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Klephts ( / k l ɛ f t s / ; Greek κλέφτης , kléftis , pl. κλέφτες , kléftes , which means "thieves" and perhaps originally meant just "brigand") were highwaymen turned self-appointed armatoloi , anti-Ottoman insurgents, and warlike mountain-folk who lived in the countryside when Greece was a part of the Ottoman Empire . They were the descendants of Greeks who retreated into the mountains during the 15th century in order to avoid Ottoman rule. Klepht bands also included many ethnic Albanians . They carried on a continuous war against Ottoman rule and remained active as brigands until the 19th century.

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132-664: The terms kleptomania and kleptocracy are derived from the same Greek root, κλέπτειν ( kléptein ), "to steal". After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and then the fall of Mistra in the Despotate of the Morea , most of the plains of present-day Greece fell entirely into the hands of the Ottoman Empire . The only territories that did not fall under Ottoman rule were the mountain ranges (populated by Greeks and inaccessible to

264-544: A Muslim Albanian brigand who rose to become the provincial governor of Ioannina in 1788. At the height of his power, he controlled all of Epirus, and much of the Peloponnese , central Greece, and parts of western Macedonia Ali Pasha's campaign to subjugate the confederation of the settlements of Souli met with fierce resistance by the Souliot warriors of the mountainous area. After numerous failed attempts to defeat

396-568: A battleground in the rebellions of the Ostrogoths after 479. In 517, a raid of the Getae or Antae reached Greece, including Epirus Vetus . The claim of Procopius of Caesarea in his Secret History , that under Justinian I (r. 527–565) the entirety of the Balkan provinces was raided by barbarians every year, is considered rhetorical hyperbole by modern scholars; only a single Slavic raid to

528-455: A comparatively small number of cases enclosed in a group series. In the nineteenth century, French psychiatrists began to observe kleptomaniacal behavior, but were constrained by their approach. By 1890, a large body of case material on kleptomania had been developed. Hysteria , imbecility, cerebral defect, and menopause were advanced as theories to explain these seemingly nonsensical behaviors, and many linked kleptomania to immaturity, given

660-584: A divine status in Epirus and in the local dialect he was called Aspetos" (meaning unspeakable , unspeakably great , in Homeric Greek ). Beginning in 370 BC, the Molossian Aeacidae dynasty built a centralized state in Epirus and began expanding their power at the expense of rival tribes. The Aeacids allied themselves with the increasingly powerful kingdom of Macedon , in part against

792-568: A haven for Greek refugees from the Latin Empire of Constantinople for the next half century. The Despotate of Epirus ruled over Epirus and western Greece as far south as Naupaktos and the Gulf of Corinth, much of Albania (including Dyrrhachium), Thessaly, and the western portion of Macedonia , extending its rule briefly over central Macedonia and most of Thrace following the aggressive expansionism of Theodore Komnenos Doukas , who established

924-451: A large theoretical corpus which his disciples applied to such psychological problems as kleptomania. In 1924, one of his followers, Wilhelm Stekel , read the case of a female kleptomaniac who was driven by suppressed sexual urges to take hold of "something forbidden, secretly". Stekel concluded that kleptomania was "suppressed and superseded sexual desire carried out through medium of a symbol or symbolic action. Every compulsion in psychic life

1056-523: A major center of the modern Greek Enlightenment . Numerous schools were founded, such as the Balaneios, Maroutsaia , Kaplaneios , and Zosimaia , teaching subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics and physical sciences. In the 18th century, as the power of the Ottoman Empire declined, Epirus became a de facto independent region under the despotic rule of Ali Pasha of Tepelena ,

1188-455: A probable common genetic input to alcohol use and kleptomania. Substance use disorders are more common in kin of persons with kleptomania than in the general population. Furthermore, pharmacological data (e.g., the probable efficacy of the opioid antagonist, naltrexone , in the treatment of both kleptomania and substance use disorders) could present additional support for a joint relationship between kleptomania and substance use disorders. Based on

1320-406: A relatively high co-occurrence (45%-60%) while others demonstrate low rates (0%-6.5%). Similarly, when rates of kleptomania have been examined in subjects with OCD, a relatively low co-occurrence was found (2.2%-5.9%). Pyromania , another impulse disorder, has many ties to kleptomania. Many pyromaniacs begin fires alongside petty stealing which often appears similar to kleptomania. Although

1452-592: A second time in 1374–1375. A truce was signed when Pjetër's son Gjin was betrothed to Thomas's daughter Irina, but she would soon die in the 1375 plague and hostilities would recommence. Preljubović attempted to pacify the Albanians of Epirus; however, under Gjin Bua Shpata , the Albanians defeated him. The reign of Esau de' Buondelmonti (1385–1411) in Ioannina followed, and with an army that consisted of

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1584-513: A single central authority. Ioannina became a center of Greek resistance to the Albanian clans. The Greeks of Ioannina offered power to three foreign rulers during this time, beginning with Thomas II Preljubović (1367–1384), whose rule was marked by hostilities in the region, as Ioannina came under constant siege by the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans under Losha. These tribes would besiege Ioannina

1716-632: A substance-related addiction. Yet others categorize kleptomania as a variation of an impulse control disorder, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder or eating disorders. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fourth edition (DSM IV-TR), a frequent and widely used guide for the diagnosis of mental disorders, the following symptoms and characteristics are the diagnostic criteria for kleptomania: Skeptics have decried kleptomania as an invalid psychiatric concept exploited in legal defenses of wealthy female shoplifters. During

1848-651: Is Mediterranean along the coast and Alpine in the interior. Epirus is heavily forested, mainly by coniferous species. The fauna in Epirus is especially rich and features species such as bears , wolves , foxes , deer , and lynxes . In the Neolithic period Epirus was populated by seafarers along the coast and by shepherds and hunters from the southwestern Balkans who brought with them the Greek language. These people buried their leaders in large mounds containing shaft graves. Similar burial chambers were subsequently used by

1980-452: Is naltrexone , a long-acting competitive antagonist. Naltrexone acts mainly at μ-receptors , but also antagonises κ- and λ-receptors. There have been no controlled studies of the psycho-pharmacological treatment of kleptomania. This could be as a consequence of kleptomania being a rare phenomenon and the difficulty in achieving a large enough sample. Facts about this issue come largely from case reports or from bits and pieces gathered from

2112-732: Is a geographical and historical region in southeastern Europe , now shared between Greece and Albania . It lies between the Pindus Mountains and the Ionian Sea , stretching from the Bay of Vlorë and the Acroceraunian Mountains in the north to the Ambracian Gulf and the ruined Roman city of Nicopolis in the south. It is currently divided between the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece and

2244-448: Is a mechanism to relieve oneself from a chronic state of hyperarousal, perhaps produced by prior stressful or traumatic events, and thereby modulate affective states." Disagreement surrounds the method by which kleptomania is considered and diagnosed. On one hand, some researchers believe that kleptomania is merely theft and dispute the suggestion that there are psychological mechanisms involved, while others observe kleptomania as part of

2376-636: Is a predominantly rugged and mountainous region. It is largely made up of the Pindus Mountains , a series of parallel limestone ridges that are a continuation of the Dinaric Alps . The Pindus mountains form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly to the east. The ridges of the Pindus are parallel to the sea and generally so steep that the valleys between them are mostly suitable for pasture rather than large-scale agriculture. Altitude increases as one moves east, away from

2508-754: Is a scenic upland plateau surrounded by mountain on all sides. The main river flowing through Epirus is the Vjosë , which flows in a northwesterly direction from the Pindus mountains in Greece to its mouth north of the Bay of Vlorë in Albania. Other important rivers include the Acheron river , famous for its religious significance in ancient Greece and site of the Necromanteion , the Arachthos river , crossed by

2640-561: Is alternatively given as the Vjosa river. Epirus's eastern boundary is defined by the Pindus Mountains , that form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly . To the west, Epirus faces the Ionian Sea . The island of Corfu is situated off the Epirote coast but is not regarded as part of Epirus. The definition of Epirus has changed over time, such that modern administrative boundaries do not correspond to

2772-472: Is an affiliation between kleptomania and substance use disorders along with high rates in a unidirectional manner. Phenomenological data maintain that there is a relationship between kleptomania and drug addictions. A higher percentage of cases of kleptomania has been noted in adolescents and young adults, and a lesser number of cases among older adults, which imply an analogous natural history to that seen in substance use disorders. Family history data also propose

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2904-423: Is brought about by suppression". Fritz Wittels argued that kleptomaniacs were sexually underdeveloped people who felt deprived of love and had little experience with human sexual relationships; stealing was their sex life, giving them thrills so powerful that they did not want to be cured. Male kleptomaniacs, in his view, were homosexual or invariably effeminate. A famous large-scale analysis of shoplifters in

3036-517: Is deliberate and motivated by the usefulness of the object or its monetary worth," whereas with kleptomania, there "is the recurrent failure to resist impulses to steal items even though the items are not needed for personal use or for their monetary value." Initial models of the development of kleptomania came from the field of psychoanalysis. These have been replaced by cognitive-behavioral models, which supplement biological ones based mostly on pharmacotherapy treatment studies. Several explanations of

3168-582: Is due to the assumption that the biological dynamics of these conditions derives from low levels of serotonin in brain synapses, and that the efficacy of this type of therapy will be relevant to kleptomania and to other comorbid conditions. Opioid receptor antagonists are regarded as practical in lessening urge-related symptoms, which is a central part of impulse control disorders; for this reason, they are used in treatment of substance use. This quality makes them helpful in treating kleptomania and impulse control disorders in general. The most frequently used drug

3300-517: Is evidenced from the fact that the territories that were under Bulgarian rule formed part of the autocephalous Archbishopric of Ohrid after the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria by Emperor Basil II in 1018: thus in Epirus the sees of Chimara , Hadrianopolis, Bela, Buthrotum, Ioannina, Kozyle, and Rogoi passed under the jurisdiction of Ohrid, while the Metropolitan of Naupaktos retained only

3432-615: Is first mentioned in the late 11th century, while Jewish communities are attested throughout the medieval period in Arta and Ioannina. When Constantinople fell to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the partitio Romaniae assigned Epirus to Venice , but the Venetians were largely unable to effectively establish their authority, except over Dyrrhachium (the " Duchy of Durazzo "). The Greek noble Michael Komnenos Doukas , who had married

3564-564: Is frequently taken as a sign of the harshness of the eating disorder. A likely connection between depression and kleptomania was reported as early as 1911. It has since been extensively established in clinical observations and available case reports. The mood disorder could come first or co-occur with the beginning of kleptomania. In advanced cases, depression may result in self-inflicted injury and could even lead to suicide. Some people have reported relief from depression or manic symptoms after theft. It has been suggested that because kleptomania

3696-828: Is frequently under-diagnosed and is regularly associated with other psychiatric disorders, particularly anxiety , eating disorders , alcohol and substance use . Patients with kleptomania are typically treated with therapies in other areas due to the comorbid grievances rather than issues directly related to kleptomania. Over the last 100 years, a shift from psychotherapeutic to psychopharmacological interventions for kleptomania has occurred. Pharmacological treatments using selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), mood stabilizers and opioid receptor antagonists , and other antidepressants along with cognitive behavioral therapy , have yielded positive results. However, there have also been reports of kleptomania induced by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Some of

3828-442: Is from a Venetian document dating to 1210, which states that "the continent facing the island of Corfu is inhabited by Albanians". Kosta Giakoumis believes that the use of hypothetical immigrations to explain the accounts of Albanian presence in Epirote territory prior to the 13th-14th century is somewhat arbitrary. In 1337, Epirus was once again brought under the rule of the restored Byzantine Empire . In 1348, taking advantage of

3960-558: Is linked to strong compulsive and impulsive qualities, it can be viewed as a variation of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders, together with pathological gambling , compulsive buying , pyromania , nailbiting and trichotillomania . This point achieves support from the unusually higher cases of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD; see below ) in close relatives of patients with kleptomania. Kleptomania and drug addictions seem to have central qualities in common, including: Data from epidemiological studies additionally propose that there

4092-421: Is now Preveza ) in 1463, and finally Vonitsa in 1479. With the exception of several coastal Venetian possessions, this was also the end of Latin rule in mainland Greece. The Ottomans ruled Epirus for almost 500 years. Their rule in Epirus proved particularly damaging; the region was subjected to deforestation and excessive cultivation, which damaged the soil and drove many Epirotes to emigrate so as to escape

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4224-426: Is the inability to resist the urge to steal items, usually for reasons other than personal use or financial gain. First described in 1816, kleptomania is classified in psychiatry as an impulse control disorder . Some of the main characteristics of the disorder suggest that kleptomania could be an obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder, but also share similarities with addictive and mood disorders. The disorder

4356-576: Is unclear how much the area was affected by the second wave of Slavic migration, which began in the middle of the 8th century due to Bulgar pressure in the northern Balkans. Slavic toponyms are nearly lacking in the mountains of Labëria (on the Kurvelesh plateau ), in the Ionian coast where today Lab Albanian villages neighbour with the Greek-speaking ones, therefore it can be assumed that

4488-576: The Adriatic Sea . The modern Egnatia Odos , the A2 motorway , which links Ioannina to the Greek province of Macedonia and terminating at Igoumenitsa , is the only highway through the Pindus mountains and has served to greatly reduce the region's isolation from the east, while the Ionia Odos highway , connecting Epirus with Western Greece , helped reducing the region's isolation from the south. Also,

4620-781: The Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus in February 1914. After fierce guerrilla fighting, they managed to gain full autonomy under the terms of the Protocol of Corfu , signed by Albanian and Northern Epirote representatives and approved by the Great Powers. The signing of the Protocol ensured that the region would have its own administration, recognized the rights of the local Greeks and provided self-government under nominal Albanian sovereignty. The Republic, however,

4752-571: The Avars and their Slavic allies. This is placed by the Chronicle of Monemvasia in the year 587, and is further corroborated by evidence that several sees were abandoned by their bishops by 591. Thus in c.  590 the bishop, clergy and people of Euroea fled their city, carrying with them the relics of their patron saint, St. Donatus , to Cassiope in Corfu. Of the various Slavic tribes, only

4884-624: The Baiounitai , first attested c.  615 , are known by name, giving their name to their region of settlement: " Vagenetia ". Based on the density of the Slavic toponyms in Epirus, the Slavs must have settled in the region, although the extent of this settlement is unclear. Slavic toponyms occur mainly in the mountainous areas of the interior and the coasts of the Gulf of Corinth , indicative of

5016-521: The Balkan Wars and World War I , southern Epirus became part of Greece, while northern Epirus became part of Albania. The name Epirus is derived from the Greek : Ἤπειρος , romanized :  Ḗpeiros ( Doric Greek : Ἄπειρος , romanized:  Ápeiros ), meaning "mainland" or terra firma . It is thought to come from an Indo-European root *apero- 'coast', and was applied to

5148-545: The Balkan Wars , but the Treaty of Bucharest , which concluded the Second Balkan War , assigned Northern Epirus to Albania. This outcome was unpopular among local Greeks, as a substantial Greek population existed on the Albanian side of the border. Among Greeks, northern Epirus was henceforth regarded as terra irredenta . Local Greeks in northern Epirus revolted, declared their independence and proclaimed

5280-557: The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople managed to shut down the few Albanian schools, considering teaching in Albanian a factor that would diminish its influence and lead to the creation of separate Albanian church, while publications in Albanian were banned by the Ottoman Empire. In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Italy opened various schools in the regions of Ioannina and Preveza in order to influence

5412-583: The Empire of Thessalonica in 1224. During this time, the definition of Epirus came to encompass the entire coastal region from the Ambracian Gulf to Dyrrhachium, and the hinterland to the west up to the highest peaks of the Pindus mountain range. Some of the most important cities in Epirus, such as Gjirokastër (Argyrokastron), were founded during this period. The oldest reference to Albanians in Epirus

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5544-437: The Peloponnese . The Czech composer Antonín Dvořák wrote a song-cycle named Three Modern Greek Poems : the first one is entitled "Koljas – Klepht Song" and tells the story of Koljas, the klepht who killed the famous Ali Pasha . The most famous klephtic and modern Greek folk song is The Battle of Mount Olympus and Mount Kisavos , a ballad based on a musico-poetic motif dating back to classical Greece (specifically to

5676-587: The Treaty of Berlin (1878) awarded large parts of Epirus to Greece, opposition by the Ottomans and the League of Prizren resulted in only the region of Arta being ceded to Greece in 1881. It was only following the First Balkan War of 1912–1913 and the Treaty of London that the rest of southern Epirus, including Ioannina , was incorporated into Greece. Greece had also seized northern Epirus during

5808-770: The Western Roman generalissimo Stilicho in order to wrest the Eastern Illyricum from the Eastern Empire. The Synecdemus of Hierocles , composed in ca. 527/8 AD but probably reflecting the situation in the first half of the 5th century, reports 11 cities for Old Epirus ( Ancient Greek : Παλαιὰ Ἤπειρος , Latin : Epirus Vetus ): the capital Nicopolis, Dodona , Euroea , Hadrianopolis , Appon , Phoenice , Anchiasmos , Buthrotum , Photike , Corfu Island, and Ithaca Island. New Epirus, with capital at Dyrrhachium , comprised 9 cities. From 467 on,

5940-635: The civil war between the Byzantine emperors John V Palaiologos and John VI Kantakouzenos , the Serbian king Stefan Uroš IV Dušan conquered Epirus, with a number of Albanian mercenaries assisting him. The Byzantine authorities in Constantinople soon re-established a measure of control by making the Despotate of Epirus a vassal state , but Albanian clans proceeded to invade and seize most of

6072-561: The private army of a local Ottoman notable, or fend for themselves. Many Greeks wishing to preserve their Greek identity, Orthodox Christian religion, and independence chose the difficult but liberated life of a bandit. These bandit groups soon found their ranks swelled with impoverished and/or adventurous peasants, societal outcasts, and escaped criminals. Klephts under Ottoman rule were generally men who were fleeing vendettas or taxes , debts and reprisals from Ottoman officials. They raided travelers and isolated settlements and lived in

6204-399: The 'little guy' against the big corporations". Although those thoughts were often afterward accompanied by feelings of remorse, this came too late in the operant sequence to serve as a viable punisher. Eventually, individuals with kleptomania come to rely upon stealing as a way of coping with stressful situations and distressing feelings, which serve to further maintain the behavior and decrease

6336-445: The 1821–1827 period. During that time period, three attempts were made at creating a regular army, and one of the reasons for their failure was the resistance of the klepht and armatoles leaders. Yannis Makriyannis referred to the "klephtes and armatoloi" as the "yeast of liberty". John Koliopoulos studied the klephts in the 19th century, and stated that the principle of kinship and honour seen in Albanian besa could be seen among

6468-508: The Albanian leaders of the Despotate of Arta . The Shpata were originally defeated by Carlo's brother Leonardo II Tocco at Mazoma near ancient Nicopolis , but Carlo's son Torno was in turn defeated by the Albanians. After the Tocchi succeeded in capturing Rhiniasa, Leonardo tried to take Rogoi and Carlo attempted to take Arta, but Jakob and Muriq succeeded in defending their capital for the time being. Carlo withdrew to Ioannina, but soon after

6600-708: The Albanian tribes of the Mazaraki and Malakasi, he marched against the Principality of Gjirokastër . He was defeated and captured by Albanian nobleman Gjon Zenebishi , and ransomed for 10,000 gold pieces on the intervention of the Venetian governor of Corfu . At the time the Zenebishi clan controlled the area around Gjirokastër (1386–1411), while only the city of Ioannina remained under Greek control. Carlo I Tocco (1411–1429) then assumed control of Ioannina, commencing heavy conflicts with Jakob and Muriq Shpata,

6732-681: The Allies. Due to the extensive activity of the anti-Nazi Greek resistance (mainly under EDES ), the Germans carried out large scaled anti-partisan sweeps, making wide use of Nazi-collaborationist bands of Cham Albanians , who committed numerous atrocities against the civilian population. They fought fiercely against the Greek partisans of the EDES, the latter being ordered by the Allied command to push them out of Greece into Albania. The violent clashes and

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6864-462: The Greek revolutionaries), Nikolaos Skoufas and Athanasios Tsakalov, came from the Arta area and the city of Ioannina , respectively. Greece's first constitutional prime minister (1844–1847), Ioannis Kolettis , was a native of the village of Syrrako in Epirus and was a former personal physician to Ali Pasha. Ali Pasha tried to use the war as an opportunity to make himself a fully independent ruler, but

6996-568: The Greek, is Epiri . Similarly, the Aromanian name for Epirus, which is also Greek-derived, is Epiru . Historically, the geographical area of Epirus proper is defined within the lines drawn from Cape Gjuhëz of the Ceraunian Mountains in the north-west, to Mount Qelqëz in the north-east, to Mount Gavrovo in the south-east, to the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf in the south-west. The northern boundary of ancient Epirus

7128-523: The Hellenization campaign also suggests a continuity of the original Greek population, and that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north, in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century. Following the great naval victory of admiral Nasar in 880, and

7260-714: The Iliad. In the Middle Bronze Age, Epirus was inhabited by the same nomadic Hellenic tribes that went on to settle in the rest of Greece. Aristotle considered the region around Dodona to have been part of Hellas and the region where the Hellenes originated. According to Bulgarian linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev , Epirus was part of the Proto-Greek linguistic area during the Late Neolithic period. By

7392-598: The Ionian Islands and the coasts of Epirus became subject to raids by the Vandals , who had taken over the North African provinces and established their own kingdom centred on Carthage . The Vandals notably seized Nicopolis in 474 as a bargaining chip in their negotiations with Emperor Zeno , and plundered Zakynthos, killing many of its inhabitants and ferrying off others into slavery. Epirus Nova became

7524-414: The Ionian and Adriatic seas, combating Saracen piracy, and securing communications with the remaining Byzantine possessions in Italy, rather than any systematic effort at subduing the Epirote mainland. Nevertheless, following the onset of the Muslim conquest of Sicily in 827, the Ionian became particularly exposed to Arab raids. The 9th century saw great progress in the restoration of Imperial control in

7656-429: The Mycenaean civilization, suggesting that the founders of Mycenae may have come from Epirus and central Albania . Epirus itself remained culturally backward during this time, but Mycenaean remains have been found at two religious shrines of great antiquity in the region: the Oracle of the Dead on the Acheron River, familiar to the heroes of Homer’s Odyssey , and the Oracle of Zeus at Dodona, to whom Achilles prayed in

7788-415: The Ottoman Turks), as well as a handful of islands and coastal possessions under the control of Venice . This situation lasted until 1821. However, the newly acquired territories of Greece, such as Macedonia , Thrace and Epirus , were in Turkish hands until the 20th century. This period of time in Greece is known as the Turkocracy . Ottoman lands were divided up into pashaliks , also called eyalets ; in

7920-429: The Ottomans and robbed Christians as much as Muslims. Klephtic songs ( κλέφτικα τραγούδια  [ el ] ), or ballads, were developed in mainland Greece. They are part of the Greek folk music genre, which includes folk poetry, and are thematically oriented on either the achievements and death of a single klepht or the generic life of the klephts as a group. Klephtic songs are especially popular in Epirus and

8052-554: The Peloponnesian War , as does Strabo in his Geography , although the latter clearly distinguishes them from the neighboring Illyrians . Other writers, such as Herodotus , Dionysius of Halicarnassus , Pausanias , and Eutropius , describe them as Greeks. Similarly, Epirote tribes/states are included in the Argive and Epidaurian lists of the Greek Thearodokoi (hosts of sacred envoys). Plutarch mentions an interesting element of Epirote folklore regarding Achilles: In his biography of King Pyrrhus , he claims that Achilles "had

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8184-409: The Souliotes, his troops succeeded in conquering the area in 1803. On the other hand, Ali, who used Greek as official language, witnessed an increase of Greek cultural activity with the establishment of several educational institutions. When the Greek War of Independence broke out, the inhabitants of Epirus contributed greatly. Two of the founding members of the Filiki Eteria (the secret society of

8316-426: The Theme of Nicopolis was raided by the Bulgarians, who even occupied some parts until driven out or subjugated by the Byzantines years later. Only the extreme north of Epirus seems to have remained consistently under Bulgarian rule in the period, but under Tsar Samuel , who moved the centre of Bulgarian power south and west to Ohrid , probably all of Epirus down to the Ambracian Gulf came under Bulgarian rule. This

8448-583: The United Kingdom ridiculed Stekel's notion of sexual symbolism and claimed that one out of five apprehended shoplifters was a "psychiatric". Empirically based conceptual articles have argued that kleptomania is becoming more common than previously thought, and occurs more frequently among women than men. These ideas are new in recent history but echo those current in the mid to late nineteenth century. Movies Series Books [REDACTED] Media related to Kleptomania at Wikimedia Commons Epirus Epirus ( / ɪ ˈ p aɪ r ə s / )

8580-423: The act of stealing. The psychoanalytic and psycho-dynamic approach to kleptomania granted the basis for prolonged psychoanalytic or psycho-dynamic psychotherapy as the core treatment method for a number of years. Like most psychiatric conditions, kleptomania was observed within the psycho-dynamic lens instead of being viewed as a bio-medical disorder. However, the prevalence of psychoanalytic approach contributed to

8712-491: The act of stealing. These signs are considered to either cause or intensify general comorbid disorders. The characteristics of the behaviors associated with stealing could result in other problems as well, which include social segregation and substance use. The many types of other disorders frequently occurring along with kleptomania usually make clinical diagnosis uncertain. There is a difference between ordinary theft and kleptomania: "ordinary theft (whether planned or impulsive)

8844-481: The area had been subject to increasing Hellenization and settlement by Epirote tribes from the south. The two Epirote provinces became part of the Diocese of Moesia , until it was divided in ca. 369 into the dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia , when they became part of the former. In the 4th century, Epirus was still a stronghold of paganism , and was aided by Emperor Julian (r. 361–363) and his praetorian prefect Claudius Mamertinus through reduction in taxes and

8976-424: The area was again ceded to Albania. In 1939, Italy occupied Albania , and in 1940 invaded Greece . The Italians were driven back into Albania, however, and Greek forces again took control of northern Epirus. The conflict marked the first tactical victory of the Allies in World War II . Benito Mussolini himself supervised the spring counter-offensive of his divisions in spring 1941, only to be repulsed again by

9108-450: The beginning of the Byzantine offensive against the Arabs in southern Italy in the 880s, the security situation improved and the Theme of Nicopolis was established, most likely after 886. As the ancient capital of Epirus had been laid waste by the Slavs, the capital of the new theme became Naupaktos further south. The extent of the new province is unclear, but probably matched the extent of the Metropolis of Naupaktos , established at about

9240-477: The behavior is positively reinforced after the person steals some items. If this individual experiences minimal or no negative consequences (punishment), then the likelihood that the behavior will reoccur is increased. As the behavior continues to occur, stronger antecedents or cues become contingently linked with it, in what ultimately becomes a powerful behavioral chain. According to cognitive-behavioral theory (CBT), both antecedents and consequences may either be in

9372-401: The bishop of Dyrrhachium participated in the Ecumenical Councils of 680/1 and 692 , a century later the bishops of Dyrrhachium, Nicopolis, Corfu, Cephallonia, and Zakynthos are attested in the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. In about the middle of the 8th century, the Theme of Cephallenia was established, but at least initially it was more oriented towards restoring Byzantine control over

9504-614: The border between Greece and Albania, and the Ceraunian Mountains (2,000 m) near Himara in Albania. Most of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus, and the prevailing winds from the Ionian Sea make the region the rainiest in mainland Greece. Significant lowlands are to be found only near the coast, in the southwest near Arta and Preveza , in the Acheron plain between Paramythia and Fanari , between Igoumenitsa and Sagiada , and also near Saranda . The Zagori area

9636-457: The boundaries of ancient Epirus. The region of Epirus in Greece only comprises a fraction of classical Epirus and does not include its easternmost portions, which lie in Thessaly. In Albania, where the concept of Epirus is never used in an official context, the counties of Gjirokastër, Vlorë , and Berat extend well beyond the northern and northeastern boundaries of classical Epirus. Epirus

9768-406: The brain are to blame for kleptomania, linking it with impulse control and affective disorders. An alternative explanation too based on opioid antagonist studies states that kleptomania is similar to the "self-medication" model, in which stealing stimulates the person's natural opioid system. "The opioid release 'soothes' the patients, treats their sadness, or reduces their anxiety. Thus, stealing

9900-468: The case of the lands that form present-day Greece, these were Morea and Roumelia . Pashaliks were further sub-divided into sanjaks which were often divided into feudal chifliks ( Turkish çiftlik (farm), Greek τσιφλίκι tsifliki ). Any surviving Greek troops, whether regular Byzantine forces, local militia , or mercenaries had either to join the Ottoman army as janissaries , serve in

10032-576: The cause of Olympias against Cassander , but was dethroned in 313 BC. His son Pyrrhus came to throne in 295 BC, and for six years fought against the Romans and Carthaginians in southern Italy and Sicily . The high cost of his victories against the Romans gave Epirus a new, but brief, importance, as well as a lasting contribution to the Greek language with the concept of a " Pyrrhic victory ". Pyrrhus nonetheless brought great prosperity to Epirus, building

10164-477: The coast, reaching a maximum of 2,637 m at Mount Smolikas , the highest point in Epirus. Other important ranges include Tymfi (2,496 m at Mount Gamila), Lygkos (2,249 m), to the west and east of Smolikas respectively, Gramos (2,523 m) in the northeast, Tzoumerka (2,356 m) in the southeast, Tomaros (1,976 m) in the southwest, Mitsikeli near Ioannina (1,810 m), Mourgana (1,806 m), and Nemercke/Aeoropos (2,485 m) on

10296-672: The common threat of Illyrian raids, and in 359 BC the Molossian princess Olympias , niece of Arybbas of Epirus , married King Philip II of Macedon . She was to become the mother of Alexander the Great . On the death of Arybbas, Alexander of Epirus succeeded to the throne and the title King of Epirus in 334 BC. He invaded Italy, but was killed in battle by a Lucanian in the Battle of Pandosia against several Italic tribes 331 BC. Aeacides of Epirus , who succeeded Alexander, espoused

10428-474: The continuation of the state of war until 1987 was that during the entire period of Communist rule in Albania, the Greek population of Northern Epirus experienced forced Albanisation . Although a Greek minority was recognized by the Hoxha regime, this recognition only applied to an "official minority zone" consisting of 99 villages, leaving out important areas of Greek settlement, such as Himara . People outside

10560-459: The counties of Gjirokastër and Vlorë in southern Albania. The largest city in Epirus is Ioannina , seat of the Greek region of Epirus, with Gjirokastër the largest city in the Albanian part of Epirus. A rugged and mountainous region, Epirus was the north-west area of ancient Greece . It was inhabited by the Greek tribes of the Chaonians , Molossians , and Thesprotians . It was home to

10692-426: The daughter of a local magnate, took advantage of this, and within a few years consolidated his control over most of Epirus, first as a Venetian vassal and eventually as an independent ruler. By the time of his death in 1214/5, Michael had established a strong state, the Despotate of Epirus , with the former theme of Nicopolis at its core and Arta as its capital. Epirus, and the city of Ioannina in particular, became

10824-415: The disorder has been known to psychologists for a long time, the cause of kleptomania is still ambiguous. Therefore, a diverse range of therapeutic approaches have been introduced for its treatment. These treatments include: psychoanalytic oriented psychotherapy, behavioral therapy, and pharmacotherapy. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) has primarily substituted the psychoanalytic and dynamic approach in

10956-724: The early 1st millennium BC, all fourteen Epirote tribes including the Chaonians in northwestern Epirus, the Molossians in the centre and the Thesprotians in the south, were speakers of a strong west Greek dialect. Geographically on the edge of the Greek world, Epirus remained for the most part outside the limelight of Greek history until relatively late, much like the neighbouring Greek regions of Macedonia, Aetolia, and Acarnania, with which Epirus had political, cultural, linguistic and economic connections. Unlike most other Greeks of this time, who lived in or around city-states ,

11088-679: The environment or cognitions. For example, Kohn and Antonuccio (2002) describe a client's antecedent cognitions, which include thoughts such as "I’m smarter than others and can get away with it"; "they deserve it"; "I want to prove to myself that I can do it"; and "my family deserves to have better things". These thoughts were strong cues to stealing behaviors. All of these thoughts were precipitated by additional antecedents which were thoughts about family, financial, and work stressors or feelings of depression. "Maintaining" cognitions provided additional reinforcement for stealing behaviors and included feelings of vindication and pride, for example: "score one for

11220-586: The environs of Dyrrhachium, in 548/9, has been documented. Procopius further reports that in 551, in an attempt to interdict the Byzantines' lines of communication with Italy during the Gothic War , the Ostrogoth king Totila sent his fleet to raid the shores of Epirus. In response to these raids, and to repair the damage done by two destructive earthquakes in 522, Justinian initiated a wide-ranging programme of reconstruction and re-fortification: Hadrianopolis

11352-505: The expansion of the Slavs had not reach this region. As in eastern Greece, the restoration of Byzantine rule seems to have proceeded from the islands, chiefly Cephallonia, which was certainly under firm Imperial control in c.  702 , when Philippicus Bardanes was banished there. The gradual restoration of Imperial rule is evidenced further from the participation of local bishops in councils in Constantinople : whereas only

11484-413: The fact that this was the avenue used by most of the Slavs who crossed the Gulf into the Peloponnese . With the exception of some few toponyms on Corfu, the Ionian Islands seem to not have been affected by Slavic settlement. The linguistic analysis of the toponyms reveals that they date mostly to the early wave of Slavic settlement at the turn of the 6th/7th centuries. Due to scarcity of textual evidence, it

11616-706: The first two Macedonian Wars but split in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC), with the Molossians siding with the Macedonians and the Chaonians and Thesprotians siding with Rome. The outcome was disastrous for Epirus; Molossia fell to Rome in 167 BC and 150,000 of its inhabitants were enslaved. The region of Epirus was placed under the senatorial province of Achaea in 27 BC, with the exception of its northernmost part, which remained part of

11748-533: The fundamental components of kleptomania include recurring intrusive thoughts , impotence to resist the compulsion to engage in stealing, and the release of internal pressure following the act. These symptoms suggest that kleptomania could be regarded as an obsessive-compulsive type of disorder. People diagnosed with kleptomania often have other types of disorders involving mood, anxiety, eating, impulse control, and drug use. They also have great levels of stress , guilt , and remorse , and privacy issues accompanying

11880-542: The great theater of Dodona and a new suburb at Ambracia (now modern Arta ), which he made his capital. The Aeacid dynasty ended in 232 BC, but Epirus remained a substantial power, unified under the auspices of the Epirote League as a federal state with its own parliament, or synedrion . However, it was faced with the growing threat of the expansionist Roman Republic , which fought a series of wars against Macedon . The League steered an uneasy neutral course in

12012-564: The growth of other approaches, particularly in the biological domain. Many psychoanalytic theorists suggested that kleptomania is a person's attempt "to obtain symbolic compensation for an actual or anticipated loss", and feel that the key to understanding its etiology lies in the symbolic meaning of the stolen items. Drive theory was used to propose that the act of stealing is a defense mechanism which serves to modulate or keep undesirable feelings or emotions from being expressed. Some French psychiatrists suggest that kleptomaniacs may just want

12144-812: The historic Bridge of Arta , the Louros , the Thyamis or Kalamas, and the Voidomatis, a tributary of the Vjosë flowing through the Vikos Gorge . The Vikos Gorge, one of the deepest in the world, forms the centerpiece of the Vikos–Aoös National Park , known for its scenic beauty. The only significant lake in Epirus is Lake Pamvotis , on whose shores lies the city of Ioannina , the region's largest and traditionally most important city. The climate of Epirus

12276-437: The idea that kleptomania and substance use disorders may share some etiological features, it could be concluded that kleptomania would react optimistically to the same treatments. As a matter of fact, certain non-medical treatment methods that are successful in treating substance use are also accommodating in treating kleptomania. Kleptomania is frequently thought of as being a part of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), since

12408-436: The inclination of young children to take whatever they want. These French and German observations later became central to psychoanalytic explanations of kleptomania. The term kleptomania was derived from the Greek words κλέπτω (klepto) "to steal" and μανία (mania) "mad desire, compulsion". Its meaning roughly corresponds to "compulsion to steal" or "compulsive stealing". In the early twentieth century, kleptomania

12540-496: The inhabitants of Epirus lived in small villages and their way of life was foreign to that of the poleis of southern Greece. Their region lay on the periphery of the Greek world and was far from peaceful; for many centuries, it remained a frontier area contested with the Illyrian peoples to the north. However, Epirus had a far greater religious significance than might have been expected given its geographical remoteness, due to

12672-420: The irresistible and uncontrollable actions are similar to the frequently excessive, unnecessary, and unwanted rituals of OCD. Some individuals with kleptomania demonstrate hoarding symptoms that resemble those with OCD. Prevalence rates between the two disorders do not demonstrate a strong relationship. Studies examining the comorbidity of OCD in subjects with kleptomania have inconsistent results, with some showing

12804-421: The item that they steal and the feeling they get from theft itself. Cognitive-behavioral models have been replacing psychoanalytic models in describing the development of kleptomania. Cognitive-behavioral practitioners often conceptualize the disorders as being the result of operant conditioning , behavioral chaining , distorted cognitions, and poor coping mechanisms. Cognitive-behavioral models suggest that

12936-608: The klephts after centuries of contact with Albanian irregulars. Contrary to conventional Greek history, many of the klephts and armatoles participated at the Greek War of Independence according to their own militaristic patron-client terms. They saw the war as an economic and political opportunity to expand their areas of operation. Balkan bandits such as the klephts and armatoles – glorified in nationalist historiography as national heroes – were actually driven by economic interests, were not aware of national projects, made alliances with

13068-507: The local population. These schools began to attract students from the Greek language schools, but were ultimately closed after intervention and harassment by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Throughout, the late period of Ottoman rule (from the 18th century) Greek and Aromanian population of the region suffered from Albanians raiders, that sporadically continued after Ali Pasha's death, until 1912–1913. While

13200-459: The mainland of north-west Greece opposite Corfu and the Ionian islands . The local name was struck on the coinage of the unified Epirote commonwealth : "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ" ( Ancient Greek : Ἀπειρωτᾶν , romanized :  Āpeirōtân , Attic Greek : Ἠπειρωτῶν , romanized:  Ēpeirōtôn , i.e. "of the Epirotes", see adjacent image). The Albanian name for the region, which derives from

13332-511: The mainland, as evidenced by the participation of the bishops of Ioannina, Naupaktos , Hadrianopolis, and Vagenetia (evidently by now organized as a Sklavinia under imperial rule) in the Ecumenical Councils of 869/70 and 879/80 . The Byzantine recovery resulted in an influx of Greeks from southern Italy and Asia Minor into the Greek interior, while remaining Slavs were Christianized and Hellenized . The eventual success of

13464-566: The mechanics of kleptomania have been presented. A contemporary social approach proposes that kleptomania is an outcome of consumerism and the large quantity of commodities in society. Psychodynamic theories depend on a variety of points of view in defining the disorder. Psychoanalysts define the condition as an indication of a defense mechanism deriving in the unconscious ego against anxiety, prohibited intuition or desires, unsettled struggle or forbidden sexual drives, dread of castration, sexual excitement, and sexual fulfillment and orgasm throughout

13596-613: The mountains of Epirus also became the scene of some of the fiercest fighting of the second and bloodier round of the Greek Civil War. The final episode of the war took place on Mount Grammos in 1949, ending with the defeat of the Communists. Peace returned to the region in 1949, although because of official Albanian active involvement in the civil war on the side of the communists, the formal state of war between Greece and Albania remained in effect until 1987. Another reason for

13728-589: The number of available alternative coping strategies. Biological models explaining the origins of kleptomania have been based mostly on pharmacotherapy treatment studies that used selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), mood stabilizers, and opioid receptor antagonists. Some studies using SSRIs have observed that opioid antagonists appear to reduce the urge to steal and mute the "rush" typically experienced immediately after stealing by some subjects with kleptomania. This would suggest that poor regulation of serotonin , dopamine , and/or natural opioids within

13860-410: The official minority zone received no education in the Greek language, which was prohibited in public. The Hoxha regime also diluted the ethnic demographics of the region by relocating Greeks living there and settling in their stead Albanians from other parts of the country. Relations began to improve in the 1980s with Greece's abandonment of any territorial claims over Northern Epirus and the lifting of

13992-414: The official state of war between the two countries. A rugged topography, poor soils, and fragmented landholdings have kept agricultural production low and have resulted in a low population density. Animal husbandry is the main industry and corn the chief crop. Oranges and olives are grown in the western lowlands, while tobacco is grown around Ioannina. Epirus has few natural resources and industries, and

14124-437: The poetic song composed by Corinna pertaining to a contest between Mount Helicon and Mount Cithaeron ). The famous Greek dish klephtiko (or kleftiko), a dish entailing slow-cooked lamb (or other meat), can be translated "in the style of the klephts". The klephts, not having flocks of their own, would steal lambs or goats and cook the meat in a sealed pit to avoid the smoke being seen. Kleptomania Kleptomania

14256-514: The poorly equipped, but determined, Greeks. Nazi Germany then intervened in April 1941 to avert an Italian defeat. The German military performed rapid military maneuvers through Yugoslavia and forced the encircled Greek forces of the Epirus front to surrender. The whole of Epirus was then placed under Italian occupation until 1943, when the Germans took over following the Italian surrender to

14388-468: The population has been depleted by migration. The population is centered around Ioannina, which has the largest number of industrial establishments. Epirus has historically been a remote and isolated region due to its location between the Pindus mountains and the sea. In antiquity, the Roman Via Egnatia passed through Epirus Nova , which linked Byzantium and Thessalonica to Dyrrachium on

14520-586: The presence of the shrine and oracle at Dodona – regarded as second only to the more famous oracle at Delphi . The Epirotes, speakers of a Northwest Greek dialect, different from the Dorian of the Greek colonies on the Ionian islands, and bearers of mostly Greek names, as evidenced by epigraphy, seem to have been regarded with some disdain by some classical writers. The 5th-century BC Athenian historian Thucydides describes them as " barbarians " in his History of

14652-507: The province of Macedonia . Under Emperor Trajan , sometime between 103 and 114 AD, Epirus became a separate province, under a procurator Augusti . The new province extended from the Gulf of Aulon ( Vlorë ) and the Acroceraunian Mountains in the north to the lower course of the Acheloos River in the south, and included the northern Ionian Islands of Corfu , Lefkada , Ithaca , Cephallonia , and Zakynthos . Probably during

14784-482: The provincial reorganization by Diocletian (r. 284–305), the western portion of the province of Macedonia along the Adriatic coast was split off into the province of New Epirus ( Latin : Epirus Nova ). Although this territory was not traditionally part of Epirus proper as defined by the ancient geographers, and was historically inhabited by Illyrian tribes and Greeks, the name reflects the fact that under Roman rule,

14916-648: The rebuilding of the provincial capital, Nicopolis . According to Jordanes , in 380 the Visigoths raided the area. With the division of the Empire on the death of Theodosius I in 395, Epirus became part of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire . In 395–397, the Visigoths under Alaric plundered Greece. They remained in Epirus for a few years, until 401, and again in 406–407, during Alaric's alliance with

15048-455: The region around Dyrrhachium existed as the homonymous theme possibly as early as the 9th century. During the early 10th century, the themes of Cephallenia and Nicopolis appear mostly as bases for expeditions against southern Italy and Sicily, while Mardaites from both themes are listed in the large but unsuccessful expedition of 949 against the Emirate of Crete . In c.  930 ,

15180-425: The region's pervasive poverty. Nonetheless, the Ottomans did not enjoy total control of Epirus. The Himara and Zagori regions managed to successfully resist Ottoman rule and maintained a degree of independence throughout this period. The Ottomans expelled the Venetians from almost the whole area in the late 15th century. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the city of Ioannina attained great prosperity and became

15312-517: The region. Under Pjetër Losha , the Albanian Malakasi and Mazaraki tribes defeated Nikephoros II Orsini at the Battle of Achelous in 1359, which won Pjetër Losha the rule of Arta ; Losha then founded the Despotate of Arta (1358-1416) with the help of the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans. Although Albanian clans gained control of most of the region by 1366/7, their continued division into rival clans meant that they could not establish

15444-525: The reprisals that followed by the Greek guerillas resulted in the expulsion to Albania of almost the entire Cham population. With the liberation of Greece and the start of the first round of the Greek Civil War at the end of 1944, the highlands of Epirus became a major theater of guerrilla warfare between the leftist Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) and the right-wing National Republican Greek League (EDES). In subsequent years (1945–1949),

15576-461: The rugged mountains and back country. Most klephtic bands participated in some form in the Greek War of Independence . During the Greek War of Independence, the klephts, along with the armatoloi , formed the nucleus of the Greek fighting forces, and played a prominent part throughout its duration. Despite being ineffective, they were the only viable military force for the provisional governments of

15708-574: The same time, encompassing the sees of Vonditsa, Aetos, Acheloos, Rogoi , Ioannina, Hadrianopolis, Photike, and Buthrotum. Vagenetia notably no longer appears as a bishopric. As the authors of the Tabula Imperii Byzantini comment, it appears that "the Byzantine administration had brought the strongly Slavic-settled areas in the mainland somewhat under its control, and a certain Re-Hellenization had set in". Further north,

15840-584: The sanctuary of Dodona , the oldest oracle in ancient Greece, and the second most prestigious after Delphi . Unified into a single state in 370 BC by the Aeacidae dynasty, Epirus achieved fame during the reign of Pyrrhus of Epirus who fought the Roman Republic in a series of campaigns . Epirus subsequently became part of the Roman Republic along with the rest of Greece in 146 BC, which

15972-618: The sees of Bonditza, Aetos, and Acheloos. Basil II also established new, smaller themes in the region: Koloneia , and Dryinopolis (Hadrianopolis). The region joined the uprising of Petar Delyan in 1040, and suffered in the First Norman invasion of the Balkans : Dyrrhachium was occupied by the Normans in 1081–1084, Arta was unsuccessfully besieged, and Ioannina was captured by Robert Guiscard . An Aromanian presence in Epirus

16104-434: The theory that the similar groups of medications could be used in all these conditions. Consequently, the primary use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) group, which is a form of antidepressant, has been used in kleptomania and other impulse control disorders such as binge eating and OCD. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), lithium and valproic acid (sodium valproate) have been used as well. The SSRI's usage

16236-436: The treatment of kleptomania. Numerous behavioural approaches have been recommended as helpful according to several cases stated in the literature. They include: hidden sensitisation by unpleasant images of nausea and vomiting, aversion therapy (for example, aversive holding of breath to achieve a slightly painful feeling every time a desire to steal or the act is imagined), and systematic desensitisation . In certain instances,

16368-474: The twentieth century, kleptomania was strongly linked with the increased prevalence of department stores, and "department store kleptomaniacs" were a widely held social stereotype that had political implications. Kleptomania seems to be linked with other psychiatric disorders, especially mood swings, anxiety, eating disorders, and alcohol and substance use. The occurrence of stealing as a behavior in conjunction with eating disorders, particularly bulimia nervosa ,

16500-563: The use of combining several methods such as hidden sensitisation along with exposure and response prevention were applied. Even though the approaches used in CBT need more research and investigation in kleptomania, success in combining these methods with medication was illustrated over the use of drug treatment as the single method of treatment. The phenomenological similarity and the suggested common basic biological dynamics of kleptomania and OCD, pathological gambling and trichotillomania gave rise to

16632-411: Was able to lure Jakob to an ambush near Vobliana: Jakob was captured and immediately executed (1 October 1416). Carlo had effectively ended the rule of the Albanian clans in southernmost Epirus. Nevertheless, internal dissension eased the Ottoman conquest, which began with the capture of Ioannina in 1430 and continued with Arta in 1449, Angelokastro in 1460, Riniasa Castle and its environs (in what

16764-475: Was assassinated by Ottoman agents in 1822. When Greece became independent in 1830, however, Epirus remained under Ottoman rule. In 1854, during the Crimean War , a major local rebellion broke out . Although the newly found Greek state tried tacitly to support it, the rebellion was suppressed by Ottoman forces after a few months. Another failed rebellion by local Greeks broke out in 1878 . During this period,

16896-592: Was followed by the Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire . Following the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade (1204), Epirus became the center of the Despotate of Epirus , one of the successor states to the Byzantine Empire . In the 14th century, Epirus was brought under the rule of the restored Byzantine Empire , before being briefly conquered by the Serbian Empire . The region

17028-465: Was rebuilt, albeit in reduced extent, and renamed Justinianopolis, while Euroea was moved further inland (traditionally identified with the founding of Ioannina ), while Procopius claims that no less than 36 smaller fortresses in Epirus Vetus—most of them not identifiable today—were either rebuilt or built anew. In the late 6th century, much of Greece, including Epirus, fell under the control of

17160-568: Was short-lived, as when World War I broke out, Albania collapsed, and northern Epirus was alternately controlled by Greece, Italy and France at various intervals. Although the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 awarded Northern Epirus to Greece, developments such as the Greek defeat in the Greco-Turkish War and, crucially, Italian lobbying in favor of Albania meant that Greece would not keep Northern Epirus. In 1924,

17292-694: Was then divided amongst a number of despotates and political entities, including the Despotate of Epirus, the Despotate of Arta , the Zenebishi family , and the Republic of Venice , before being conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. Epirus became part of the semi-independent Pashalik governed by the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha in the early 19th century, but the Sublime Porte re-asserted its control in 1821. Following

17424-416: Was viewed more as a legal excuse for self-indulgent haut bourgeois ladies than a valid psychiatric ailment by French psychiatrists. Sigmund Freud , the creator of controversial psychoanalytic theory , believed that the underlying dynamics of human behaviours associated with uncivilized savages—impulses were curbed by inhibitions for social life. He did not believe human behaviour to be rational. He created

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