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122-450: Khandayat , also spelled Khandait , is a cultivating caste, as well as a peasant militia or landed militia caste from Odisha , East India. Some of them had earlier served as feudal chiefs as well as zamindars apart from being land holders and agriculturalists. Numerically they are the largest caste of the state. The term Khandayat is believed to have originated from the word " Khanda " meaning sword. Khandayat means swordsman or headman of
244-634: A Food and Agriculture Organization -recognised rice gene bank and research institute, is situated on the banks of Mahanadi in Cuttack . The stretch between Puri and Bhadrak in Odisha juts out a little into the sea, making it vulnerable to any cyclonic activity. Three-quarters of the state is covered in mountain ranges. Deep and broad valleys have been made in them by rivers. These valleys have fertile soil and are densely populated. Odisha also has plateaus and rolling uplands , which have lower elevation than
366-654: A Khand . Early mention of Khandayats as feudal chief and military personnel is found during the rule of eastern ganga dynasty in 11th century. During this time, Khandayat military settlements were established in Bhubaneswar and nearby areas to protect the Great Lingaraj Temple. During the medieval period, this class of peasant warriors or landed militia acquired good amounts of agricultural land and some of them became local zamindars. Fakir Mohan Senapati, while quoting Abul Fazal, mentioned Khandayats as
488-519: A 10 MT steel plant in Odisha, too. Nippon Steel Corporation has recently announced to set up their own plants, one of which will be the world's largest and most advanced steel plant in Odisha, with a production capacity of 30 MT annually. Bandhabahal is a major area of open cast coal mines in Odisha. The state is attracting an unprecedented amount of investment in aluminium, coal-based power plants, petrochemicals, and information technology as well. In power generation, Reliance Power (Anil Ambani Group)
610-610: A Revenue Divisional Commissioner (RDC). The position of the RDC in the administrative hierarchy is that between that of the district administration and the state secretariat. The RDCs report to the Board of Revenue, which is headed by a senior officer of the Indian Administrative Service . Each district is governed by a collector and district magistrate, who is appointed from the Indian Administrative Service or
732-530: A brief debate, the lower house, Lok Sabha , passed the bill and amendment on 9 November 2010. On 24 March 2011, Rajya Sabha , the upper house of Parliament , also passed the bill and the amendment. The changes in spelling were made with the intention of having the English and Hindi renditions conform to the Odia transliteration. However, the underlying Odia texts were nevertheless transliterated incorrectly as per
854-524: A campaign at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the Nanda capital. He then refined his strategy by establishing garrisons in the conquered territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra. There Dhana Nanda accepted defeat. The conquest was fictionalised in Mudrarakshasa play, it contains narratives not found in other versions of
976-674: A chiefly winter-time road—the Uttarapath—;which connected eastern Afghanistan to their capital Patliputra during the time of year when the water levels in the intersecting rivers were low and they could be easily forded . Other roads connected the Ganges basin to Arabian Sea coast in the west, and precious metal -rich mines in the south. The population of South Asia during the Mauryan period has been estimated to be between 15 and 30 million. The empire's period of dominion
1098-535: A coastline of 485 kilometres (301 mi). It has one major port at Paradip and few minor ports. some of them are: Major cities of Odisha are well connected to all the major cities of India by direct daily trains and weekly trains. Most of the railway network in Odisha lies under the jurisdiction of the East Coast Railway (ECoR) with headquarters at Bhubaneswar and some parts under South Eastern Railway and South East Central Railway . According to
1220-592: A feature of Indian society that continues to influence the Indian politics till today. Historians theorise that the organisation of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by Chanakya in the Arthashastra : a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been one of
1342-485: A fifth of India's coal, a quarter of its iron ore, a third of its bauxite reserves and most of the chromite . Rourkela Steel Plant was the first integrated steel plant in the public sector in India, built with collaboration of Germany . Arcelor-Mittal has also announced plans to invest in another mega steel project amounting to $ 10 billion. Russian major Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Company (MMK) plans to set up
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#17327873837541464-415: A fortification there and securing it as a possession. Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and citizen militias, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Imperial Mauryan soldiers. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed
1586-635: A landowning caste that dominated the politics and military of Gajapati Empire . Mughal chronicler Ain-i-Akbari gave a clear picture of Odisha after the breakdown of the Gajapati Empire. It mentioned different forts ruled by Khandayat Zamindars along with their King Mukund Dev. The British conquered Odisha in 1803 and implemented land reforms to increase tax revenue. Khandayats enjoyed tax-free lands in Khurda Kingdom in strictly military tenure. But after their Paika Rebellion, they lost most of
1708-504: A large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India. The Edicts of Ashoka , set in stone, are found throughout
1830-464: A large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan . Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka . He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between
1952-554: A later stage converted to Jainism ), Bindusara believed in the Ajivika religion. Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin of the Ajivika religion. Bindusara's wife, Empress Subhadrangi was a Brahmin also of the Ajivika religion from Champa (present Bhagalpur district ). Bindusara is credited with giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries ( Brahmana-bhatto ). Historical evidence suggests that Bindusara died in
2074-515: A major part of the Indian sub-continent. Kharavela was a Jain ruler. He also built the monastery atop the Udayagiri hill. Subsequently, the region was ruled by monarchs, such as Samudragupta and Shashanka . It was also a part of Harsha 's empire. The city of Brahmapur in Odisha is also known to have been the capital of the Pauravas during the closing years of 4th century CE. Nothing
2196-653: A majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The 147 elected representatives are called Members of the Legislative Assembly , or MLAs. One MLA may be nominated from the Anglo-Indian community by
2318-480: A model that also applies to the Maurya Empire. Kulke and Rothermunf agree with her approach, noting that Ashoka's inscriptions reveal a regional pattern, demarcating the five parts of the empire, whereas the major rock edicts have only been found in the frontier provinces, but are absent in the centre. Inscriptions and rock edicts are entirely absent in large parts of the territories supposedly under control of
2440-596: A new Expressway that will connect Biju Patnaik International Airport airport at Bhubaneswar with the proposed Shri Jagannath International Airport at Puri. Odisha has a total of three operational airports, 16 airstrips and 16 helipads. The airport at Jharsuguda was upgraded to a full-fledged domestic airport in May 2018. Rourkela Airport became operational in December 2022.The Dhamra Port Company Limited plans to build Dhamra Airport 20 km from Dhamra Port . Odisha has
2562-470: A region where peacocks ( mora in Pali ) were abundant. Therefore, they came to be known as "Moriyas", literally meaning, "belonging to the place of peacocks". According to another Buddhist account, these ancestors built a city called Moriya-nagara ("Peacock-city"), which was so called, because it was built with the "bricks coloured like peacocks' necks". The dynasty's connection to the peacocks, as mentioned in
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#17327873837542684-921: A result of the Second Carnatic War by 1760, and incorporated them into the Madras Presidency gradually. In 1803, the British ousted the Marathas from the Puri-Cuttack region of Odisha during the Second Anglo-Maratha War . The northern and western districts of Odisha were incorporated into the Bengal Presidency . The Orissa famine of 1866 caused an estimated 1 million deaths. Following this, large-scale irrigation projects were undertaken. In 1903,
2806-588: A rural game practicing a pitched battle. One of the boys was none other than Chandragupta. Chanakya was impressed by the young Chandragupta and saw imperial qualities in him as someone fit to rule. Meanwhile, Alexander the Great was leading his Indian campaigns and ventured into Punjab. His army mutinied at the Beas River and refused to advance farther eastward when confronted by another army. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of
2928-631: A single kingdom. Yayati II is supposed to have built the Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneswar . They were replaced by the Eastern Ganga dynasty . Notable rulers of the dynasty were Anantavarman Chodaganga , who began reconstruction on the present-day Shri Jagannath Temple in Puri (c. 1135), and Narasimhadeva I , who constructed the Konark temple (c. 1250). The Eastern Ganga Dynasty was followed by
3050-541: A very senior officer from Odisha Administrative Service. The collector and district magistrate is responsible for collecting the revenue and maintaining law and order in the district. Each district is separated into sub-divisions, each governed by a sub-collector and sub-divisional magistrate. The sub-divisions are further divided into tahasils. The tahasils are headed by tahasildar. Odisha has 58 sub-divisions, 317 tahasils and 314 blocks. Blocks consists of Panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities. The capital of
3172-547: A young man he is said to have met Alexander. Chanakya is said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape. Historically reliable details of Chandragupta's campaign against Nanda Empire are unavailable and legends written centuries later are inconsistent. Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts claim Magadha was ruled by the Nanda dynasty , which, with Chanakya 's counsel, Chandragupta conquered Nanda Empire. The army of Chandragupta and Chanakya first conquered
3294-464: A young prince, Ashoka ( r. 272–232 BCE) was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As emperor he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (262–261 BCE) which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Ashoka used Kalinga to project power over a large region by building
3416-503: Is also found in this region. Chilika Lake is a brackish water lagoon on the east coast of Odisha with an area of 1,105 km . It is connected to the Bay of Bengal by a 35-km-long narrow channel and is a part of the Mahanadi delta. In the dry season, the tides bring in salt water. In the rainy season, the rivers falling into the lagoon decrease its salinity. Birds from places as far as
3538-659: Is also home for tiny red crabs. According to a census conducted in 2016, there are around 2000 elephants in the state. All states in India are governed by a parliamentary system of government based on universal adult franchise . The main parties active in the politics of Odisha are the Biju Janata Dal , the Indian National Congress and Bharatiya Janata Party . Following the Odisha State Assembly Election in 2019 ,
3660-521: Is attested by the following sources: According to some scholars, Kharavela's Hathigumpha inscription (2nd-1st century BC) mentions era of Maurya Empire as Muriya Kala (Mauryan era), but this reading is disputed: other scholars—such as epigraphist D. C. Sircar —read the phrase as mukhiya-kala ("the principal art"). According to the Buddhist tradition, the ancestors of the Maurya kings had settled in
3782-472: Is experiencing a rapid economic growth post-Covid. The impressive growth in gross domestic product of the state has been reported by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. Odisha's growth rate is above the national average. The central Government's Urban Development Ministry has recently announced the names of 20 cities selected to be developed as smart cities . The state capital Bhubaneswar
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3904-403: Is gradually losing its wilderness areas to timber smuggling , deforestation , destructive mining, and general urban industrialisation, as well as livestock grazing . There have been attempts at conservation and reforestation . Due to the climate and good rainfall, Odisha's evergreen and moist forests are uniquely suitable habitats for wild orchids . Around 130 species have been reported from
4026-551: Is known about another son, Jalauka . The empire lost many territories under Dasharatha, which were later reconquered by Samprati , Kunala's son. Post Samprati, the Mauryas slowly lost many territories. In 180 BCE, Brihadratha Maurya , was killed by his general , Pushyamitra Shunga in a military parade without any heir. Hence, the great Maurya Empire finally ended, giving rise to the Shunga Empire . Reasons advanced for
4148-638: Is putting up the world's largest power plant with an investment of US$ 13 billion at Hirma in Jharsuguda district . In 2009 Odisha was the second top domestic investment destination with Gujarat first and Andhra Pradesh in third place according to an analysis of ASSOCHAM Investment Meter (AIM) study on corporate investments. Odisha's share was 12.6 per cent in total investment in the country. It received an investment proposal worth ₹ 2.01 trillion (equivalent to ₹ 4.5 trillion or US$ 54 billion in 2023) in 2010. Steel and power were among
4270-507: Is said to have lived as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for several years before fasting to death, as per the Jain practice of sallekhana . Bindusara was born to Chandragupta , the founder of the Mauryan Empire. This is attested by several sources, including the various Puranas and the Mahāvaṃsa . He is attested by the Buddhist texts such as Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa ("Bindusaro");
4392-600: Is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa ( Signet ring of Rakshasa – Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Vishakhadatta , describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts , Mahāparinibbāna Sutta . However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "Sandrokottos". As
4514-522: Is the first city in the list of smart Cities released in January 2016, a pet project of the Indian Government. The announcement also marked with sanction of Rs 508.02 billion over the five years for development. Odisha has abundant natural resources and a large coastline. Odisha has emerged as the most preferred destination for overseas investors with investment proposals. It contains
4636-562: Is the primary tree species. For fauna, the park is home to around 55 species of mammal , including the Bengal tiger , chital , chousingha , common langur , gaur , Indian elephant , Indian giant squirrel , jungle cat , leopard , muntjac , sambar , small Indian civet and wild boar . There are over 300 species of birds in the park, such as the common hill myna , as well as grey , Indian pied and Malabar pied hornbills . There are also some 60 species of reptiles and amphibians, including
4758-617: Is the world's largest nesting site for olive ridley sea turtles . In 2013, the Indian Coast Guard initiated Operation Oliver to protect the endangered sea turtle population of the region. Other major nesting grounds for the turtle in the state are Rushikulya , in Ganjam district , and the mouth of the Devi river . The Bhitarkanika sanctuary is also noted for its large population of saltwater crocodiles and Asian water monitors ,
4880-598: The Vishnu Purana ), state that the word "Maurya" is derived from Mura and the mother of the first Maurya emperor. However, the Puranas themselves make no mention of Mura and do not talk of any relation between the Nanda and the Maurya dynasties. Dhundiraja's derivation of the word seems to be his own invention: according to the Sanskrit rules, the derivative of the feminine name Mura ( IAST : Murā) would be "Maureya";
5002-481: The 2011 Census of India , Odisha accounted for approximately 3% of India's total population. The state had a population of 41,974,218, with 21,212,136 males (50.54%) and 20,762,082 females (49.46%), resulting in a sex ratio of 978 females per 1,000 males. This marked a growth rate of 13.97% during the 2001-2011 period, a decline from 16.25% in the previous decade (1991-2001). The population density stood at 269 people per square kilometer, with Ganjam district having
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5124-592: The Caspian Sea , Lake Baikal (and other parts of Russia), Central Asia , Southeast Asia , Ladakh and the Himalayas migrate to the lagoon in winter. Among the waterfowl and wading birds spotted there are Eurasian wigeon , pintail , bar-headed goose , greylag goose , greater flamingo , common mallard and Goliath heron . The lagoon also has a small population of the endangered Irrawaddy dolphins . The state's coastal region has also had sightings of
5246-547: The Gajapati Kingdom . The region resisted integration into the Mughal empire until 1568, when it was conquered by Sultanate of Bengal . Mukunda Deva, who is considered the last independent king of Kalinga, was defeated and was killed in battle by a rebel Ramachandra Bhanja. Ramachandra Bhanja himself was killed by Bayazid Khan Karrani . In 1591, Man Singh I , then governor of Bihar , led an army to take Odisha from
5368-541: The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . Some historians, such as Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri , have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as Romila Thapar , have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated". Buddhist records such as the Ashokavadana write that the assassination of Brihadratha and the rise of
5490-523: The Hunterian system , the official national transliteration standard, in which the transliterations would be Orisha and Oria instead. Prehistoric Acheulian tools dating to Lower Paleolithic era have been discovered in various places in the region, implying an early settlement by humans. Kalinga has been mentioned in ancient texts like Mahabharata , Vayu Purana and Mahagovinda Suttanta . According to political scientist Sudama Misra,
5612-704: The Indus River . Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented into independent kingdoms ruled by his generals. "India, after the death of Alexander, had shaken off the yoke of servitude from its neck and put his governors to death. The author of this liberation was Sandrocottus." Justin The Maurya Empire was established in the Magadha region under the leadership of Chandragupta Maurya and his mentor Chanakya. Chandragupta
5734-666: The Kalinga War , coincides with the borders of modern-day Odisha. The modern boundaries of Odisha were demarcated by the British Indian government, the Orissa Province was established on 1 April 1936, consisting of the Odia-speaking districts of Bihar and Orissa Province , Madras Presidency and Central Provinces . Utkala Dibasa ( lit. ' Odisha Day ' ) is celebrated on 1 April. Cuttack
5856-652: The Karranis of Bengal . They agreed to treaty because their leader Qutlu Khan Lohani had recently died. But they then broke the treaty by attacking the temple town of Puri . Man Singh returned in 1592 and pacified the region. In 1751, the Nawab of Bengal Alivardi Khan ceded the region to the Maratha Empire . The British had occupied the Northern Circars , comprising the southern coast of Odisha, as
5978-504: The Naveen Patnaik -led Biju Janata Dal stayed in power for the sixth consecutive term until 2024. Currently, BJP , who won for the first time, formed the government after winning the majority in 2024 Odisha Legislative Assembly election . He is the 17th Chief Minister of Odisha. The Odisha state has a unicameral legislature. The Odisha Legislative Assembly consists of 147 elected members, and special office bearers such as
6100-606: The Utkal Sammilani organisation was founded to demand the unification of Odia -speaking regions into one state. On 1 April 1912, the Bihar and Orissa Province was formed. On 1 April 1936, Bihar and Orissa were split into separate provinces. The new province of Orissa came into existence on a linguistic basis during the British rule in India, with Sir John Austen Hubback as the first governor. Following India's independence , on 15 August 1947, 27 princely states signed
6222-468: The Viceroy of Avantirastra during his father's reign, which highlights the importance of the province. Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the medieval Tibetan scholar Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy the nobles and kings of
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#17327873837546344-563: The 270s BCE. According to Upinder Singh, Bindusara died around 273 BCE. Alain Daniélou believes that he died around 274 BCE. Sailendra Nath Sen believes that he died around 273–272 BCE, and that his death was followed by a four-year struggle of succession, after which his son Ashoka became the emperor in 269–268 BCE. According to the Mahāvaṃsa , Bindusara reigned for 28 years. The Vayu Purana , which names Chandragupta's successor as "Bhadrasara", states that he ruled for 25 years. As
6466-612: The Buddhist and Jain traditions, seems to be corroborated by archaeological evidence. For example, peacock figures are found on the Ashoka pillar at Nandangarh and several sculptures on the Great Stupa of Sanchi . Based on this evidence, modern scholars theorize that the peacock may have been the dynasty's emblem. Some later authors, such as Dhundhi-raja (an 18th-century commentator on the Mudrarakshasa and an annotator of
6588-526: The Chanakya-Chandragupta legend. Because of this difference, Thomas Trautmann suggests that most of it is fictional or legendary, without any historical basis. Radha Kumud Mukherjee similarly considers Mudrakshasa play without historical basis. These legends state that the Nanda emperor was defeated, deposed and exiled by some accounts, while Buddhist accounts claim he was killed. With the defeat of Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded
6710-612: The Empire and instil stability and peace across West and South Asia. .Even though large parts were under the control of Mauryan empire the spread of information and imperial messages was limited since many parts were inaccessible and were situated far away from capital of empire. For the first time in South Asia , political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to
6832-465: The Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenistic world at the time such as Amtiyoko ( Antiochus II Theos ), Tulamaya ( Ptolemy II ), Amtikini ( Antigonos II ), Maka ( Magas ) and Alikasudaro ( Alexander II of Epirus ) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (1 yojana being about 7 miles), corresponding to
6954-504: The Hellenic world. Deimachus was the ambassador of Seleucid king Antiochus I at Bindusara's court. Diodorus states that the king of Palibothra ( Pataliputra , the Mauryan capital) welcomed a Greek author, Iambulus . This king is usually identified as Bindusara. Pliny states that the Ptolemaic king Philadelphus sent an envoy named Dionysius to India. According to Sailendra Nath Sen, this appears to have happened during Bindusara's reign. Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at
7076-468: The Jain texts such as Parishishta-Parvan ; as well as the Hindu texts such as Vishnu Purana ("Vindusara"). According to the 12th century Jain writer Hemachandra 's Parishishta-Parvan , the name of Bindusara's mother was Durdhara . Some Greek sources also mention him by the name "Amitrochates" or its variations. Historian Upinder Singh estimates that Bindusara ascended the throne around 297 BCE. Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited
7198-405: The Kalinga janapada originally comprised the area covered by the Puri and Ganjam districts. The Sabar people of Odisha have also been mentioned in the Mahabharata. Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as not yet being influenced by Vedic traditions, implying it followed mostly tribal traditions. Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty conquered Kalinga in the bloody Kalinga War in 261 BCE, which
7320-407: The Maurya Empire. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, Chandragupta led a series of campaigns to take satrapies in the Indus Valley and northwest India. When Alexander's remaining forces were routed, returning westwards, Seleucus I Nicator fought to defend these territories. Not many details of the campaigns are known from ancient sources. Seleucus was defeated and retreated into
7442-442: The Nanda outer territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra . In contrast to the easy victory in Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army. The Buddhist Mahavamsa Tika and Jain Parishishtaparvan records Chandragupta's army unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital. Chandragupta and Chanakya then began
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#17327873837547564-415: The Shunga empire led to a wave of religious persecution for Buddhists , and a resurgence of Hinduism . According to Sir John Marshall , Pushyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Shunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte and Romila Thapar , among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favour of
7686-425: The Speaker and Deputy Speaker, who are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker, or by the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister , although the titular head of government is the Governor of Odisha . The governor is appointed by the President of India . The leader of the party or coalition with
7808-447: The Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra ( Nellore District ), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in Greek , and one in both Greek and Aramaic . Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas , and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to
7930-466: The allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated. The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius capitalized on the breakup, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of northwestern India around 180 BCE, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom . The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on
8052-422: The ancient Prakrit word "Odda Visaya" (also " Udra Bibhasha " or " Odra Bibhasha ") as in the Tirumalai inscription of Rajendra Chola I , which is dated to 1025. Sarala Das , who translated the Mahabharata into the Odia language in the 15th century, calls the region 'Odra Rashtra' as Odisha. The inscriptions of Kapilendra Deva of the Gajapati Kingdom (1435–67) on the walls of temples in Puri call
8174-406: The average literacy rate is 70.22%, compared to 85.57% in urban areas. Among the Scheduled Tribe population, the literacy rate is 52.24%. Maurya Empire The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in South Asia based in Magadha . Founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, it existed in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE. The primary sources for
8296-432: The capital of the Nanda Empire where Chanakya worked for the Nandas as a minister . However, Chanakya was insulted by the King Dhana Nanda when he informed them of Alexander's invasion. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire. He had to flee in order to save his life and went to Taxila , a notable center of learning, to work as a teacher. On one of his travels, Chanakya witnessed some young men playing
8418-559: The central Government of India. Traditionally, they are a peasant militia caste who claim themselves to be of Kshatriya status considering their quasi-martial background, but they were considered by the Brahmins and others to be in the Shudra varna category due to the majority of Khandayats being peasants. Pradhan also attributes this to Brahmin patronage of Rajputs , who also claimed to be of Kshatriya status. Odisha Odisha ( English : / ə ˈ d ɪ s ə / ; Odia: [oɽiˈsa] ), formerly Orissa (
8540-474: The city seems to have had many similarities with Persian cities of the period. Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described how areas south of the Deccan Plateau which comprised Tamilakam was invaded by the Mauryan Army using troops from Karnataka. Mamulanar states that Vadugar (people who resided in Andhra-Karnataka regions immediately to
8662-443: The core regions, the empire's geographical extent was dependent on the loyalty of military commanders who controlled the armed cities scattered within it. The Mauryan economy was helped by the earlier rise of Buddhism and Jainism —creeds that promoted nonviolence, proscribed ostentation, or superfluous sacrifices and rituals, and reduced the costs of economic transactions; by coinage that increased economic accommodation in
8784-401: The decline include the succession of weak emperors after Ashoka Maurya, the partition of the empire into two, the growing independence of some areas within the empire, such as that ruled by Sophagasenus , a top-heavy administration where authority was entirely in the hands of a few persons, an absence of any national consciousness, the pure scale of the empire making it unwieldy, and invasion by
8906-441: The devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries. He also propagated his own dhamma . Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and abolishing slave trade . While he maintained
9028-474: The distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles). Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker emperors. He was succeeded by Dasharatha Maurya , who was Ashoka's grandson. None of Ashoka's sons could ascend to the throne after him. Mahinda , his firstborn, became a Buddhist monk. Kunala Maurya was blinded and hence couldn't ascend to the throne; and Tivala , son of Karuvaki , died even earlier than Ashoka. Little
9150-610: The document to join Orissa. Most of the Orissa Tributary States , a group of princely states, acceded to Orissa in 1948, after the collapse of the Eastern States Union . Odisha lies between the latitudes 17.780N and 22.730N, and between longitudes 81.37E and 87.53E. The state has an area of 155,707 km , which is 4.87% of total area of India, and a coastline of 450 km. In the eastern part of
9272-498: The eastern parts of Gedrosia , and possibly also Arachosia and Aria as far as Herat." Seleucus I received the 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes , Deimachus and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court. Megasthenes in particular
9394-443: The emperor to whom tribute was paid by the laboring class. In return the emperor supplied the laborers with agricultural products, animals, seeds, tools, public infrastructure, and stored food in reserve for times of crisis. The economy of the empire has also been described as "a socialized monarchy", "a sort of state socialism", and the world's first welfare state . Arthashastra and Megasthenes accounts of Pataliputra describe
9516-409: The empire, which means that "large parts of present Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh as well as Kerala and Tamil Nadu were not actually included in the Maurya empire." Controlling the main trade routes was essential for the empire, as they were threatened by undefeated tribes inhabiting large parts of the interior. Under the Mauryan system there was no private ownership of land as all land was owned by
9638-655: The famed king cobra , plus banded krait and tricarinate hill turtle . There is also a mugger crocodile breeding programme in nearby Ramtirtha. The Chandaka Elephant Sanctuary is a 190 km protected area near the capital city, Bhubaneswar. However, urban expansion and over-grazing have reduced the forests, driving the herds of elephants to migrate away, as well as increasing human-elephant conflicts—which sometimes results in injury and death (on both sides). Some elephants have died in conflicts with villagers, while some have died during migration after being accidentally electrocuted by power lines or even hit by trains. Outside
9760-624: The free-hold lands. During British rule, some wealthy people from communities such as Adivasis , Bhuyans , Chasas , and Agharias started identifying as Khandayats in order to gain status, distance themselves from their original castes/communities, and exploit Zamindar land rights. Currently, the Odia Khandayat caste is recognised by the Government of Odisha among the socially and educationally backward classes (SEBC), though they are not entitled to any reservation benefit provided by
9882-710: The governor. The term of the office is for five years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. The judiciary is composed of the Odisha High Court , located at Cuttack, and a system of lower courts. Odisha has been divided into 30 districts. These 30 districts have been placed under three different revenue divisions to streamline their governance. The divisions are North, Central and South, with their headquarters at Sambalpur , Cuttack and Berhampur respectively. Each division consists of ten districts and has as its administrative head
10004-475: The highest population among all districts in Odisha. In contrast, Debagarh district has the lowest population. The population in the age group of 0–6 years comprised 12% of the total population, with a child sex ratio of 934 females for every 1,000 males in this age group. Additionally, Scheduled Castes (SC) constituted a population of 7.2 million, making up 16.5% of the total population, while Scheduled Tribes (ST) accounted for 9.6 million, representing 22.1% of
10126-421: The imperial capital at Pataliputra , and several former mahajanapadas next to it formed the center, which was directly ruled by the emperor's administration. The other territories were divided into four provinces, ruled by princes who served as governors. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in
10248-806: The intricate municipal system formed by Maurya empire to govern its cities. A city counsel made up of thirty commissioners was divided into six committees or boards which governed the city. The first board fixed wages and looked after provided goods, second board made arrangement for foreign dignitaries, tourists and businessmen, third board made records and registrations, fourth looked after manufactured goods and sale of commodities, fifth board regulated trade, issued licenses and checked weights and measurements, sixth board collected sales taxes. Some cities such as Taxila had autonomy to issue their own coins. The city counsel had officers who looked after public welfare such as maintenance of roads, public buildings, markets, hospitals, educational institutions etc. The official head of
10370-499: The largest armies in the world during the Iron Age . According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants besides followers and attendants. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect
10492-563: The modern era by James Prinsep after he had deciphered the Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts in 1838. Through military conquests and diplomatic treaties, Chandragupta extended his suzerainty as far westward as Afghanistan below the Hindu Kush and as far south as the northern Deccan ; however, beyond the core Magadha area, the prevailing levels of technology and infrastructure limited how deeply his rule could penetrate society. During
10614-462: The modern era by James Prinsep after he had deciphered the Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts in 1838. Prior to the Maurya Empire, the Nanda Empire ruled the Ganges basin and some adjacent territories. The Nanda Empire was a large, militaristic, and economically powerful empire due to conquering the mahajanapadas . According to several legends, Chanakya travelled to Pataliputra , Magadha ,
10736-470: The mountainous region of Afghanistan. The two rulers concluded a peace treaty in 303 BCE, including a marital alliance. According to Grant, under its terms, Seleucus Nicator ceded the Hindu Kush, Punjab and parts of Afghanistan to Chandragupta Maurya. According to Kosmin, "Seleucus transferred to Chandragupta's kingdom the easternmost satrapies of his empire, certainly Gandhara , Parapamisadae , and
10858-709: The north of Tamil Nadu) formed the vanguard of the Mauryan Army. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Deimachus . According to Plutarch , Chandragupta Maurya subdued all of India, and Justin also observed that Chandragupta Maurya was "in possession of India". These accounts are corroborated by Tamil Sangam literature which mentions about Mauryan invasion with their south Indian allies and defeat of their rivals at Podiyil hill in Tirunelveli district in present-day Tamil Nadu . Chandragupta renounced his throne and followed Jain teacher Bhadrabahu . He
10980-839: The northwest). The head of the provincial administration was the Kumar (prince), who governed the provinces as emperor's representative. The kumara was assisted by mahamatyas (great ministers) and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers). . The Mauryans established a well developed coin minting system. Coins were mostly made of silver and copper. Certain gold coins were in circulation as well. The coins were widely used for trade and commerce Monica Smith notes that historiography has tended to view ancient states as vast territories, whereas they are better understood as networks of centers of power,
11102-519: The official name until 2011 ), is an Indian state located in Eastern India . It is the eighth-largest state by area , and the eleventh-largest by population , with over 41 million inhabitants. The state also has the third-largest population of Scheduled Tribes in India . It neighbours the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal to the north, Chhattisgarh to the west, and Andhra Pradesh to
11224-645: The period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath is the State Emblem of the Republic of India , and the 24-pointed Buddhist Wheel of Dharma on the capital's drum-shaped abacus , is the central feature of India's national flag. The name "Maurya" does not occur in Ashoka's inscriptions , or the contemporary Greek accounts such as Megasthenes 's Indica , but it
11346-501: The plateaus. The highest point in the state is Deomali at 1,672 metres in Koraput district . Some other high peaks are: Sinkaram (1,620 m), Golikoda (1,617 m), and Yendrika (1,582 metres). The state experiences four meteorological seasons : winter (January to February), pre-monsoon season (March to May), south-west monsoon season (June to September) and north east monsoon season (October–December). However, locally
11468-410: The population. According to the 2011 Census, Odisha's overall literacy rate is 72.87%. Male literacy stands at 81.59%, while female literacy is recorded at 64.01%. Odisha's literacy rate is slightly below the national average of 74.04%. Literacy rates vary within the state, with Khordha district having the highest literacy rate at 86.88%, while Nabarangpur has the lowest at 46.43%. In rural areas,
11590-460: The potential to become a trillion-dollar economy by 2030. Odisha has a network of roads, railways, airports and seaports. Bhubaneswar is well connected by air, rail and road with the rest of India. Some highways are getting expanded to four lanes. Odisha Government Plans Mega Metro Rail Project to Connect Puri and Bhubaneswar The metro rail proposal was given to connect trains between Puri- Bhubaneswar – Cuttack. The Odisha government has planned
11712-688: The protected area, they are killed by ivory poachers . In 2002, there were about 80 elephants, but by 2012, their numbers had been reduced to 20. Many of the animals have migrated toward the Barbara Reserve forest, Chilika, Nayagarh district , and Athagad . Besides elephants, the sanctuary also has leopards, jungle cats and herds of chital. The Bhitarkanika National Park in Kendrapara district covers 650 km , of which 150 km are mangroves. Gahirmatha Beach , in Bhitarkanika,
11834-407: The rare finless porpoise , as well as the more common bottlenose dolphin , humpback dolphin and spinner dolphins in its waters. Satapada is situated close to the northeast cape of Chilika Lake and Bay of Bengal. It is famous for dolphin watching in their natural habitat. There is a tiny island en route for watching dolphins, where tourists often take a short stop. Apart from that, this island
11956-578: The region Odisha or Odisha Rajya . In 2011, the English rendering of ଓଡ଼ିଶା was changed from "Orissa" to "Odisha", and the name of its language from "Oriya" to "Odia", by the passage of the Orissa (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2010 and the Constitution (113th Amendment) Bill, 2010 in the Parliament . The Hindi rendering उड़ीसा ( uṛīsā ) was also modified to ओड़िशा ( or̥iśā ). After
12078-414: The region; and by the use of writing, which might have boosted more intricate business dealings. Despite profitable settled agriculture in the fertile eastern Gangetic plain, these factors helped maritime and river-borne trade, which were essential for acquiring goods for consumption as well as metals of high economic value. To promote movement and trade, the Maurya dynasty built roads, most prominently
12200-499: The rule of Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka (ca. 268–232 BCE), the empire briefly controlled the major urban hubs and arteries of the subcontinent excepting the deep south. The Mauryan capital (what is today Patna ) was located in Magadha; the other core regions were Taxila in the northwest; Ujjain in the Malwa Plateau ; Kalinga on the Bay of Bengal coast; and the precious metal -rich lower Deccan plateau " Outside
12322-739: The second-largest lizard species on earth, in addition to axis deer and rhesus macaques . The coastal mangrove environments are home to several types of mudskippers , including the barred , Boddart's blue-spotted and great blue-spotted mudskippers . In winter, Bhitarkanika is also visited by migratory birds . Among the many species, both resident and migratory, are kingfishers (including black-capped , collared and common kingfishers ), herons (such as black-crowned night , grey , purple and striated herons ), Indian cormorants , openbill storks , Oriental white ibis , pheasant-tailed jacana , sarus cranes , spotted owlets and white-bellied sea-eagles . The possibly endangered horseshoe crab
12444-636: The sectors which attracted maximum investments in the state. The recently concluded Make in Odisha Conclave 2022 saw the state generate investment proposals worth ₹10.5 trillion with an employment potential for 10,37,701 people. Out of the total investment proposals received, the metals, ancillary and downstream sectors fetched ₹5.50 lakhs crore (trillion), power, green energy, and renewable energy sector fetched ₹2.38 trillion, and chemicals-petrochemicals and logistics-infrastructure sector attracted ₹76,000 crores and ₹1.20 trillion, respectively. Odisha has
12566-466: The sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of the territory between the eastern and western oceans". During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of Susima , his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's death. Bindusara maintained friendly diplomatic relations with
12688-621: The south. Odisha has a coastline of 485 kilometres (301 mi) along the Bay of Bengal in the Indian Ocean . The region is also known as Utkaḷa and is mentioned by this name in India's national anthem, Jana Gana Mana . The language of Odisha is Odia , which is one of the Classical languages of India . The ancient kingdom of Kalinga , which was invaded by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in 261 BCE resulting in
12810-1150: The state is Bhubaneswar and the largest city is Cuttack , which also functions as the deputy capital of the state . The other major cities are, Rourkela , Berhampur and Sambalpur . Municipal Corporations in Odisha include Bhubaneswar , Cuttack , Berhampur , Sambalpur and Rourkela . Other municipalities of Odisha include Angul , Asika , Balangir , Balasore , Barbil , Bargarh , Baripada , Basudevpur , Belpahar , Bhadrak , Bhanjanagar , Bhawanipatna , Biramitrapur , Boudh , Brajarajnagar , Byasanagar , Chhatrapur , Deogarh , Dhamra , Dhenkanal , Gopalpur , Gunupur , Hinjilicut , Jagatsinghpur , Jajpur , Jeypore , Jharsuguda , Joda , Kendrapara , Kendujhar , Khordha , Konark , Koraput , Malkangiri , Nabarangpur , Nayagarh , Nuapada , Paradeep , Paralakhemundi , Phulbani , Puri , Rajgangpur , Rayagada , Sonepur , Sundargarh , Talcher , Titilagarh , Karanjia , Chatrapur , Asika , Kantabanji , Nimapada , Baudhgarh , and Umerkote . Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats , for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs in rural areas. Odisha
12932-551: The state lies the coastal plain. It extends from the Subarnarekha River in the north to the Rushikulya River in the south. The lake Chilika is part of the coastal plains. The plains are rich in fertile silt deposited by the six major rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal : Subarnarekha , Budhabalanga , Baitarani , Brahmani , Mahanadi , and Rushikulya . The Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI),
13054-551: The state. Around 97 of them are found in Mayurbhanj district alone. The Orchid House of the Nandankanan Zoological Park maintains some of these species. Simlipal National Park is a protected wildlife area and Bengal tiger reserve spread over 2,750 km of the northern part of Mayurbhanj district . The park has around 1,078 species of plants, including 94 of the aforementioned orchids. The sal
13176-779: The subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the Shungas , Satavahanas , and Kalinga are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, named Indo-Scythians , brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of Mathura , and Gujarat. Megasthenes mentions military command consisting of six boards of five members each, (i) Navy (ii) Military transport (iii) Infantry (iv) Cavalry and Catapults (v) Chariot divisions and (vi) Elephants . Ashoka's empire consisted of five parts. Magadha, with
13298-550: The term "Maurya" can only be derived from the masculine "Mura". The primary sources for the written records of the Mauryan times are the Arthashastra , a work previously attributed to Kautilya , but now thought to be composed by multiple authors in the first centuries of the common era ; partial records of the lost history of Megasthenes in Roman texts of several centuries later; and the Edicts of Ashoka , which were first read in
13420-416: The trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings, Menander , became a famous figure of Buddhism; he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot . However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in
13542-581: The two seas' – the peninsular region between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea ). Bindusara did not conquer the friendly Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas , ruled by King Ilamcetcenni , the Pandyas , and Cheras . Apart from these southern states, Kalinga (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that did not form part of Bindusara's empire. It was later conquered by his son Ashoka , who served as
13664-477: The village was Gramika and in towns and cities was Nagarika . The city counsel also had some magisterial powers. The taking of census was regular process in the Mauryan administration. The village heads ( Gramika ) and mayors ( Nagarika ) were responsible enumerating different classes of people in the Mauryan empire such as traders, agriculturists, smiths, potters, carpenters etc. and also cattle, mostly for taxation purposes. These vocations consolidated as castes,
13786-487: The well-traveled road networks. He sponsored Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka , northwest India, and Central Asia, which played a salient role in Buddhism becoming a world religion, and himself a figure of world history. As Ashoka's edicts forbade both the killing of wild animals and the destruction of forests, he is seen by some modern environmental historians as an early embodiment of that ethos. Archaeologically,
13908-403: The written records of the Mauryan times are the Arthashastra , a work first discovered in the early 20th century, and previously attributed to Kautilya , but now thought to be composed by multiple authors in the first centuries of the common era ; partial records of the lost history of Megasthenes in Roman texts of several centuries later; and the Edicts of Ashoka , which were first read in
14030-688: The year is divided into six traditional seasons (or rutus ): Grishma (summer), Barsha (rainy season), Sharata (autumn), Hemanta (dewy), Sheeta (winter season) and Basanta (spring). According to a Forest Survey of India report released in 2012, Odisha has 48,903 km of wild forest, covering 31.41% of the state's total area. The forests are classified into areas of dense forest (7,060 km ), medium dense forest (21,366 km ), open forest (forest without closed canopy ; 20,477 km ) and scrub forest or scrubland (4,734 km ). The state also has bamboo forests (10,518 km ) and tidal areas of mangrove swamp (221 km ). The state
14152-494: Was a notable Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indika is a major literary source for information about the Mauryan Empire. According to Arrian , ambassador Megasthenes (c. 350 – c. 290 BCE) lived in Arachosia and travelled to Pataliputra . Megasthenes' description of Mauryan society as freedom-loving gave Seleucus a means to avoid invasion, however, underlying Seleucus' decision
14274-644: Was heard from the Pauravas from about the 3rd century CE, because they were annexed by the Yaudheya Republic , who in turn submitted to the Mauryans . It was only at the end of 4th century CE, that they established royalty at Brahmapur, after about 700 years. Later, the kings of the Somavamsi dynasty began to unite the region. By the reign of Yayati II, c. 1025 CE, they had integrated the region into
14396-655: Was made the capital of the region by Anantavarman Chodaganga in c. 1135 , after which the city was used as the capital by many rulers, through the British era until 1968. Thereafter, Bhubaneswar became the capital of Odisha. The economy of Odisha is the 15th-largest state economy in India with ₹ 5.86 trillion (US$ 70 billion) in gross domestic product and a per capita GDP of ₹ 127,383 (US$ 1,500). Odisha ranks 32nd among Indian states in Human Development Index . The terms Odisha and Orissa ( Odia : ଓଡ଼ିଶା , Oṛissa ) derive from
14518-510: Was marked by exceptional creativity in art, architecture, inscriptions and produced texts, but also by the consolidation of caste in the Gangetic plain , and the declining rights of women in the mainstream Indo-Aryan speaking regions of India. After the Kalinga War in which Ashoka's troops visited much violence on the region, he embraced Buddhism and promoted its tenets in edicts scattered around South Asia, most commonly in clusters along
14640-472: Was taken to Taxila by Chanakya and was tutored about statecraft and governing. Requiring an army Chandragupta recruited and annexed local military republics such as the Yaudheyas that had resisted Alexander's Empire. Ancient Greek historians Nearchus , Onesictrius , and Aristobolus have provided a valuable source of information about Chandragupta and the Mauryan empire. Chandragupta Maurya's ancestry
14762-412: Was the eighth year of his reign. According to his own edicts , in that war about 100,000 people were killed, 150,000 were captured and more were affected. The resulting bloodshed and suffering of the war is said to have deeply affected Ashoka. He turned into a pacifist and converted to Buddhism. By c. 150 BCE, Emperor Kharavela , who was possibly a contemporary of Demetrius I of Bactria , conquered
14884-556: Was the improbability of success. In later years, Seleucus' successors maintained diplomatic relations with the Empire based on similar accounts from returning travellers. Chandragupta established a strong centralised state with an administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers". Aelian , although not expressly quoting Megasthenes nor mentioning Pataliputra, described Indian palaces as superior in splendor to Persia 's Susa or Ecbatana . The architecture of
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