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131-813: The Dzungars were a confederation of several Oirat tribes that emerged in the early 17th century to fight the Altan Khan of the Khalkha (not to be confused with the better-known Altan Khan of the Tümed ), Tümen Zasagt Khan , and later the Manchu for dominion and control over the Mongolian people and territories. This confederation rose to power in what became known as the Junggar Basin in Dzungaria between

262-504: A gūsa (banner, Chinese : 旗 ; pinyin : qí , Mongolian : Хошуу ), with a total of 60 companies, or 18,000 men. The actual sizes often varied substantially from these standards. Initially, the banner armies were primarily made up of individuals from the various Manchu tribes. As new populations were incorporated into the empire, the armies were expanded to accommodate troops of different ethnicities. The banner armies would eventually encompass three principal ethnic components :

393-575: A Manchu banner in the reign of the Kangxi emperor . The transfer of families from Han Banners or Bondservant status ( Booi Aha ) to Manchu Banners, switching their ethnicity from Han to Manchu was called Taiqi ( 抬旗 ) in Chinese. They would be transferred to the "upper three" Manchu Banners. It was a policy of the Qing to transfer to immediate families (the brothers, father) of the mother of an Emperor into

524-514: A Qing tributary instead. Initially, Han troops were incorporated into the existing Manchu Banners. When Hong Taiji captured Yongping in 1629, a contingent of artillerymen surrendered to him. In 1631, these troops were organized into the so-called Old Han Army under the Han commander Tong Yangxing. These artillery units were used decisively to defeat Ming general Zu Dashou 's forces at the siege of Dalinghe that same year. In 1636, Hong Taiji proclaimed

655-462: A Scots missionary who served in Manchuria in the 19th century, wrote of the bannermen, "Their claim to be military men is based on their descent rather than on their skill in arms; and their pay is given them because of their fathers' prowess, and not at all from any hopes of their efficiency as soldiers. Their soldierly qualities are included in the accomplishments of idleness, riding, and the use of

786-433: A battalion, and ten battalions a banner. Four banners were originally created: Yellow, White, Red, and Blue, each named after the color of its flag. By 1614, the number of companies had grown to around 400. In 1615, the number of banners was doubled through the creation of "bordered" banners. The troops of each of the original four banners would be split between a plain and a bordered banner. The bordered variant of each flag

917-765: A fifth of the population is thought to have perished during and immediately after the deportation. Around half (97–98,000) of the Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation. Mongolian leader Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to arrange migration of the deportees to Mongolia and he met them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under

1048-719: A force of 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia, but the Oirat state was destroyed by the Soviet Army later that year. The Mongolian government suggested to accept the Mongols of the Soviet Union, including Kalmyks, but the Soviets rejected the proposal. In 1943, the entire population of 120,000 Kalmyks were deported to Siberia by Stalin , accused of supporting invading Axis armies attacking Stalingrad ( Volgograd );

1179-509: A minority, principally in the northern part of the region, numbering 194,500 in 2010, about 50,000 of which are Dongxiangs . They are primarily descendants of the surviving Torghuts and Khoshuts who returned from Kalmykia , and of the Chakhar stationed there as garrison soldiers in the 18th century. The emperor had sent messages asking the Kalmyks to return, and erected a smaller copy of

1310-523: A minority, which conquered the Central Plain for the Qing. Hong Taiji recognized that Han defectors were needed by the Qing in order to assist in the conquest of the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General Hung Ch'eng-ch'ou leniently. The Qing showed in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military that the Qing valued military skills to get them to defect to

1441-500: A more lenient policy after mid-1757. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence." The Dzungar genocide was completed by a combination of a smallpox epidemic and the direct slaughter of Dzungars by Qing forces made out of Manchu Bannermen and (Khalkha) Mongols. Anti-Dzungar Uyghur rebels from

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1572-682: A poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarian", both Han Green Standard Army and Han Bannermen were involved in the fighting for the Qing side and carried out the worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories besides 200,000 Bannermen. In the Revolt of the Three Feudatories Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by

1703-425: A process of manufacturing indigenously created gunpowder weapons. They created a mixed agro-pastoral economy, as well as complementary mining and manufacturing industries on their lands. The Dzungar managed to enact an empire-wide system of laws and policies to boost the use of the Oirat language in the region. After a series of inconclusive military conflicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by

1834-693: A wife to the Han official Feng Quan, who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. The Manchu queue hairstyle was willingly adopted by Feng Quan before it was enforced on the Han population and Feng learned the Manchu language. To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or

1965-801: The Altai Mountains and the Ili Valley . Initially, the confederation consisted of the Oöled, Dörbet Oirat (also written Derbet) and the Khoid . Later on, elements of the Khoshut and Torghut were forcibly incorporated into the Dzungar military, thus completing the reunification of the West Mongolian tribes. According to oral history, the Oöled and Dörbet tribes are the successor tribes to

2096-720: The Bargut , Buzava , Keraites , and Naiman tribes as comprising part of the Dörben Öörd; some tribes may have joined the original four only in later years. This name may however reflect the Kalmyks' remaining Buddhist rather than converting to Islam ; or the Kalmyks' remaining in the Altay region when the Turkic tribes migrated further west. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty , Oirat and Eastern Mongols had developed separate identities to

2227-781: The Battle of Shanhai Pass and secure Beijing for the Qing. The young Shunzhi Emperor was then enthroned in the Forbidden City . Ming defectors played a major role in the Qing conquest of the Central Plain . Ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing were often given women from the imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Qing differentiated between Han bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han bannermen were made out of ethnic Han who defected to

2358-576: The Borjigin family, fled Syria , then under the Mamluks , as they were despised by both Muslim Mongols and local Turks . They were well-received by Egypt 's Sultan , Al-Adil Kitbugha , himself of Oirat origin. Ali Pasha, the governor of Baghdad and head of an Oirat ruling family, went on to murder Ilkhan Arpa Keun , resulting in the disintegration of Mongol Persia. Since the Oirats were near both

2489-600: The Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde , they had strong ties with them, and many Mongol khans had Oirat wives. After the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty from China, the Oirats reconvened as a loose alliance of the four major western Mongolian tribes (Mongolian: дөрвөн ойрд , дөрвөн ойрaд ). The alliance grew, taking power in the remote region of the Altai Mountains , northwest of Hami oasis . Gradually, they spread eastwards, annexing territories then under

2620-808: The Dzungar Khanate and Mongolian independence. As C. D. Barkman notes, "It is quite clear that the Torghuts had not intended to surrender to the Chinese, but had hoped to lead an independent existence in Dzungaria". Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalry to the Russo-Turkish War in 1768–1769 to gain weapons before the migration. The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and Catherine

2751-501: The Dzungars in the 1750s and proclaimed rule over the Oirats through a Manchu-Mongol alliance (a series of systematic arranged marriages between princes and princesses of Manchu with those of Khalkha Mongols and Oirat Mongols, which was set up as a royal policy carried out over 300 years), as well as over Khoshut-controlled Tibet. In 1723 Lobzang Danjin, another descendant of Güshi Khan, took control of Amdo and tried to assume rule over

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2882-566: The Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia (most of which is located in present-day Xinjiang ), were the last nomadic empire to threaten China, which they did from the early 17th century through the middle of the 18th century. During this time, the Dzungar pioneered the local manifestation of a ‘Military Revolution’ in Central Eurasia after perfecting

3013-680: The Kuban River . Many other nomadic peoples in the Eurasian steppes subsequently became vassals of the Kalmyk Khanate, part of which is in the area of present-day Kalmykia . The Kalmyks became allies of Russia and a treaty to protect southern Russian borders was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. Later they became nominal, then full subjects of the Russian Tsar. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia . By

3144-622: The Manchu -led Qing dynasty (1644–1911) in the late 1750s. Clarke argued that the Qing campaign in 1757–58 "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people." After the Qianlong Emperor led Qing forces to victory over the Dzungar Oirat (Western) Mongols in 1755, he originally was going to split the Dzungar Khanate into four tribes headed by four Khans. The Khoit tribe

3275-856: The Manchus , the Han , and the Mongols , and various smaller ethnic groups, such as the Xibe , the Daur , and the Evenks . When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name). There were stories of Han migrating to

3406-821: The Mongol campaign against the Nizaris in Iran. The Ilkhan Hulagu and his successor, Abagha , resettled them in Turkey. Then, they took part in the Second Battle of Homs , where the Mongols were defeated. The majority of the Oirats, who were left behind, supported Ariq Böke against Kublai in the Toluid Civil War . Kublai defeated his younger brother, and they entered the service of the victor. In 1295, more than 10,000 Oirats under Targhai Khurgen, son-in-law of

3537-610: The Naimans , a group of Mongols who roamed the steppes of Central Asia during the era of Genghis Khan . The Oöled shared the clan name Choros with the Dörbet. Zuun gar "left hand" and Baruun gar "right hand" formed the Oirat's military and administrative organization. The Dzungar Olot people and the Choros became the ruling clans in the 17th century. In 1697, two relatives of Galdan Boshugtu Khan , Danjila and Rabdan, surrendered to

3668-835: The Oirat language from Mongolian . The Clear Script remained in use in Kalmykia until the mid-1920s when it was replaced by a Latin alphabet , and later the Cyrillic script . It can be seen in some public signs in the Kalmyk capital, Elista , and is superficially taught in schools. In Mongolia it was likewise replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1941. Some Oirats in China still use the Clear Script as their primary writing system, as well as Mongolian script. A monument of Zaya Pandita

3799-863: The Potala in Jehol ( Chengde ), (the country residence of the Manchu Emperors ) to mark their arrival. A model copy of that "Little Potala" was made in China for the Swedish explorer Sven Hedin , and was erected at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. It is now in storage in Sweden , where there are plans to re-erect it. Some of the returnees did not come that far and still live, now as Muslims, at

3930-480: The Qianlong Emperor ordered the genocide of the Dzungars , moving the remaining Dzungar people to the mainland and ordering the generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou , and divided their wives and children to Qing forces, which were made out of Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols . Qing scholar Wei Yuan estimated the total population of Dzungars before the fall at 600,000 people, or 200,000 households. Oirat officer Saaral betrayed and battled against

4061-446: The Qing government, thus in 1686, the Emperor permitted them to reside in Alasha. In 1697, Alasha Mongols were administered in 'khoshuu' and 'sum' units. A khoshuu with eight sums was created, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli was appointed Beil (prince), and Alasha was thus a 'zasag-khoshuu'. Alasha was however like an 'aimag' and never administered under a 'chuulgan'. In 1707, when Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli died, his son Abuu succeeded him. He

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4192-605: The Republic of China to be Manchu. Han Bannermen became an elite political class in Fengtian province in the late Qing period and into the Republican era. In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russians , Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to

4323-411: The Rouran and Tobgach empires were YELÜ -T Mongolic speakers. Although these two empires encompassed multilingual populations, the language of diplomacy, trade, and culture was an ÖLÜ (YELÜ) dialect of ancient Mongolic descent. When the Tobgach destroyed the Rouran Empire, the Mongolic-speaking Avar people escaped into the Caspian steppes. This displacement triggered a series of events. Settling in

4454-438: The Tarim Basin to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Dzungars and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Dzungars themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Dzungar rule at the hands of Tsewang Rabtan . It was not until generations later that Dzungaria rebounded from the destruction and near liquidation of

4585-406: The Turfan and Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Dzungar rule. Uyghur leaders like Emin Khoja were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Dzungar campaign. The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from

4716-488: The Vajrayana Buddhist Oirats were slaughtered, led to the Qing settling Manchu, Sibo (Xibe), Daurs , Solons , Han Chinese, Hui Muslims, and Turkic Muslim Taranchis in the north, with Han Chinese and Hui migrants making up the greatest number of settlers. Since it was the crushing of the Buddhist Öölöd (Dzungars) by the Qing which led to promotion of Islam and the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, and migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, it

4847-460: The Xiang Army . Over time, the Eight Banners became synonymous with Manchu identity even as their military strength vanished. Initially, Nurhaci's forces were organized into small hunting parties of about a dozen men related by blood, marriage, clan, or place of residence, as was the typical Jurchen custom. In 1601, with the number of men under his command growing, Nurhaci reorganized his troops into companies of 300 households. Five companies made up

4978-439: The " forest people " in the 13th century. An opinion believes the name derives from Mongolian word oirt meaning "close (as in distance)," as in "close/nearer ones." The name Oirat may derive from a corruption of the group's original name Dörben Öörd , meaning "The Allied Four". Perhaps inspired by the designation Dörben Öörd, other Mongols at times used the term "Döchin Mongols" for themselves ("Döchin" meaning forty), but there

5109-465: The 1821 census. Despite Qing attempts to differentiate adopted Han Chinese from normal Manchu bannermen the differences between them became hazy. These adopted Han Chinese bondservants who managed to get themselves onto Manchu banner roles were called kaihu ren (開戶人) in Chinese and dangse faksalaha urse in Manchu. Normal Manchus were called jingkini Manjusa. Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to

5240-406: The 600,000 or more Dzungars, especially Choros, Olots, Khoid, Baatud and Zakhchin , were destroyed by disease and attack which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Zungars as a people." Historian Peter Perdue attributed the devastation of the Dzungars to an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong, but he also observed signs of

5371-407: The Banners which previously were reserved for Jurchen Manchus. Han Chinese foster-son and separate register bannermen made up 800 out of 1,600 soldiers of the Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners of Hangzhou in 1740 which was nearly 50%. Han Chinese foster-son made up 220 out of 1,600 unsalaried troops at Jingzhou in 1747 and an assortment of Han Chinese separate-register, Mongol, and Manchu bannermen were

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5502-574: The Caucasus around 558, the Mongolic Avars intervened in Germanic tribal conflicts, forming alliances such as with the Lombards to overthrow the Gepidae, who were Byzantine allies. Between 550 and 575, they solidified their presence by establishing the Khanate of the Mongolic Avars (6th to 8th century) in the Caspian and Hungarian steppes. The modern Kalmyks of Kalmykia on the Caspian Sea in southeastern Europe are Oirats. The name derives from Mongolic oi < * hoi ("forest, woods") and ard < * harad ("people"), and they were counted among

5633-403: The Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun 中國, Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus. The Hulun Buir Oolods formed an administrative banner along the Imin and Shinekhen Rivers. During the Qing dynasty, a body of them resettled in Yakeshi city. In 1764 many Oolods migrated to Khovd Province in Mongolia and supplied corvee services for

5764-422: The Chinese border and invaded Ming China , defeating and destroying the Ming defences at the Great Wall , along with the reinforcements sent to intercept his cavalry. In the process, the Zhengtong Emperor was captured at Tumu . The following year, Esen returned the emperor after an unsuccessful ransom attempt. After claiming the title of Khan (something which only blood descendants of Genghis Khan could do), Esen

5895-437: The Dzungar Oirat Mongols in the region, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin. In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi (former Dihua of Qing, 迪化) and Yining . The Qing were the ones who unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic situation. The depopulation of northern Xinjiang after

6026-412: The Dzungars after the mass slayings of nearly a million Dzungars. Historian Peter C. Perdue has shown that the annihilation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong, Perdue attributed the elimination of the Dzungars to a "deliberate use of massacre" and has described it as an "ethnic genocide". The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of

6157-407: The Dzungars made the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of Han Chinese, Hui, Turkestani Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchu Bannermen in Dzungaria possible, since the land was now devoid of Dzungars. The Dzungaria , which used to be inhabited by Dzungars is currently inhabited by Kazakhs. In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui , Uyghur, Xibe , and Kazakh colonists after they exterminated

6288-527: The Eight Banners and Green Standard troops proved unable to put down the Taiping Rebellion and Nian Rebellion on their own. Regional officials like Zeng Guofan were instructed to raise their own forces from the civilian population, leading to the creation of the Xiang Army and the Huai Army , among others. Along with the Ever Victorious Army of Frederick Townsend Ward , it was these warlord armies (known as yongying ) who finally succeeded in restoring Qing control in this turbulent period. John Ross ,

6419-468: The Eight Banners functioned as armies, but the banner system was also the basic organizational framework of all of Manchu society. Created in the early 17th century by Nurhaci , the banner armies played an instrumental role in his unification of the fragmented Jurchen people (who would later be renamed the "Manchu" under Nurhaci's son Hong Taiji ) and in the Qing dynasty's conquest of the Ming dynasty . As Mongol and Han forces were incorporated into

6550-442: The Great abolished the Kalmyk Khanate. The Kazakhs attacked them near Balkhash Lake . About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed their influential nobles. After seven months of travel, only one third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of

6681-422: The Green Standard Army, made out of defected Ming soldiers. Koxinga's rattan shield troops became famous for fighting and defeating the Dutch in Taiwan . After the surrender of Koxinga's former followers on Taiwan , Koxinga's grandson Zheng Keshuang and his troops were incorporated into the Eight Banners. His rattan shield soldiers (Tengpaiying) 藤牌营 were used against the Russian Cossacks at Albazin . Under

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6812-490: The Han Banners. After Hong Taiji's death, Dorgon , commander of the Solid White Banner, became regent. He quickly purged his rivals and took control over Hong Taiji's Solid Blue Banner. By 1644, an estimated two million people were living in the Eight Banners system. That year, rebels led by Li Zicheng captured Beijing and the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, Chongzhen , committed suicide. Dorgon and his bannermen joined forces with Ming defector Wu Sangui to defeat Li at

6943-438: The Han Green Standard Army under Wang Jinbao and Zhao Liangdong in 1680, with Manchus only participating in dealing with logistics and provisions. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers and 150,000 Bannermen served on the Qing side during the war. 213 Han Banner companies, and 527 companies of Mongol and Manchu Banners were mobilized by the Qing during the revolt. The Qing forces were crushed by Wu from 1673 to 1674. The Qing had

7074-456: The Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing (張文慶) was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu (馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers. The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and slavery under Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper. The region bordering Gansu and west of

7205-422: The Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In the 1780s, after the Jahriyya revolt in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing (張文慶) was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu (馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers. The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper. At

7336-434: The Irgay River is called Alxa or Alaša, Alshaa and Mongols who moved there are called Alasha Mongols. Törbaih Güshi Khan 's fourth son, Ayush, was opposed to the Khan's brother Baibagas. Ayush's eldest son is Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli. After the battle between Galdan Boshigt Khan and Ochirtu Sechen Khan, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli moved to Tsaidam with his 10,000 households. The fifth Dalai Lama wanted land for them from

7467-451: The Jurchens and assimilating into Manchu Jurchen society and Nikan Wailan may have been an example of this. The Manchu Cuigiya 崔佳氏 clan claimed that a Han Chinese founded their clan. The Tohoro 托和啰 ( Duanfang 's clan) claimed Han Chinese origin. The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin , using this false claim to get themselves transferred to

7598-412: The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors, the Eight Banners participated in a series of military campaigns to subdue Ming loyalists and neighboring states. In the Qianlong Emperor's celebrated Ten Great Campaigns , the banner armies fought alongside troops of the Green Standard Army, expanding the Qing empire to its greatest territorial extent. Though partly successful, the campaigns were a heavy financial burden on

7729-460: The Khoshut Khanate. He fought against a Manchu- Qing Dynasty army, and was defeated only in the following year and 80,000 people from his tribe were executed by Manchu army due to his "rebellion attempt". By that period, the Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000 and were mainly under the rule of Khalkha Mongol princes who were in a marital alliance with Manchu royal and noble families. Thus, Amdo fell under Manchu domination. The 17th century saw

7860-616: The Khovd garrison of the Qing. Their number reached 9,100 in 1989. A united administrative unit was demanded by them. The Dzungars remaining in Xinjiang were also renamed Oolods. They dominated 30 of the 148 Mongol sums during the Qing dynasty era. They numbered 25,000 in 1999. Oirats Oirats ( / ˈ ɔɪ r æ t / ; Mongolian : Ойрад [ˈɞe̯ɾə̆t] ) or Oirds (Mongolian: Ойрд [ˈɞe̯ɾə̆t] ; Kalmyk : Өөрд [ˈøːɾə̆t] ), formerly known as Eluts and Eleuths ( / ɪ ˈ l uː t / or / ɪ ˈ l j uː θ / ; Chinese : 厄魯特 , Èlǔtè ), are

7991-457: The Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples" repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of genocide , although many Russian historians treat this and similar deportations as an attempt to prevent local Russian populations and the Soviet army from lynching the entire ethnic group, many of whom supported Germany . Today Kalmyks are trying to revive their language and religion, but

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8122-571: The Manchu Banners due to her status as the mother of an Emperor and their surname was change from Wei 魏 to Weigiya 魏佳. The Qing said that "Manchu and Han are one house" 滿漢一家 and said that the difference was "not between Manchu and Han, but instead between Bannerman and civilian" 不分滿漢，但問旗民 or 但問旗民，不問滿漢. Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 撫順尼堪 (Fushun Chinese) backgrounds into

8253-439: The Manchu Eight Banners ( Manchu : ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ , manju gūsa ; Chinese : 八旗滿洲 ; pinyin : bāqí mǎnzhōu ; Mongolian : Манжийн Найман хошуу ). Although still called the "Eight Banners" in name, there were now effectively twenty-four banner armies, eight for each of the three main ethnic groups (Manchu, Mongol, and Han). Among the Banners gunpowder weapons, such as muskets and artillery, were specifically wielded by

8384-479: The Manchu Qing Empire). The Qing Empire resettled the Kalmyks in five different areas to prevent their revolt and several Kalmyk leaders were soon killed by the Manchus. Following the Russian revolution their settlement was accelerated, Buddhism stamped out and herds collectivised. Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate from Kalmykia to Mongolia in the 1920s when a serious famine gripped Kalmykia. On January 22, 1922, Mongolia proposed to accept

8515-454: The Manchu against the Dzungars. In the 17th century, the Dzungar pioneered the local manifestation of the 'Military Revolution' in central Eurasia after perfecting a process of manufacturing indigenously created gunpowder weapons. They also created a mixed agro-pastoral economy, as well as complementary mining and manufacturing industries on their lands. Additionally, the Zunghar managed to enact an empire-wide system of laws and policies to boost

8646-540: The Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing Qianlong emperor . It was between 1618-1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on Qing lists of Manchu clans . Manchu families adopted Han Chinese sons from families of bondservant Booi Aha (baoyi) origin and they served in Manchu company registers as detached household Manchus and

8777-410: The Manchu nobility o the "Eight Great Houses" who held noble titles. Jiang Xingzhou 姜興舟, a Han bannerman lieutenant from the Bordered Yellow Banner married a Muslim woman in Mukden during Qianlong's late reign. He fled his position due to fear of being punished for being a bannerman marrying a commoner woman. He was sentenced to death for leaving his official post but the sentence was commuted and he

8908-447: The Manchus took over governing, they could no longer satisfy the material needs of soldiers by garnishing and distributing booty; instead, a salary system was instituted, ranks standardized, and the Eight Banners became a sort of hereditary military caste, though with a strong ethnic inflection. Banner soldiers took up permanent positions, either as defenders of the capital, Beijing, where roughly half of them lived with their families, or in

9039-559: The Ming defeated the Qubilaid Öljei Temür and the Borjigid power was weakened. The Borjigid Khans were displaced from power by the Oirats (with Ming help), ruling as puppet-khans until the alliance between the Ming and Oirats ended, and the Yongle Emperor launched a campaign against them. The greatest ruler of the Oirat Confederacy was Esen Taishi ; he led the Oirats from 1438 to 1454, a time in which he unified Mongolia (both Inner and Outer) under his puppet-khan Taisun Khan . In 1449, Esen Tayisi and Taisun Khan mobilised their cavalry along

9170-416: The Mongols were separated into the Mongol Eight Banners ( Manchu : ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ , monggo gūsa ; Chinese : 八旗蒙古 ; pinyin : bāqí ménggǔ ; Mongolian : Монгол найман хошуу ). Under Hong Taiji , the banner armies participated in two invasions of Joseon in the Korean Peninsula first in 1627 and again in 1636. As a consequence, Joseon was forced to end its relationship with the Ming and become

9301-414: The Oirats and the Yenisei Kyrgyz ; the Great Khan gave those peoples to his son, Jochi, and had one of his daughters, Checheygen, marry chief Bäki (or his son). There were notable Oirats in the Mongol Empire , such as Arghun Agha and his son, Nowruz . In 1256, a group of the Oirats under Bukha-Temür (Mongolian: Буха-Төмөр, Бөхтөмөр) joined Hulagu's expedition against the Abbasids and participated in

9432-502: The Oirats under Bäki fought against Genghis but were defeated. The Oirats would then fully submit to Mongol rule after their ally, Jamukha , Genghis' childhood friend and later rival, was killed. Subject to the Khan , the Oirats turned themselves into a loyal and formidable faction of the Mongol war machine. In 1207, Jochi , the eldest son of Genghis, subjugated the forest tribes, including

9563-453: The Oirats. In a widely cited account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox , 20% fled to Russia or Kazakh tribes, and 30% were killed by the Qing army of Manchu Bannermen and Khalkhas, leaving no yurts in an area of several thousands li except those of the surrendered. During this war, Kazakhs attacked dispersed Oirats and Altays . Based on this account, Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80% of

9694-596: The Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century. In early modern times, Kho Orlok , tayishi of the Torghuts , and Dalai Tayishi of Dorbets , led their people (200,000–250,000 people, mainly Torghuts) west to the ( Volga River ) in 1607 where they established the Kalmyk Khanate. By some accounts this move was precipitated by internal divisions or by the Khoshut tribe; other historians believe it more likely that

9825-546: The Qing Kangxi Emperor . Their people were then organized into two Oolod banners and resettled in what is now Bayankhongor Province , Mongolia . In 1731, five hundred households fled back to Dzungar territory while the remaining Olots were deported to Hulunbuir . After 1761, some of them were resettled in Arkhangai Province . The Dzungars who lived in an area that stretched from the west end of

9956-484: The Qing conquest of the Dzungars as having added new territory in Xinjiang to "China", defining China as a multi ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas in "China proper", meaning that according to the Qing, both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", which included Xinjiang which the Qing conquered from the Dzungars. After the Qing were done conquering Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that

10087-401: The Qing conquest of the Ming. The Han transfrontismen abandoned their Han names and identities and Nurhaci's secretary Dahai might have been one of them. There were not enough ethnic Manchus to conquer the Central Plain, so they relied on defeating and absorbing Mongols, and more importantly, adding Han to the Eight Banners. The Qing had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to

10218-651: The Qing foremost used defected Han troops to fight as the vanguard during their conquest of the Central Plain. The Liaodong Han military frontiersmen were prone to mixing and acculturating with (non-Han) tribesmen. The Mongol officer Mangui served in the Ming military and fought the Manchus, dying in battle against a Manchu raid. The Manchus accepted and assimilated Han soldiers who defected. Liaodong Han transfrontiersmen soldiers acculturated to Manchu culture and used Manchu names. Manchus lived in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopted Han-style agriculture before

10349-465: The Qing imperial court found this out in 1729. Manchu Bannermen who needed money helped falsify registration for Han Chinese servants being adopted into the Manchu banners and Manchu families who lacked sons were allowed to adopt their servant's sons or servants themselves. The Manchu families were paid to adopt Han Chinese sons from bondservant families by those families. The Qing Imperial Guard captain Batu

10480-535: The Qing ruler, the Kangxi Emperor , let them stay there for some years and later organized a 'khoshuu' for them in a place called Sertei, and made Rabjur the governor. In 1716, the Kangxi Emperor sent him and his people to Hami , near the border of Qing China and the Zunghar Khanate, for intelligence-gathering purposes against the Oirats. When Rabjur died, his eldest son, Denzen, succeeded him. He

10611-468: The Qing sought to protect its northern border by continuing the divide-and-rule policy their Ming predecessors had successfully instituted against the Mongols. The Manchu consolidated their rule over the Eastern Mongols of Manchuria . They then persuaded the Eastern Mongols of Inner Mongolia to submit themselves as vassals . Finally, the Eastern Mongols of Outer Mongolia sought the protection of

10742-482: The Qing treasury, and exposed weaknesses in the Qing military. Many bannermen lost their lives in the Burma campaign , often as the result of tropical diseases, to which they had little resistance. Although the banners were instrumental in the transition from Ming to Qing in the 17th century, they began to fall behind rising Western powers in the 18th century. By the 1730s, the traditional martial spirit had been lost, as

10873-448: The Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han bannermen dominating with 75% and Mongol bannermen making up the rest. It was this multi-ethnic force, in which Manchus were only

11004-523: The Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" 中外一家 or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" 內外一家 ("interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples. In the Manchu official Tulišen 's Manchu language account of his meeting with the Torghut leader Ayuka Khan , it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of

11135-414: The Qing, in order to help rule northern China. It was Green Standard Han troops who actively military governed China locally while Han Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, and Manchu Bannermen who were only brought into emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance. Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses were also married to Han official's sons. The Manchu Prince Regent Dorgon gave a Manchu woman as

11266-473: The Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military. The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a massive role in the conquest of southern China from the Ming were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde and they governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after their conquests. Normally the Manchu Bannermen acted as reserve forces while

11397-529: The Qing. When Dorgon ordered Han civilians to vacate Beijing's inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han bannermen, later, some exceptions were made to allowing to reside in the inner city Han civilians who held government or commercial jobs. The Qing relied on the Green Standard soldiers, made out of defected Ming military forces who joined

11528-728: The Three Feudatories Ten Great Campaigns First Opium War Second Opium War Taiping Rebellion Boxer Rebellion The Eight Banners (in Manchu : ᠵᠠᡴᡡᠨ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ jakūn gūsa , Chinese : 八旗 ; pinyin : bāqí ; Wade–Giles : pa -ch'i , Mongolian : ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠮᠠᠨ ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ ) were administrative and military divisions under the Later Jin and Qing dynasties of China into which all Manchu households were placed. In war,

11659-644: The Zhapu lieutenant general couldn't differentiate them from Jurchen Manchus in terms of military skills. Manchu Banners contained a lot of "false Manchus" who were from Han Chinese civilian families but were adopted by Manchu bannermen after the Yongzheng reign. The Jingkou and Jiangning Mongol banners and Manchu Banners had 1,795 adopted Han Chinese and the Beijing Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners had 2,400 adopted Han Chinese in statistics taken from

11790-632: The better performance of the Han Green Standard Army , who fought better than them against the rebels and this was noted by the Kangxi Emperor, leading him to task Generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to lead Green Standard soldiers to crush the rebels. The Qing thought that Han were superior at battling other Han people and so used the Green Standard Army as the dominant and majority army in crushing

11921-936: The bow and arrow, at which they practice on a few rare occasions each year." During the Boxer Rebellion , 1899–1901, the European powers recruited 10,000 Bannermen from the Metropolitan Banners into Wuwei Corps and gave them modernized training and weapons. One of these was the Hushenying . However, many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported the Boxers and shared their anti-foreign sentiment. The pro-Boxer Bannermen sustained heavy casualties and subsequently were driven into desperate poverty. Zhao Erfeng and Zhao Erxun were two important Han Bannermen in

12052-414: The coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources, this has led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In Fujian, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproved the entirely irrelevant claim that alleged fear of the water on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation and clearances. Even though

12183-637: The control of the Eastern Mongols. They hoped to reestablish a unified, nomadic rule under their banner of the Four Oirats (the Keraites, Naiman, Barghud, and old Oirats). The only Borjigid ruling tribe was the Khoshuts; the others' rulers were not descendants of Genghis. The Ming dynasty of China had helped the Oirats' rise over the Mongols during the Yongle Emperor's reign after 1410, when

12314-568: The creation of the Qing dynasty. Between 1637 and 1642, the Old Han Army, mostly made up of Liaodong natives who had surrendered at Yongping, Fushun, Dalinghe, etc., were organized into the Han Eight Banners ( Manchu : ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠ nikan cooha or ᡠᠵᡝᠨ ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠ ujen cooha ; Chinese : 八旗漢軍 ; pinyin : bāqí hànjūn ; Mongolian : Хятад найман хошуу ). The original Eight Banners were thereafter referred to as

12445-565: The defeat of the Ming dynasty, Qing emperors continued to rely on the Eight Banners in their subsequent military campaigns. After the Ten Great Campaigns of the mid-18th century the quality of the banner armies declined. Their failure to suppress the Taiping Rebellion of the mid-19th century ruined their reputation. By the late 19th century the task of defending the empire had largely fallen upon regional armies such as

12576-405: The early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. Russia gradually reduced the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. Policies encouraged establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures where the Kalmyks formerly roamed and fed their livestock. The Russian Orthodox church , by contrast, pressed Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771

12707-589: The fall of the Dzungar Khanate , became small ethnic groups. Kalmyks live on the Caspian steppe. Their settlement and relationship with the Caspian steppes has a long history. In early medieval times, the Mongolic-speaking Elut people established here a powerful khanate of the Avar Elut in the sixth century. The first documented reference to Elut and Yelut ( Chinese : 厄魯特, Èlǔtè ) was in

12838-475: The growing Qing military establishment, the Mongol Eight Banners and Han Eight Banners were created alongside the original Manchu banners. The banner armies were considered the elite forces of the Qing military, while the remainder of imperial troops were incorporated into the vast Green Standard Army . Membership in the banners became hereditary, and bannermen were granted land and income. After

12969-468: The highest level, the eight banners were categorized according to two groupings. The three "upper" banners (both Yellow Banners and the Plain White Banner ) were under the nominal command of the emperor himself, whereas the five "lower" banners were commanded by others. The banners were also split into a "left wing" and a "right wing" according to how they would be arrayed in battle. In Beijing,

13100-432: The immigration of the Kalmyks but the Russian government refused. Some 71–72,000 (around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine. The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In March 1927, Soviets deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, and Karelia . The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on March 22, 1930. The Oirat state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated

13231-514: The late Qing. By the late 19th century, the Qing Dynasty began training and creating New Army units based on Western training, equipment and organization. Nevertheless, the banner system remained in existence until the fall of the Qing in 1912, and even beyond, with a rump organization continuing to function until 1924. At the end of the Qing dynasty, all members of the Eight Banners, regardless of their original ethnicity, were considered by

13362-591: The left wing occupied the eastern banner neighborhoods and the right wing occupied the western ones. The smallest unit in a banner army was the company, or niru ( Chinese : 佐領 ; pinyin : zuǒlǐng , Mongolian : Сум ), composed nominally of 300 soldiers and their families. The term niru means "arrow" in the Manchu language, and was originally the Manchu name for a hunting party, which would be armed with bows and arrows. 15 companies (4,500 men) made up one jalan ( Chinese : 參領 ; pinyin : cānlǐng ; Mongolian : Заланг ). 4 jalan constituted

13493-418: The massive number of Han soldiers who were absorbed into the Eight Banners by both capture and defection, Ming artillery was responsible for many victories against the Qing, so the Qing established an artillery corps made out of Han soldiers in 1641 and the swelling of Han numbers in the Eight Banners led in 1642 of all Eight Han Banners being created. It was defected Han armies which conquered southern China for

13624-513: The migrating clans were seeking pastureland for their herds, scarce in the central Asian highlands. Some of the Khoshut and Ölöt tribes joined the migration almost a century later. The Kalmyk migration had reached as far as the steppes of southeastern Europe by 1630. At the time, that area was inhabited by the Nogai Horde . But under pressure from Kalmyk warriors, the Nogais fled to Crimea and

13755-484: The new land which formerly belonged to the Dzungars, was now absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial. The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols, Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of

13886-459: The oppression of czarist administration forced a larger part of Kalmyks (33,000 households or approximately 170,000 individuals) to migrate to Dzungaria. 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga River to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore

14017-580: The permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. It was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The decree was formulated by Dorgon. The Guangzhou massacre of Ming loyalist Han forces and civilians in 1650 by Qing forces, was entirely carried out by Han Bannermen led by Han generals Shang Kexi and Geng Jimao . The Qing sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga 's Ming loyalists in Fujian. The Qing carried out massive depopulation policy clearances forcing people to evacuated

14148-540: The point where Oirats called themselves "Four Oirats" while they used the term "Mongols" for those under the Khagans in the east. One of the earliest mentions of the Oirat people, in a historical text, can be found in the Secret History of the Mongols , a 13th century chronicle of Genghis Khan 's rise to power. In "The Secret History", the Oirats are counted among the "forest people", and are said to live under

14279-437: The rebels instead of Bannermen. In northwestern China against Wang Fuchen, the Qing put Bannermen in the rear as reserves while they used Han Green Standard Army soldiers and Han Generals like Zhang Liangdong, Wang Jinbao, and Zhang Yong as the primary military forces, considering Han troops as better at fighting other Han people, and these Han generals achieved victory over the rebels. Sichuan and southern Shaanxi were retaken by

14410-796: The remainder. Han Chinese secondary status bannermen made up 180 of 3,600 troop households in Ningxia while Han Chinese separate registers made up 380 out of 2,700 Manchu soldiers in Liangzhou. The result of these Han Manchus taking up military positions resulted in many Jurchen Manchus being deprived of their traditional positions as soldiers in the Banner armies, resulting in the Han Manchus supplanting Jurchen Manchus economic and social status.These Han Manchus were said to be good military troops and their skills at marching and archery were up to par so that

14541-721: The request of the Gelug school, in 1637, Güshi Khan , the leader of the Khoshuts in Koko Nor, defeated Choghtu Khong Tayiji , the Khalkha prince who supported the Karma Kagyu school, and conquered Amdo (present-day Qinghai ). The unification of Tibet followed in the early 1640s, with Güshi Khan proclaimed Khan of Tibet by the 5th Dalai Lama and the establishment of the Khoshut Khanate . The title " Dalai Lama " itself

14672-455: The rise of another Oirat empire in the east, known as the Khanate of Dzungaria , which stretched from the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan , and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia . It was the last empire of nomads , and was ruled by Choros noblemen. The Transition from Ming to Qing dynasties in China occurred in the mid-17th century, and

14803-560: The rule of a shaman-chief known as bäki . They lived in Tuva and the Mongolian Khövsgöl Province ; the Oirats moved south in the 14th century. In one famous passage, the Oirat chief Qutuqa Beki used a yada , or 'thunder stone', to unleash a powerful storm on Genghis' army. The magical ploy backfired, however, when an unexpected wind blew the storm back towards him. During the early stages of Genghis' rise to power,

14934-495: The shift towards the Russian language continues. According to the Russian 2010 Census there were 176,800 Kalmyks, of whom only 80,546 could speak the Kalmyk language, a serious decline from the level of the 2002 Census , in which the number of speakers was 153,602 (with a total number of 173,996 people). The Soviet 1989 Census showed 156,386 Kalmyk-speakers with a total number of 173,821 Kalmyks. The Mongols of Xinjiang form

15065-608: The southwestern end of Lake Issyk-kul in present-day Kyrgyzstan . In addition to exiling Han criminals to Xinjiang to be slaves of the Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to

15196-467: The support of the majority of Han soldiers and Han elite against the Three Feudatories, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the Eight Banners and Manchu officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000 Han (non-Banner) instead of the Eight Banners, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by

15327-574: The upper three Manchu Banners and having "giya" 佳 appended to the end of their surname to Manchufy it. It typically occurred in cases of intermarriage with the Qing Aisin Gioro Imperial family, and the close relatives (fathers and brothers) of the concubine or Empress would get promoted from the Han Banner to the Manchu Banner and become Manchu. The Han Bannerwoman Empress Xiaoyichun and her entire family were transferred to

15458-585: The use of the Oirat language in the region. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population was wiped out by a combination of warfare and disease during the Manchu Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1755–1757 . The Zunghar population reached 600,000 in 1755. Most of the Choros, Olot , Khoid , Baatud , and Zakhchin Oirats who battled against the Qing were killed by Manchu soldiers and, after

15589-408: The well-paid Bannerman spent their time gambling and theatergoing. Subsidizing the 1.5 million men, women and children in the system was an expensive proposition, compounded by embezzlement and corruption. Destitution in the northeastern garrisons led many Manchu Bannermen to abandon their posts and in response the Qing government either sentenced them with penal slavery or death. In the 19th century,

15720-484: The westernmost group of the Mongols , whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of Siberia , Xinjiang and western Mongolia . The first documented reference to Elut and Yelut was in the Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century. Historically, the Oirats were composed of four major tribes: Dzungar (Choros or Olots / Elut / Yelut / Èlǔtè ), Torghut , Dörbet and Khoshut . The political elite of

15851-663: Was afraid of the Zunghar and wanted the Qing government to allow them to move away from the border. They were settled in Dalan Uul–Altan. When Denzen died in 1740, his son Lubsan Darjaa succeeded him and became Beil. In 1753, they were settled on the banks of the Ejin River and the Ejin River Torghut 'khoshuu' was thus formed. Eight Banners Qing conquest of Ming Qing invasion of Joseon Revolt of

15982-494: Was bestowed upon the third lama of the Gelug tulku lineage by Altan Khan (not to be confused with the Altan Khans of the Khalkha ), and means, in Mongolian, "Ocean of Wisdom". Amdo, meanwhile, became home to the Khoshuts. In 1717, the Dzungars invaded Tibet and killed Lha-bzang Khan (or Khoshut Khan ), a grandson of Güshi Khan and the fourth Khan of Tibet, and conquered the Khoshut Khanate . The Qing Empire defeated

16113-529: Was furious at the Manchus who adopted Han Chinese as their sons from slave and bondservant families in exchange for money and expressed his displeasure at them adopting Han Chinese instead of other Manchus. These Han Chinese who infiltrated the Manchu Banners by adoption were known as "secondary-status bannermen" and "false Manchus" or "separate-register Manchus", and there were eventually so many of these Han Chinese that they took over military positions in

16244-813: Was in Beijing from his youth, served as bodyguard of the Emperor, and a princess (of the Emperor) was given to him, thus making him a 'Khoshoi Tavnan', i.e. Emperor's groom. In 1793, Abuu became Jün Wang. There are several thousand Muslim Alasha Mongols. Mongols who lived along the Ejin River ( Ruo Shui ) descended from Rabjur, a grandson of Torghut Ayuka Khan from the Volga River. In 1698, Rabjur, with his mother, younger sister and 500 people, went to Tibet to pray. While they were returning via Beijing in 1704,

16375-528: Was killed; shortly afterwards, Oirat power declined. From the 14th until the middle of the 18th century, the Oirats were often at war with the Eastern Mongols , but reunited with them during the rule of Dayan Khan and Tümen Zasagt Khan . The Oirats converted to Tibetan Buddhism around 1615, and it was not long before they participated in the conflict between the Gelug and Karma Kagyu schools. At

16506-434: Was not executed. In the late 19th century and early 1900s, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for higher financial status. From the time China was brought under the rule of the Qing dynasty, the banner soldiers became more professional and bureaucratized. Once

16637-427: Was proposed by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam". Xinjiang as a unified defined geographic identity was created and developed by the Qing. It was the Qing who led to Turkic Muslim power in the region increasing since the Mongol power was crushed by the Qing while Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing. Qianlong explicitly commemorated

16768-439: Was rarely as great a degree of unity among larger numbers of tribes as among the Oirats. In the 17th century, Zaya Pandita , a Gelug monk of the Khoshut tribe, devised a new writing system called Clear Script for use by Oirats. This system was developed on the basis of the older Mongolian script , but had a more developed system of diacritics to preclude misreading and reflected some lexical and grammatical differences of

16899-550: Was to have a red border, except for the Bordered Red Banner, which had a white border instead. The banner armies expanded rapidly after a string of military victories under Nurhaci and his successors. Beginning in the late 1620s, the Jurchens incorporated allied and conquered Mongol tribes into the Eight Banner system. In 1635, Hong Taiji, son of Nurhaci, renamed his people from Jurchen to Manchu. That same year

17030-400: Was to have the Dzungar leader Amursana as its Khan. Amursana rejected the Qing arrangement and rebelled since he wanted to be leader of a united Dzungar nation. Qianlong then issued his orders for the genocide and eradication of the entire Dzungar nation and name. Qing Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha (Eastern) Mongols enslaved Dzungar women and children while slaying the other Dzungars. In 1755,

17161-676: Was unveiled on the 400th anniversary of Zaya Pandita's birth, and on 350th anniversary of his creation of the Clear Script. The Oirats share some history, geography, culture and language with the Eastern Mongols , and were at various times united under the same leader as a larger Mongol entity, whether that ruler was of Oirat descent or of Chingissids . Comprising the Khoshut ( Mongolian : "хошууд", hošuud ), Choros or Ölöt ("өөлд", Ööld ), Torghut ("торгууд", Torguud ), and Dörbet ("дөрвөд", Dörvöd ) ethnic groups, they were dubbed Kalmyk or Kalmak, which means "remnant" or "to remain", by their western Turkic neighbours. Various sources also list

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