subandai Khan Norbu Bisireltü Khan (d. 1661) Chambun Khan (1670?–) Zenggün Shara (d. 1687) Soloi Maqasamadi Sechen Khan (1577–1652) Baba Sechen Khan (1653–?) Sechen Khan (d. 1686) Ubasi Khong Tayiji (c.1609–1623) Badma Erdeni Khong Tayiji (1623–1652) Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji (1652–1667) Dayan Khan Dayan Khan ( / ˈ d aɪ ə n x ɑː n / ; Mongolian : Даян Хаан [ˈtajɴ ˈχaːɴ] ), born Batumöngke ( Middle Mongol : [b̥atʰʊ̆møŋkʰĕ] , Modern Mongol : [paʰtmɵŋx] ; Chinese : 巴圖蒙克 Bātúméngkè ; 1472–1517)
1632-579: Is also believed that the Southern Khalkha who now reside in Inner Mongolia were moved south from its original territory Khangai Mountains . To commemorate and signify their origin, every new lunar year all southern Khalkhas perform special Khangai Mountain worshipping ceremonies and they face northwest and pray. This special ceremony is maintained by only southern Khalkhas and no other Southern Mongols have such rituals. Under Dayan Khan ,
1734-407: Is the standard written language of Mongolia. The term Халх ("Halh, Khalkha") has always puzzled linguists and historians. One possible interpretation is that it shares the same root as the words xалхавч "shield" and халхлах "to protect; to cover; to shield; to hide; to intercept", although there is no noun or verb xалх that independently exists besides the ethnic group's name. In a similar manner,
1836-781: The Battle of Shanhai Pass and secure Beijing for the Qing. The young Shunzhi Emperor was then enthroned in the Forbidden City . Ming defectors played a major role in the Qing conquest of the Central Plain . Ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing were often given women from the imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Qing differentiated between Han bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han bannermen were made out of ethnic Han who defected to
1938-588: The Dalai Lama 's "Yellow Hat" order, Tsogtu Khong Taiji moved to Qinghai with his subjects sometime after 1624. Ligdan Khan and Tsogtu Khong Taiji were supposed to meet in Qinghai and eventually build a Mongol base that is independent of the Manchu rule which was geographically far from the Manchu emperor's reach. Moreover, it was clear to the two Mongol Khans that Tibetan Dalai Lama 's influence in Mongol affairs
2040-829: The Kangxi Emperor of the Manchu -led Qing dynasty against the Zungar leader Galdan in 1688. In 1725 the Yongzheng Emperor gave Tsering independence from the house of Tüsheet Khan , forming the house of Sain Noyon Khan . The Khalkha led the Mongolian independence movement in the 20th century. After enduring countless hardships, they established the independent state of Mongolia in northern Mongolia. The overwhelming majority of Khalkha Mongols now reside in
2142-549: The Kherlen River , yet large-scale raids all along the frontier continued through 1507. A delegation from the Three Right Wing Tumens ( Ordos , Tümed and Yöngshiyebü ) invited Dayan Khan to rule them. Because Iburai Taishi (also known as Ibrahim ), an Uighur adventurer or an Oirat/ Kharchin warlord and Mandulai dominated the area, the three Tumens were seeking a more agreeable arrangement. In
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#17327649511192244-642: The Khorchin and the Abagha. Because a large group of the Uriankhai Tumen defected to Iburai, Dayan Khan was first defeated at Turgen Stream at present-day Tumed territory. In 1510, he crushed the Three Right Wing Tumens and killed Mandulai, the Ordos elder. Iburai fled to Kokenuur ( Qinghai ) where he remained active to 1533. Dayan Khan dispersed the rebel Uriankhais among other 5 tumens. Instead of enslaving
2346-856: The Manchus , the Han , and the Mongols , and various smaller ethnic groups, such as the Xibe , the Daur , and the Evenks . When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name). There were stories of Han migrating to
2448-890: The Republic of China to be Manchu. Han Bannermen became an elite political class in Fengtian province in the late Qing period and into the Republican era. In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russians , Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to
2550-883: The Uriyangkhai in Mongolia. His paternal grandmother, Sechen, was a daughter of Esen Tayshi of the Oirats . Although Bolkhu and his family suffered through life's darkest hours during the reign of Esen and the internal conflict of the Northern Yuan dynasty , they were welcomed by his uncle (brother) Manduul Khan (r. 1465–1467) soon after his coronation. Batumongke's father and his uncle Manduul had come to blows due to warlords' convictions, and Bayanmongke had fled and been murdered. Manduul's taishi Ismayil (also known as Isama) then took his wife Shikher and properties. In order to save Batumongke's life Shiker gave her child to
2652-518: The Xiang Army . Over time, the Eight Banners became synonymous with Manchu identity even as their military strength vanished. Initially, Nurhaci's forces were organized into small hunting parties of about a dozen men related by blood, marriage, clan, or place of residence, as was the typical Jurchen custom. In 1601, with the number of men under his command growing, Nurhaci reorganized his troops into companies of 300 households. Five companies made up
2754-648: The "Lower Mongols" or "ДООД МОНГОЛ". Tsogtu Khong Taiji is known as Tsogtu Khan among the Khalkha Mongols in Qinghai. The Khalkha Right Wing Banner: This banner was popularly known as the Darkhan Beili Banner and the ruler of this banner was the descendant of Gersenz Jalair Khan's grandson Bunidari. In 1653 they migrated into Inner Mongolia from the Tusheet Khan Aimak of Outer Mongolia. The Khalkha East Wing Banner: This banner
2856-465: The 1821 census. Despite Qing attempts to differentiate adopted Han Chinese from normal Manchu bannermen the differences between them became hazy. These adopted Han Chinese bondservants who managed to get themselves onto Manchu banner roles were called kaihu ren (開戶人) in Chinese and dangse faksalaha urse in Manchu. Normal Manchus were called jingkini Manjusa. Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to
2958-535: The Bakhay family to nurse him. However, Temur-Qadag of the Tangud (already Mongolicized) took the child from Bakhay. Because of his Borjigin blood, Batumongke was well taken care of by the Mongol commoners and minor nobles. At the sudden death of Manduul Khan in 1467, Batumongke was five years old. Later he was adopted by Mandukhai Khatun , the widow of Manduul Khan. When Mandukhai's loyalists brought back Batumongke, he
3060-471: The Banners which previously were reserved for Jurchen Manchus. Han Chinese foster-son and separate register bannermen made up 800 out of 1,600 soldiers of the Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners of Hangzhou in 1740 which was nearly 50%. Han Chinese foster-son made up 220 out of 1,600 unsalaried troops at Jingzhou in 1747 and an assortment of Han Chinese separate-register, Mongol, and Manchu bannermen were
3162-575: The Black Banner , Mother of the Blue Wolf , Empress of the Jade Realm . Dayan Khan is an important background character in the historical novel "Manduchai", written by German Author Tanja Kinkel in 2014. Dayan Khan appeared as a background character in the historical drama "Marco Polo" on Season 2 Episode 11, written John Fusco and Lorenzo Richelmy in 2016. Dayan Khan married Mandukhai
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3264-699: The Dalai Lama. The dGe-lugs-pa hierarch, the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–82), summoned the Oirat Güshi Khan Toro-Baiku, whose 10,000 men in early 1637 crushed Tsogtu’s 30,000 at Ulaan-Khoshuu; Tsogtu Taiji was killed. Today the Oirats of Gushi Khan is also known as the " Upper Mongols " or the "ДЭЭД МОНГОЛ", and they still reside in Qinghai forming 21 banners. The remnants of Tsogtu Khong Taiji's Halhs form only one banner and are known as
3366-586: The East Wing Tumet (Monggoljin) Banner, is popularly known as Tanggot Khalkha. This tiny territory, of not more than 19 by 24 kilometres (12 by 15 miles), is said to have a population of about 500 people. There are practically no Chinese, as the surrounding districts are held by Mongols. The tribe, which has a prince of its own, was founded by immigrants from the Jasakto Khan division of Outer Mongolia, who fled to Inner Mongolia and offered submission to
3468-721: The Eight Banners and Green Standard troops proved unable to put down the Taiping Rebellion and Nian Rebellion on their own. Regional officials like Zeng Guofan were instructed to raise their own forces from the civilian population, leading to the creation of the Xiang Army and the Huai Army , among others. Along with the Ever Victorious Army of Frederick Townsend Ward , it was these warlord armies (known as yongying ) who finally succeeded in restoring Qing control in this turbulent period. John Ross ,
3570-518: The Eight Banners functioned as armies, but the banner system was also the basic organizational framework of all of Manchu society. Created in the early 17th century by Nurhaci , the banner armies played an instrumental role in his unification of the fragmented Jurchen people (who would later be renamed the "Manchu" under Nurhaci's son Hong Taiji ) and in the Qing dynasty's conquest of the Ming dynasty . As Mongol and Han forces were incorporated into
3672-591: The Eight white yurts in Ordos in 1500, they launched a massive attack on Ningxia and conquered some lands. At first their invasion caused trouble to the Ming Chinese but Yu, the officer of the Ming Dynasty, and his commander Wang ambushed the Mongols and organized an unexpectedly vigorous counter attack in an attempt to capture Dayan Khan the next year. Barely escaping the Ming attack, Dayan Khan relocated to
3774-664: The Green Standard Army, made out of defected Ming soldiers. Koxinga's rattan shield troops became famous for fighting and defeating the Dutch in Taiwan . After the surrender of Koxinga's former followers on Taiwan , Koxinga's grandson Zheng Keshuang and his troops were incorporated into the Eight Banners. His rattan shield soldiers (Tengpaiying) 藤牌营 were used against the Russian Cossacks at Albazin . Under
3876-702: The Halh had a close connection with the Five Ulus of the Left Wing of the former Yuan dynasty , which was led by the five powerful tribes of Jalayir, Onggirat , Ikires , Uruud and Mangghud . The Five Halh consisted of five tribes called Jarud, Baarin, Onggirat, Bayaud and Öjiyed. They lived around the Shira Mören valley east of the Greater Khingan . They clashed with but were eventually conquered by
3978-490: The Han Banners. After Hong Taiji's death, Dorgon , commander of the Solid White Banner, became regent. He quickly purged his rivals and took control over Hong Taiji's Solid Blue Banner. By 1644, an estimated two million people were living in the Eight Banners system. That year, rebels led by Li Zicheng captured Beijing and the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, Chongzhen , committed suicide. Dorgon and his bannermen joined forces with Ming defector Wu Sangui to defeat Li at
4080-438: The Han Green Standard Army under Wang Jinbao and Zhao Liangdong in 1680, with Manchus only participating in dealing with logistics and provisions. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers and 150,000 Bannermen served on the Qing side during the war. 213 Han Banner companies, and 527 companies of Mongol and Manchu Banners were mobilized by the Qing during the revolt. The Qing forces were crushed by Wu from 1673 to 1674. The Qing had
4182-422: The Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In the 1780s, after the Jahriyya revolt in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing (張文慶) was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu (馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers. The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper. At
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4284-451: The Jurchens and assimilating into Manchu Jurchen society and Nikan Wailan may have been an example of this. The Manchu Cuigiya 崔佳氏 clan claimed that a Han Chinese founded their clan. The Tohoro 托和啰 ( Duanfang 's clan) claimed Han Chinese origin. The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin , using this false claim to get themselves transferred to
4386-412: The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors, the Eight Banners participated in a series of military campaigns to subdue Ming loyalists and neighboring states. In the Qianlong Emperor's celebrated Ten Great Campaigns , the banner armies fought alongside troops of the Green Standard Army, expanding the Qing empire to its greatest territorial extent. Though partly successful, the campaigns were a heavy financial burden on
4488-459: The Khalkha Mongols. There were also numerous direct descendants of Genghis Khan who had formed the ruling class of the Khalkha Mongols prior to the 20th century, but they were and still also regarded as Khalkha Mongols rather than belonging to a special unit. The Thirteen Khalkhas of the Far North are the major subethnic group of the independent state of Mongolia. They number 2,659,985 (83.8% of Mongolia's population). The Khalkha or Halh dialect
4590-423: The Khalkha were organized as one of three tümen of the Left Wing. Dayan Khan installed the fifth son Alchu Bolad and the eleventh son Geresenje on the Khalkha. The former became the founder of the Five Halh of Southern Mongolia and the latter became the founder of the Seven Halh of the Northern Mongolia. They were called Inner Khalkha and Outer Khalkha respectively, by the Manchus . Some scholars consider that
4692-571: The Manchu Banners due to her status as the mother of an Emperor and their surname was change from Wei 魏 to Weigiya 魏佳. The Qing said that "Manchu and Han are one house" 滿漢一家 and said that the difference was "not between Manchu and Han, but instead between Bannerman and civilian" 不分滿漢，但問旗民 or 但問旗民，不問滿漢. Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 撫順尼堪 (Fushun Chinese) backgrounds into
4794-439: The Manchu Eight Banners ( Manchu : ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ , manju gūsa ; Chinese : 八旗滿洲 ; pinyin : bāqí mǎnzhōu ; Mongolian : Манжийн Найман хошуу ). Although still called the "Eight Banners" in name, there were now effectively twenty-four banner armies, eight for each of the three main ethnic groups (Manchu, Mongol, and Han). Among the Banners gunpowder weapons, such as muskets and artillery, were specifically wielded by
4896-540: The Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing Qianlong emperor . It was between 1618-1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on Qing lists of Manchu clans . Manchu families adopted Han Chinese sons from families of bondservant Booi Aha (baoyi) origin and they served in Manchu company registers as detached household Manchus and
4998-410: The Manchu nobility o the "Eight Great Houses" who held noble titles. Jiang Xingzhou 姜興舟, a Han bannerman lieutenant from the Bordered Yellow Banner married a Muslim woman in Mukden during Qianlong's late reign. He fled his position due to fear of being punished for being a bannerman marrying a commoner woman. He was sentenced to death for leaving his official post but the sentence was commuted and he
5100-416: The Manchus in 1662, during the wars between the Northern (Khalkha) and Western (Ulot) Mongols. During the rise of Genghis Khan in the 12th to 13th centuries, neither the Selenge valley in today's southern Buriatia or the Aga steppe had at this time any connection with the Buriats; these were the lands of the Merkid tribe and the Mongol tribe proper. Starting 1628 with the Russian Conquest and Buriat Migration,
5202-447: The Manchus took over governing, they could no longer satisfy the material needs of soldiers by garnishing and distributing booty; instead, a salary system was instituted, ranks standardized, and the Eight Banners became a sort of hereditary military caste, though with a strong ethnic inflection. Banner soldiers took up permanent positions, either as defenders of the capital, Beijing, where roughly half of them lived with their families, or in
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#17327649511195304-433: The Ming dynasty not only in the north, but also in the hitherto quiet west. The Zhengde Emperor of the Ming dynasty lost his protectorate Hami to the Turpans at the same time. In 1542, Dayan Khan defeated Ming troops just before his death. Dayan Khan and Mandukhai's nation now stretched from the Siberian tundra and Lake Baikal in the north, across the Gobi , to the edge of the Yellow River and south of it into
5406-434: The Mongols and solidified their identity as Chinggisid people. His decision to divide the Six tumens of Eastern Mongolia as fiefs for his sons created decentralized but stable Borjigin rule over the Mongolian Plateau for a century. It is claimed that Batumongke was the son of Bayanmongke (Bayanmunh) ( fl. 1470–1480) the Bolkhu jinong (or crown prince / viceroy ) of the Borjigin clan and Shiker Taiko (Shihir Taihu) of
5508-416: The Mongols were separated into the Mongol Eight Banners ( Manchu : ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ , monggo gūsa ; Chinese : 八旗蒙古 ; pinyin : bāqí ménggǔ ; Mongolian : Монгол найман хошуу ). Under Hong Taiji , the banner armies participated in two invasions of Joseon in the Korean Peninsula first in 1627 and again in 1636. As a consequence, Joseon was forced to end its relationship with the Ming and become
5610-441: The Ordos. The lands extended from the forests of Manchuria in the East past the Altai Mountains and out onto the steppes of Central Asia . He reorganized the Eastern Mongols into 6 tumens (literally "ten thousand") as follows: They functioned both as military units and as tribal administrative bodies. Northern Khalkha people and Uriyankhan were attached to the South Khalkha of eastern Inner Mongolia and Doyin Uriyangkhan of
5712-401: The Qing conquest of the Ming. The Han transfrontismen abandoned their Han names and identities and Nurhaci's secretary Dahai might have been one of them. There were not enough ethnic Manchus to conquer the Central Plain, so they relied on defeating and absorbing Mongols, and more importantly, adding Han to the Eight Banners. The Qing had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to
5814-596: The Qing foremost used defected Han troops to fight as the vanguard during their conquest of the Central Plain. The Liaodong Han military frontiersmen were prone to mixing and acculturating with (non-Han) tribesmen. The Mongol officer Mangui served in the Ming military and fought the Manchus, dying in battle against a Manchu raid. The Manchus accepted and assimilated Han soldiers who defected. Liaodong Han transfrontiersmen soldiers acculturated to Manchu culture and used Manchu names. Manchus lived in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopted Han-style agriculture before
5916-414: The Qing imperial court found this out in 1729. Manchu Bannermen who needed money helped falsify registration for Han Chinese servants being adopted into the Manchu banners and Manchu families who lacked sons were allowed to adopt their servant's sons or servants themselves. The Manchu families were paid to adopt Han Chinese sons from bondservant families by those families. The Qing Imperial Guard captain Batu
6018-431: The Qing treasury, and exposed weaknesses in the Qing military. Many bannermen lost their lives in the Burma campaign , often as the result of tropical diseases, to which they had little resistance. Although the banners were instrumental in the transition from Ming to Qing in the 17th century, they began to fall behind rising Western powers in the 18th century. By the 1730s, the traditional martial spirit had been lost, as
6120-448: The Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han bannermen dominating with 75% and Mongol bannermen making up the rest. It was this multi-ethnic force, in which Manchus were only
6222-414: The Qing, in order to help rule northern China. It was Green Standard Han troops who actively military governed China locally while Han Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, and Manchu Bannermen who were only brought into emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance. Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses were also married to Han official's sons. The Manchu Prince Regent Dorgon gave a Manchu woman as
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#17327649511196324-406: The Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military. The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a massive role in the conquest of southern China from the Ming were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde and they governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after their conquests. Normally the Manchu Bannermen acted as reserve forces while
6426-408: The Qing. When Dorgon ordered Han civilians to vacate Beijing's inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han bannermen, later, some exceptions were made to allowing to reside in the inner city Han civilians who held government or commercial jobs. The Qing relied on the Green Standard soldiers, made out of defected Ming military forces who joined
6528-444: The Right Wing Tumens, Dayan Khan had Barsubolad enthroned as jinong (晉王) in 1513, abolishing old titles like taishi (太師) and chingsang (丞相) of the Yuan dynasty . He exempted his soldiers from imposts and made them Darqan . According to an ancient Mongolian source, the Mongols were again peaceful thereafter thanks to the policy of Dayan Khan and his khatun Maudukhai. With defeats of Iburai and Ismayil, Dayan and Mandukhai could remove
6630-619: The Russian designation as Buriat. These groups are: Descendants of Okhin Taij (grandson of Khalkha's Tsogtu Khan); Khatagin; Atagan; Ashabagad; Sartuul; Tavnanguud; Yungsiebu; O'zeed; Uuld; Tsongool. The Tsongool subclans are as follows: 1. Uriankhad, 2. Bolingud, 3. Baatud, 4. Ashibagad, 5. Avgachuud, 6. Sharnuud, 7. Nomkhod, 8. Khamnigan, 9. Arshaantan, 10. Khorchid, 11. Naimantan, 12. Yunshööbü, 13. Khotgoid, 14. Eljiged, 15. Örlüüd, 16. Tavnanguud, 17. Orongoi, 18. Tsookhor, 19. Sartuul, 20. Sharaid, 21. Temdegten. Mongolian academician, writer, and scholar Byambyn Renchin ( Mongolian : Бямбын Ренчин )
6732-416: The Selenge Valley, as before, was inhabited by Mongol clans under the rule of the Khalkha khans. By 1652 the Khalkha khans were protesting the Russian incursions into Transbaikalia, and from 1666 on Khalkha raiding parties reached as far as Bratsk, Ilimsk, Yeravninsk, and Nerchinsk, while the khans besieged the forts on the Selenge. At the same time, however, the Khoris along the Uda River in 1647 surrendered as
6834-464: The Three Feudatories Ten Great Campaigns First Opium War Second Opium War Taiping Rebellion Boxer Rebellion The Eight Banners (in Manchu : ᠵᠠᡴᡡᠨ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ jakūn gūsa , Chinese : 八旗 ; pinyin : bāqí ; Wade–Giles : pa -ch'i , Mongolian : ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠮᠠᠨ ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ ) were administrative and military divisions under the Later Jin and Qing dynasties of China into which all Manchu households were placed. In war,
6936-475: The Three Guards, respectively. After the failed rebellion of the northern Uriankhai people, they were divided in 1538 and mostly annexed by the northern Khalkha. Under Dayan Khan or his successors, the Eastern Mongols compelled the Barga to surrender. However, his decision to divide the Six tumens to his sons, or taijis, and local tabunangs, sons-in-law of the taijis, created a decentralized system of Borjigin rule that secured domestic peace and outward expansion for
7038-418: The Wise, Guushi and Jimsgene. His sons were made tribal chiefs. Many princes in the Mongolian Plateau were his descendants such as Altan Khan and Ligden Khan . Dayan Khan and his successor Khagans led the Chahar tumen directly. The Chinese chroniclers of the Ming dynasty considered him a Holy Emperor who restored former glory of the Mongol Empire. There is much that is uncertain about Dayan Khan's life after
7140-460: The Zhapu lieutenant general couldn't differentiate them from Jurchen Manchus in terms of military skills. Manchu Banners contained a lot of "false Manchus" who were from Han Chinese civilian families but were adopted by Manchu bannermen after the Yongzheng reign. The Jingkou and Jiangning Mongol banners and Manchu Banners had 1,795 adopted Han Chinese and the Beijing Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners had 2,400 adopted Han Chinese in statistics taken from
7242-421: The better performance of the Han Green Standard Army , who fought better than them against the rebels and this was noted by the Kangxi Emperor, leading him to task Generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to lead Green Standard soldiers to crush the rebels. The Qing thought that Han were superior at battling other Han people and so used the Green Standard Army as the dominant and majority army in crushing
7344-936: The bow and arrow, at which they practice on a few rare occasions each year." During the Boxer Rebellion , 1899–1901, the European powers recruited 10,000 Bannermen from the Metropolitan Banners into Wuwei Corps and gave them modernized training and weapons. One of these was the Hushenying . However, many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported the Boxers and shared their anti-foreign sentiment. The pro-Boxer Bannermen sustained heavy casualties and subsequently were driven into desperate poverty. Zhao Erfeng and Zhao Erxun were two important Han Bannermen in
7446-469: The coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources, this has led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In Fujian, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproved the entirely irrelevant claim that alleged fear of the water on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation and clearances. Even though
7548-568: The creation of the Qing dynasty. Between 1637 and 1642, the Old Han Army, mostly made up of Liaodong natives who had surrendered at Yongping, Fushun, Dalinghe, etc., were organized into the Han Eight Banners ( Manchu : ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠ nikan cooha or ᡠᠵᡝᠨ ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠ ujen cooha ; Chinese : 八旗漢軍 ; pinyin : bāqí hànjūn ; Mongolian : Хятад найман хошуу ). The original Eight Banners were thereafter referred to as
7650-2186: The death of Mandukhai. The dates of death range from 1517 until 1543. Three Eastern Tumens Khalkha Chahar Uriankhai Three Western Tumens Ordos Tumed Yunshebu Tümen Choros Torghut Khoid Dörbet Oirat Yingchang Karakorum Hohhot Khagan Khan Khatun Taishi Jinong Khong Tayiji Noyan Tarkhan Councellor Wang Ukhaantu Khan Toghun-Temur (1368–1370) Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (1370–1378) Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür (1378–1388) Jorightu Khan Yesüder (1388–1391) Engke Khan (1391–1394) Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan (1394–1399) Gün Temür Khan (1399–1402) Örüg Temür Khan Gulichi (1402–1408) Öljei Temür Khan Bunyashiri (1403–1412) Delbeg Khan (1411–1415) Oyiradai Khan (1415–1425) Adai Khan (1425–1438) Tayisung Khan Toghtoa Bukha (1433–1452) Agbarjin (1453) Esen Taishi (1453–1454) Markörgis Khan (Ükegtü) (1454–1465) Molon Khan (1465–1466) Manduul Khan (1475–1479) Dayan Khan (1480–1516) Bars Bolud Jinong (deputy) Bodi Alagh Khan (1516–1547) Darayisung Gödeng Khan (1547–1557) Tümen Jasaghtu Khan (1557–1592) Buyan Sechen Khan (1592–1604) Ligdan Khan (1604–1634) Ejei Khan (1634–1635) Altan Khan (1521–1582) Sengge Düüreng Khan (1583–1585) Namudai Sechen Khan (1586–1607) Boshugtu Khung Taiji (1608–1636) Barsu-Bolod (d. 1521) Mergen Jinong (d. 1542) Noyandara Jinong (1543–1572) Buyan Baatur Taiji (1573–1576) Boshugtu Jinong (1577–1624) Erinchen Jinong (1624–1636) Abtai Sain Khan (1567–1588) Eriyekhei Mergen Khan (1589–?) Gombodorji Khan (d. 1655) Chakhun Dorji Khan (1654–1698) Laikhur Khan Subandai Khan Norbu Bisireltü Khan (d. 1661) Chambun Khan (1670?–) Zenggün Shara (d. 1687) Soloi Maqasamadi Sechen Khan (1577–1652) Baba Sechen Khan (1653–?) Sechen Khan (d. 1686) Ubasi Khong Tayiji (c.1609–1623) Badma Erdeni Khong Tayiji (1623–1652) Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji (1652–1667) Eight Banners Qing conquest of Ming Qing invasion of Joseon Revolt of
7752-498: The defeat of the Ming dynasty, Qing emperors continued to rely on the Eight Banners in their subsequent military campaigns. After the Ten Great Campaigns of the mid-18th century the quality of the banner armies declined. Their failure to suppress the Taiping Rebellion of the mid-19th century ruined their reputation. By the late 19th century the task of defending the empire had largely fallen upon regional armies such as
7854-543: The former eastern region of the Mongol Empire . The Oirats were defeated by the military skill of Mandukhai and control was reclaimed over the Eastern Mongols. Batumongke and his queen Mandukhai led Mongol armies in 1483 against Ismayil Taishi who after the imperial victory over him fled to Hami where he was killed by other Muslims and Turco-Mongols . Dayan Khan's mother Shiker was brought back and given
7956-475: The growing Qing military establishment, the Mongol Eight Banners and Han Eight Banners were created alongside the original Manchu banners. The banner armies were considered the elite forces of the Qing military, while the remainder of imperial troops were incorporated into the vast Green Standard Army . Membership in the banners became hereditary, and bannermen were granted land and income. After
8058-468: The highest level, the eight banners were categorized according to two groupings. The three "upper" banners (both Yellow Banners and the Plain White Banner ) were under the nominal command of the emperor himself, whereas the five "lower" banners were commanded by others. The banners were also split into a "left wing" and a "right wing" according to how they would be arrayed in battle. In Beijing,
8160-514: The late Qing. By the late 19th century, the Qing Dynasty began training and creating New Army units based on Western training, equipment and organization. Nevertheless, the banner system remained in existence until the fall of the Qing in 1912, and even beyond, with a rump organization continuing to function until 1924. At the end of the Qing dynasty, all members of the Eight Banners, regardless of their original ethnicity, were considered by
8262-591: The left wing occupied the eastern banner neighborhoods and the right wing occupied the western ones. The smallest unit in a banner army was the company, or niru ( Chinese : 佐領 ; pinyin : zuǒlǐng , Mongolian : Сум ), composed nominally of 300 soldiers and their families. The term niru means "arrow" in the Manchu language, and was originally the Manchu name for a hunting party, which would be armed with bows and arrows. 15 companies (4,500 men) made up one jalan ( Chinese : 參領 ; pinyin : cānlǐng ; Mongolian : Заланг ). 4 jalan constituted
8364-418: The massive number of Han soldiers who were absorbed into the Eight Banners by both capture and defection, Ming artillery was responsible for many victories against the Qing, so the Qing established an artillery corps made out of Han soldiers in 1641 and the swelling of Han numbers in the Eight Banners led in 1642 of all Eight Han Banners being created. It was defected Han armies which conquered southern China for
8466-885: The modern state of Mongolia. However, there are four small banners in China: two in Inner Mongolia; one in Qinghai ; and one in Rehe . There are also several groups among the Buriats in Russia, however, they no longer retain the Khalkha self-identity, culture, and language. The Halh Mongols in Qinghai, China and the ones among the Buryats in Russia were subjects to Khalkha's Tsogtu Khan and his sons. The Choghtu Khong Tayiji 's Khalkhas (1 banner): Poet, supporter of Ligdan Khan , and opponent of
8568-580: The permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. It was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The decree was formulated by Dorgon. The Guangzhou massacre of Ming loyalist Han forces and civilians in 1650 by Qing forces, was entirely carried out by Han Bannermen led by Han generals Shang Kexi and Geng Jimao . The Qing sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga 's Ming loyalists in Fujian. The Qing carried out massive depopulation policy clearances forcing people to evacuated
8670-817: The power of descendants of the Alans , the Kypchaks and the Hami Muslim warlords from the Northern Yuan court in the Mongolian Plateau . From 1513, Mongol invasions of the Ming Empire recommenced. Dayan Khan built forts in Xuanhua and Datong . He also stationed 30,000 cavalry on Ming territory. His Mongols numbering up to 175,000 invaded the Ming Empire in 1514 and 1517. His sons established
8772-437: The rebels instead of Bannermen. In northwestern China against Wang Fuchen, the Qing put Bannermen in the rear as reserves while they used Han Green Standard Army soldiers and Han Generals like Zhang Liangdong, Wang Jinbao, and Zhang Yong as the primary military forces, considering Han troops as better at fighting other Han people, and these Han generals achieved victory over the rebels. Sichuan and southern Shaanxi were retaken by
8874-796: The remainder. Han Chinese secondary status bannermen made up 180 of 3,600 troop households in Ningxia while Han Chinese separate registers made up 380 out of 2,700 Manchu soldiers in Liangzhou. The result of these Han Manchus taking up military positions resulted in many Jurchen Manchus being deprived of their traditional positions as soldiers in the Banner armies, resulting in the Han Manchus supplanting Jurchen Manchus economic and social status.These Han Manchus were said to be good military troops and their skills at marching and archery were up to par so that
8976-762: The rising Manchus. The Five Khalkha except for the Jarud and the Baarin were organized into the Eight Banners . Khalkha Left Banner of Juu Uda League and Khalkha Right Banner of Ulaanchab League were offshoots of the Seven Khalkha. The Seven Khalkha were involved in regular fights against the Oyirad in the west. Geresenje's descendants formed the houses of Tüsheet Khan , Zasagt Khan and Setsen Khan . They preserved their independence until they had to seek help from
9078-550: The sub-ethnic groups within the Khalkha Unit have been historically recorded in books, journals, and documents as "Sartuul Khalkha", "Tanghut Khalkha" etc. Even the word order in the phrases Southern Five Khalkha and Northern Thirteen Khalkha implies that the word Халх correlates to the units within the Southern and Northern tribal federations, but it does not stand for the group as a whole. Lastly, Mongolians have always linked
9180-467: The support of the majority of Han soldiers and Han elite against the Three Feudatories, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the Eight Banners and Manchu officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000 Han (non-Banner) instead of the Eight Banners, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by
9282-667: The term Халх to the name of the Khalkhyn Gol . Dayan Khan created the Khalkha Tumen out of Mongols residing in the territory of present-day central Mongolia and northern part of Inner Mongolia . In Mongolian historical sources such as Erdeniin Erih ("The Beads of Jewel") it clearly stated how the Khalkha Tumen was created and where these people resided at the time of its creation. The statement goes as follows: It
9384-539: The title taikhu ( empress dowager ). However, she did not live long enough after that. The imperial power was supported by Unubold (Naybolad), the descendant of Hasar who was the brother of Genghis Khan , and the tribes ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan's brothers were allied. Most of the Four Oirats remaining in Mongolia surrendered and provided troops. Only Khoosai of the Tumed rejected Dayan Khan's supremacy but
9486-574: The upper three Manchu Banners and having "giya" 佳 appended to the end of their surname to Manchufy it. It typically occurred in cases of intermarriage with the Qing Aisin Gioro Imperial family, and the close relatives (fathers and brothers) of the concubine or Empress would get promoted from the Han Banner to the Manchu Banner and become Manchu. The Han Bannerwoman Empress Xiaoyichun and her entire family were transferred to
9588-408: The well-paid Bannerman spent their time gambling and theatergoing. Subsidizing the 1.5 million men, women and children in the system was an expensive proposition, compounded by embezzlement and corruption. Destitution in the northeastern garrisons led many Manchu Bannermen to abandon their posts and in response the Qing government either sentenced them with penal slavery or death. In the 19th century,
9690-509: Was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty , reigning from 1480 to 1517. During his rule, he reunited the Mongols under Chinggisid supremacy. His reigning title, "Dayan", means "the whole" or "Long lasting" in Mongolian language as he was the longest reigning khagan of the unified Mongols. Dayan Khan, eliminated Oirat power and abolished the taishi system used by both local and foreign warlords. Dayan Khan's victory at Dalan Tergin reunified
9792-760: Was defeated in turn. The most important achievement of the couple was their defeat of the war-like Oirats who had previously revolted against the rule of the Borjigin Emperors since the 14th century. By 1495, Batumongke won the Three Guards ( Doyin Uriankhai , Ujiyed and Fuyu guard), tributaries of the Ming dynasty , and had them incorporated into his Six tumens. While the Golden Horde lost its power in 1480, Mongol raids on Ming borderlands became virtually constant. Under Dayan Khan they reached
9894-529: Was furious at the Manchus who adopted Han Chinese as their sons from slave and bondservant families in exchange for money and expressed his displeasure at them adopting Han Chinese instead of other Manchus. These Han Chinese who infiltrated the Manchu Banners by adoption were known as "secondary-status bannermen" and "false Manchus" or "separate-register Manchus", and there were eventually so many of these Han Chinese that they took over military positions in
9996-486: Was increasing. So the two decided to end the influence of Dalai Lama and the "Yellow Hat" order by supporting the "Red Hat" order. However, majority of Ligdan Khan's subjects and soldiers died because of smallpox on the way to Qinghai. After Ligdan's death, Tsogtu Taiji began attacking dGe-lugs-pa monasteries. When Tsogtu sent 10,000 men under his son Arslang against the Dalai Lama in Lhasa, Arslang switched sides and supported
10098-434: Was not executed. In the late 19th century and early 1900s, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for higher financial status. From the time China was brought under the rule of the Qing dynasty, the banner soldiers became more professional and bureaucratized. Once
10200-589: Was popularly known as the "Chokhor Halh" and the ruler of this banner was the descendant of Gombo-Ilden, the fifth generation grandson to Gersenz Jalair Khan. They fled from the Zasakto Khan Aimak of Outer Mongolia to Inner Mongolia in 1664. Its boundaries as given by the Mongol Pastures run 125 by 230 "li", or about 66 by 122 kilometres (41 by 76 miles). The Tanggot Khalkha Banner: This Banner formerly subordinated for administrative purposes to
10302-515: Was suffering echinococcosis . Mandukhai had him treated and the boy recovered soon. As a direct descendant of Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294), Mandukhai had him ascend to the throne at the Royal shrine kept by the Chakhar and he became known by the title "Dayan Khan". When he was aged nineteen, she married him, and retained great influence over court and military. They reunified the Mongol retainers of
10404-550: Was to have a red border, except for the Bordered Red Banner, which had a white border instead. The banner armies expanded rapidly after a string of military victories under Nurhaci and his successors. Beginning in the late 1620s, the Jurchens incorporated allied and conquered Mongol tribes into the Eight Banner system. In 1635, Hong Taiji, son of Nurhaci, renamed his people from Jurchen to Manchu. That same year
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