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118-403: IR8 was the eighth of 38 crossbred rice varieties in a 1962 experiment by IRRI. It was a cross of Peta, a high yield rice variety from Indonesia , and Dee-geo-woo-gen (DGWG), a dwarf variety from Taiwan . The semidwarf-1 gene (sd-1 or Os01g0883800), which encodes an enzyme in the production of the hormone gibberellin , which affects plant height; this improved its yield. IR8 was well suited to

236-472: A democratisation process, and periods of rapid economic growth. Indonesia consists of thousands of distinct native ethnic groups and hundreds of linguistic groups, with Javanese being the largest. A shared identity has developed with the motto " Bhinneka Tunggal Ika " ("Unity in Diversity" literally , "many, yet one"), defined by a national language , cultural diversity, religious pluralism within

354-531: A special autonomous status ( otonomi khusus ) from the central government. Aceh, a conservative Islamic territory , has the right to create some aspects of an independent legal system implementing sharia . Yogyakarta is the only pre-colonial monarchy legally recognised within Indonesia, with the positions of governor and vice governor being prioritised for the reigning Sultan of Yogyakarta and Duke of Pakualaman , respectively. The six Papuan provinces are

472-632: A Dutch-Indonesian union and an elected legislature, although Dutch Queen Wilhelmina made a speech in London in May 1941 promising unspecified changes to the relationship with the East Indies after the war. On 23 January 1942, three years before the 1945 proclamation, an independence activist Nani Wartabone declared "Indonesian independence" after he and his people won in a revolt in Gorontalo against

590-449: A Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. A developing country , Indonesia is classified a newly industrialized country , with its economy the world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 7th-largest by PPP . It is the world's third-largest democracy, a regional power , and is considered a middle power in global affairs. The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including

708-761: A central role in the Indonesian National Revolution . One of the other changes that had also taken place during the Japanese occupation included the population in Indonesia undertaking military training. Conflict occurred not only with the Dutch, but also when the Japanese tried to re-establish control in October 1945 in Bandung, and furthermore when the British tried to establish control. After

826-599: A decade, Parindra was lukewarm, resenting the possibility of Soetardjo succeeding where the other nationalist organizations had failed. The petition was passed by a majority of the Volksraad , but rejected by the Dutch in November 1938. In May 1937, Parindra, the Indonesian People's Movement (Gerindo), was established by younger Marxists including Amir Sjarifuddin , another future prime minister, to campaign for

944-402: A declaration worded as follows: Sukarno and Hatta rejected this wording, believing that it had the potential to spark violence and would cause problems for the Japanese as it implied a transfer of sovereignty in violation of the terms of the surrender. Sukarno drafted the final version, which read as follows: This final version contained the phrase "transfer of power", which was acceptable to

1062-462: A dividing line ( Wallace Line ) between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. It runs roughly north–south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait , between Lombok and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the line are generally Asian, while east from Lombok is increasingly Australian until the tipping point at

1180-440: A harsh Japanese response. We the people of Indonesia do hereby declare the independence of Indonesia. Matters concerning the transfer of power and other matters will be executed in an orderly manner and in the shortest possible time. Djakarta, 17 August 05 In the name of the people of Indonesia The date of the declaration, "05" refers to " Japanese imperial year ( 皇紀 , kōki ) 2605". Indonesian youths spread news of

1298-720: A legislature ( DPRD Kabupaten/Kota ). The third level are the districts ( kecamatan , distrik in Papua , or kapanewon and kemantren in Yogyakarta ), and the fourth are the villages (either desa , kelurahan , kampung , nagari in West Sumatra , or gampong in Aceh ). The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several community groups ( rukun warga , RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups ( rukun tetangga , RT). In Java,

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1416-487: A longer term target to further increase the coverage of its marine protected areas to 10% of its territorial waters, or 31 million hectares. Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with four constitutional amendments revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Chief among them

1534-540: A proclamation. Meanwhile, various pemuda groups had heard the surrender rumors and held a meeting. Those present included D. N. Aidit , Chairul Saleh and Wikana . They decided to send a deputation led by Wikana to meet Sukarno at his home and demand an immediate proclamation of independence in person, rather than through the PPKI, which they saw as having no credibility, and which in any case had no pemuda members. In an angry exchange, Sukarno refused to do so as besides

1652-478: A range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches , dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems. Indonesia is one of the Coral Triangle countries with the world's most enormous diversity of coral reef fish , with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only. British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described

1770-520: A wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the Sumatran tiger , rhinoceros, orangutan, Asian elephant , and leopard were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna. Papua was part of the Australian landmass and

1888-569: Is US$ 15,835, while nominal per capita GDP is US$ 5,108. Services are the economy's largest sector and account for 43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%). Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%). Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably. Historically, it has been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and government policies in

2006-649: Is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) and the East Asia Summit . In common with most of the Muslim world , Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and has actively supported Palestine . However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and

2124-404: Is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of

2242-536: Is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections , elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019. Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level are

2360-403: Is generally below average in both regional and global context. Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates. In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area, down from 87% in 1950. Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia . Most recently, it has been driven by

2478-754: Is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire , where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian Plate , where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java , Bali and Nusa Tenggara , and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi . Of

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2596-495: Is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species. Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. Indonesia harbours 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest , and the highest amount of forest carbon in the region. Tropical seas surround Indonesia's 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline. The country has

2714-591: Is now Taiwan. They arrived in the archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native Melanesians to the far eastern regions as they spread east. Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries BCE. Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. From

2832-563: Is some policy recognition of OECMs but no national mechanism for reporting them. There are 55 national parks in Indonesia, of which 9 are predominantly marine . Of these 6 are World Heritage Sites , such as the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra that includes three parks. Seven national parks are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and 5 are wetlands of international importance under

2950-555: Is the delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a unitary state . The President of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government , commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( Tentara Nasional Indonesia , TNI), and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. The highest representative body at

3068-722: Is the world's largest producer of nickel . These commodities make up a large portion of the country's exports, with palm oil and coal briquettes as the leading export commodities. In addition to refined and crude petroleum as the primary imports, telephones, vehicle parts and wheat cover the majority of additional imports. China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand are Indonesia's principal export markets and import partners. Proclamation of Indonesian Independence The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence ( Indonesian : Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia , or simply Proklamasi )

3186-719: The Netherlands East Indies ( Nederlandsch Oost Indië ), popularly Indië ; the East ( de Oost ); and Insulinde . After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894 . The first native scholar to use

3304-426: The 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake . Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity , and it is among the 17 megadiverse countries identified by Conservation International . Its flora and fauna are a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia and have

3422-555: The Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes Marine Corps ), and Air Force (TNI–AU). The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018, with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and foundations. The Armed Forces were formed during the Indonesian National Revolution when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia. Since then, territorial lines have formed

3540-495: The Bali myna , Sumatran orangutan , and Javan rhinoceros . Some academics describe the deforestation and other environmental destruction in the country as an ecocide . As of 2023, the government of Indonesia has gazetted 21.3% of the country's land as protected areas , with the intention of developing a new protected area strategy in line with global post-2020 framework . The country also has 411 marine reserves , or 9% of

3658-467: The Constitution of Indonesia . The Dutch, as the former colonial power, viewed the republicans as collaborators with the Japanese, and desired to restore their colonial rule, as they still had political and economic interests in the former Dutch East Indies. The result was a four-year war for Indonesian independence. Indonesian youths had played an important role in the proclamation, and they played

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3776-611: The Constitutional Court ( Mahkamah Konstitusi ) which listens to constitutional and political matters, and the Religious Court ( Pengadilan Agama ), which deals with codified Islamic Personal Law ( sharia ) cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission ( Komisi Yudisial ) monitors the performance of judges. Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all legislative elections since

3894-471: The Consumer Price Index have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years. From 2007 to 2019, annual growth accelerated to between 4% and 6% due to improvements in the banking sector and domestic consumption, helping Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession , and regain in 2011 the investment grade rating it had lost in 1997. As of 2019 , 9.41% of the population lived below

4012-690: The Imperial Japanese Navy . As the area controlled by the Navy was the source of essential supplies, including food, to the other areas, rear-admiral Tadashi Maeda was appointed to the liaison office of the naval attaché in Batavia to expedite deliveries and to ensure the maintenance of good relations with the Army. In April 1943, the Japanese established the Triple-A mass movement. Its name

4130-495: The Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands , including Sumatra , Java , Sulawesi , and parts of Borneo and New Guinea . Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area , at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country . Java,

4248-681: The Indian subcontinent . Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam , and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery . Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism , Indonesia secured its independence after World War II . Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism,

4366-708: The Indonesian language . This expression of national unity was a reaction to the older generation, which tended to identify with their region or ethnicity, and subsequently became known as the Youth Pledge . The PNI grew rapidly, causing concern for the authorities, who arrested Sukarno and seven party leaders in December 1929. They were put on trial for being a threat to public order and in September 1930 received sentences of one to four years – Sukarno received

4484-617: The Japanese invasion and occupation ended Dutch rule and encouraged the independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, influential nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence . Sukarno, Hatta, and Sutan Sjahrir were appointed president, vice-president, and prime minister, respectively. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule. In

4602-681: The Maluku Islands . Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company ( Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie ; VOC) and became the dominant European power for almost 200 years. The VOC was dissolved in 1799 following bankruptcy, and the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony. For most of the colonial period , Dutch control over

4720-553: The Perhimpoenan Indonesia , or Indonesian Association. Among its leaders were future Indonesian vice-president Mohammad Hatta and future prime minister Sutan Sjahrir . In September 1927, Hatta and other members were arrested for inciting resistance to Dutch authority in the East Indies, but thanks to a rousing defense speech by Hatta, they were acquitted. Back in the East Indies, in 1927, nationalist and future Indonesian president Sukarno turned his study club into

4838-556: The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly ( Konstituante ). The most recent elections in 2019 resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president

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4956-529: The Ramsar convention . Around 9% of the Indonesia surface are national parks. As of 2012 Indonesia had over 100 marine protected areas covering an area of 15.7 million ha, of which 32 where managed by the Ministry of Forestry while the rest where managed by local governments. In 2009 the president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono declared a target of reaching 20 million hectares by 2020. In 2010 Indonesia also set out

5074-715: The UNHRC have raised the issue of human rights abuses committed by Indonesian troops in Papua such as extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances. Past engagements of the army include the conflict against the Netherlands over the Dutch New Guinea , the opposition to the British -sponsored creation of Malaysia (" Konfrontasi "), the mass killings of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and

5192-489: The Weber Line . In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago , Wallace described numerous species unique to the area. The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea . Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues . They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Problems include

5310-682: The invasion of East Timor , the latter having been Indonesia's most massive military operation. Indonesia has a mixed economy in which the private sector and government play vital roles. As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, the country has the largest economy in the region and is classified as a newly industrialised country . Per a 2023 estimate, it is the world's 16th largest economy by nominal GDP and 7th in terms of GDP at PPP , estimated to be US$ 1.417 trillion and US$ 4.393 trillion, respectively. Per capita GDP in PPP

5428-436: The palm oil industry, which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities. The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including

5546-436: The provinces , which have a legislature ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah , DPRD) and an elected governor . A total of 38 provinces have been established from the original eight in 1945, the most recent change being the split of Southwest Papua from the province of West Papua in 2022. The second level are the regencies ( kabupaten ) and cities ( kota ), led by regents ( bupati ) and mayors ( walikota ), respectively, and

5664-410: The tropical rainforest climate found on every large island of Indonesia. Cooler climate types exist in mountainous regions that are 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb ) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates ,

5782-413: The 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency. A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports. This development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the 1990 oil price shock , during which

5900-411: The 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java. Volcanic ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali. A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It

6018-580: The Cold War. Numerous attempts by the United States and the Soviet Union , and China to some degree, culminated in the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy. Quiet alignment with the Western world while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then. Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and

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6136-690: The Dutch East Indies, and rapidly overran the archipelago. The Dutch surrendered on 8 March. The Japanese banned the use of the Dutch language as well as the Indonesian flag and anthem , and the Japanese calendar was imposed. The archipelago was administered as three separate regions: Sumatra by the Twenty-Fifth Army , Java and Madura by the Sixteenth Army and Kalimantan and the resource-rich eastern islands by

6254-508: The Dutch when they reoccupied their colony. At a meeting in Singapore at the end of July, it was decided that Java would become independent at the end of September, followed by other areas. On 6 and 9 August, atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . On 7 August, the Japanese announced the formation of a Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) to accelerate preparations for establishing an Indonesian government for

6372-466: The Dutch who were afraid of Japanese invasion of Celebes. He was later imprisoned by the Japanese after they had invaded the area. With the outbreak of the war in the Far East , and the initial successes of Japan, in early 1942, the Dutch authorities gave Amir Sjarifuddin money to establish an underground resistance movement and sent Hatta and Sjahrir back to Java. In January 1942, the Japanese invaded

6490-544: The GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%. As a result, the official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%. Trade barriers reduction from the mid-1980s made the economy more globally integrated. The growth ended with the 1997 Asian financial crisis that severely impacted the economy, including a 13.1% real GDP contraction in 1998 and a 78% inflation. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth. Relatively steady inflation and an increase in GDP deflator and

6608-571: The Indonesian Nationalist Association, which in May 1928 became the Indonesian National Party (PNI). The party aimed to achieve Indonesian independence through mass-based non-cooperation with the authorities. In October 1928, the representatives at a Youth Congress held in Batavia, the capital, adopted the ideals of one motherland, Indonesia; one nation, the nation of Indonesia; and one language,

6726-461: The Japanese as the Japanese language translation of the phrase implied transfer of administrative control, rather than of sovereignty, which could have been seen as a violation by the Japanese of the ceasefire commitment to preserve the status quo . It was also acceptable to the Indonesians, who could interpret this transfer in a wider sense. Meanwhile, the phrase "in an orderly manner" reassured

6844-492: The Japanese military that there would be no interference in a declaration of independence as long as it was not associated with the Japanese, as this would be a breach of the surrender terms. Sukarno and Hatta then went to Maeda's house, now the Formulation of Proclamation Text Museum , where members of the PPKI were waiting, having been told to go there by Subardjo. Earlier that day, the pemuda led by Sjahrir had produced

6962-511: The Japanese, still with the ultimate goal of Indonesian independence. The two men urged the Japanese to establish a popular political organization that they would lead, and this came about in March 1943 with the formation of Putera , the Centre of People's Power. Although it was controlled by the Japanese, it was led by Sukarno, Hatta, Hajar Dewantara and pre-war Islamic figure Mas Mansoer . Like

7080-691: The Japanese. In October 1943, the Japanese formed the Defenders of the Homeland (PETA) volunteer army intended to help fight off an allied invasion of the East Indies, and also established the Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations (Masjumi) as an umbrella group for Muslims. In 1944, Putera was dissolved and replaced by the Java Service Association ( Jawa Hokokai ), with Sukarno and Hatta given key positions in it, albeit answering to

7198-403: The Netherlands and assumed the leadership of the rival New PNI, which had a more Marxist and revolutionary platform than Partindo. Sukarno was arrested again in August 1933, and was exiled first to Flores , then to Bencoolen , while Hatta and Sjahrir were arrested and exiled to the Boven Digul detention camp in western New Guinea. The detention of these nationalist figures effectively ended

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7316-463: The PPKI. On 15 August, Japan surrendered , and the Japanese authorities in the East Indies were ordered to maintain the status quo pending the arrival of allied forces. However there was no official confirmation from the Japanese of the surrender. Again there was disagreement between the older generation, including Sukarno and Hatta, who were uncertain how to proceed, and the pemuda , including Sjahrir, who urged Sukarno to declare independence without

7434-450: The Philippines , Australia , Palau , and India . Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity . The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and

7552-407: The Philippines, Palau, and Australia. At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea and include Kapuas , Barito , Mamberamo , Sepik and Mahakam . They serve as communication and transport links between

7670-447: The Triple A, it achieved very little. As the tide turned against Japan and its territorial expansion halted, Japan started to talk of greater Indonesian involvement in the governance of Java, where the 16th Army was much more in favor of such participation than the 25th Army or the Navy in other parts of the archipelago. A Central Advisory Council was established, again headed by Sukarno, and more Indonesians were appointed as advisors to

7788-443: The UN) scattered over both sides of the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited. The largest are Sumatra , Java , Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi , and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik , Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, East Timor on the island of Timor , and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam,

7906-418: The United Nations, World Trade Organization , G20 , and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , East Asia Summit , D-8 , APEC , and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos ( Ἰνδός ) and nesos ( νῆσος ), meaning "Indian islands". The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating

8024-399: The archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816 . The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and

8142-500: The archipelago by Sukarno and Hatta, and in October 1944, established a Free Indonesia Dormitory to prepare youth leaders for an independent Indonesia. With the war situation becoming increasingly dire, in March 1945 the Japanese announced the formation of an Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK), comprising members of the older political generation, including Sukarno and Hatta. Chaired by Rajiman Wediodiningrat , in two sessions in May and June, it decided on

8260-464: The archipelago was tenuous. Dutch forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku , and the Aceh War weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces. Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. During World War II,

8378-416: The basis for an independent nation and produced a draft constitution . Meanwhile, the younger activists, known as the pemuda , wanted much more overt moves towards independence than the older generation were willing to risk, resulting in a split between the generations. Following the call from the allies for Japan to surrender , the Japanese decided to grant Indonesian independence to create problems for

8496-476: The basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. The military has possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which peaked during the New Order . Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature. Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level. Since independence,

8614-522: The beginning of the Indonesian National Revolution , the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the face of international pressure in December 1949, following the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference . Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence. As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing

8732-643: The challenge from Hatta as he knew that only Sukarno and Hatta had the authority to make a credible declaration of independence. Spurred on by this humiliation and the desire to demonstrate the commitment of the pemuda , a decision was taken by a group including Chairul Saleh and Wikana to take action. In the early hours of the morning of 16 August, they took Sukarno and Hatta to the town of Rengasdengklok (today in Karawang Regency , West Java ), ostensibly to protect them from an uprising by Peta troops, but in fact to force them to declare independence. However,

8850-499: The country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis . It brought out popular discontent with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency. In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its 1975 invasion by Indonesia and a 25-year occupation marked by international condemnation of human rights abuses . Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting

8968-456: The country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and separatist movements. Some, notably in Aceh and Papua , have led to an armed conflict and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. The former was resolved peacefully in 2005, while the latter has continued amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws. Reports from Amnesty , Human Rights Watch , and

9086-497: The country's first direct presidential election in 2004 . Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of terrorism remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh

9204-415: The country's total maritime area, and has set a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a 2023 study suggested this target is not on track and that existing marine reserves are poorly managed. Around 390 marine areas are managed in some way by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for these to be considered other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs). There

9322-432: The destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation (causing extensive haze across parts of Southeast Asia ), over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and reliable water and wastewater services . These issues contribute to Indonesia's low ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index . The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance

9440-589: The document from the Japanese-formed PPKI, only Sukarno and Hatta would sign it. The meeting broke up at 5am. The latin typewriter used to type the proclamation test was borrowed from Korvettenkapitän Dr.jur. Hermann Kandeler, the leader of a Nazi German military stützpunkt in Pasar Senen, Jakarta. This was because only Japanese typewriters were available in Maeda's house. The original plan

9558-539: The dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. The first Europeans arrived in the archipelago in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão , sought to monopolise the sources of nutmeg , cloves , and cubeb pepper in

9676-651: The executive branch. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance, while the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. Most civil disputes appear before the State Court ( Pengadilan Negeri ); appeals are heard before the High Court ( Pengadilan Tinggi ). The Supreme Court of Indonesia ( Mahkamah Agung ) is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include

9794-728: The fall of the New Order , no political party has won an overall majority of seats. The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) secured the most votes in the 2024 general election , becoming their third consecutive wins since 2014. Other notable parties include the Party of the Functional Groups ( Golkar ), the Great Indonesia Movement Party ( Gerindra ), the Democratic Party , and

9912-525: The following day. The date of the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence was made a public holiday by a government decree issued on 18 June 1946. In 1918, the Dutch authorities in the Dutch East Indies established a partly-elected People's Council, the Volksraad , which for the first time gave Indonesian nationalists a voice. Meanwhile, Indonesian students studying in the Netherlands formed

10030-559: The formation of an Indonesian parliament in cooperation with the Dutch, which was the same aim of the Indonesian Political Federation (GAPI), formed two years later from a merger of almost all the nationalist organizations. However, the outbreak of the Second World War resulted in the occupation of the Netherlands, and the Dutch government in exile was in no position to respond to GAPI's request for

10148-528: The formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl , an English ethnologist , proposed the terms Indunesians —and, his preference, Malayunesians —for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago ". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan , used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago . Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia . They preferred Malay Archipelago ( Dutch : Maleische Archipel );

10266-438: The frequency of drought and food shortages (with an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons, and thus Indonesia's agriculture system ) as well as numerous diseases and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten most of Indonesia's population, who live in low-lying coastal areas. Impoverished communities would likely be affected the most by climate change. Tectonically , most of Indonesia's area

10384-449: The interiors of Kalimantan and Papua, and less in areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, which tends to be relatively dry. The almost uniformly warm waters that constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that land temperatures remain relatively constant. Humidity is quite high, at between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in May through October and from

10502-484: The involvement of the PPKI to avoid accusations from the Allies that independence was sponsored by Japan. In the afternoon of 15 August, Sukarno, Hatta and BPUPK member and future foreign minister Achmad Soebardjo called on Maeda to ask about the surrender rumours, and received unofficial confirmation that they were true. Hatta then asked Soebardjo to arrange a meeting of the PPKI for the following day and went home to draft

10620-419: The island's river settlements. Indonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round. Indonesia has two seasons—a dry season and a wet season —with no extremes of summer or winter. For most parts of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October, while the wet season falls between November and April. Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical , dominated by

10738-499: The longest sentence. The PNI dissolved itself in 1931, and in the same year, Sjahrir returned from the Netherlands and established a party called the New PNI which rather than focussing on mass action and being dependent on one leader, aimed to create a group of leaders who could ensure continuity if any were arrested. In 1931, Sukarno was released and joined the small Indonesia Party (Partindo) , while in August 1932, Hatta returned from

10856-478: The military governor. Although intended to mobilise the masses for Japanese interests, Sukarno in particular took advantage of his role to tour the archipelago making speeches. On 7 September 1944, Japanese Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso promised independence for the 'East Indies' "later on" ( di kemudian hari ). The authorities in Java then allowed the flying of the Indonesian flag at Jawa Hokokai buildings. Rear-admiral Maeda provided official funds for tours around

10974-458: The name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913, he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau . Fossilised remains of Homo erectus , popularly known as the " Java Man ", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. Homo sapiens reached the region around 43,000 BCE. Austronesian peoples , who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what

11092-642: The national level is the People's Consultative Assembly ( Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat , MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising broad outlines of state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat , DPR), with 575 members, and the Regional Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Daerah , DPD), with 136. The DPR passes legislation and monitors

11210-431: The need to discuss matters with the PPKI, he did not want to provoke the Japanese. Hatta subsequently arrived and took the same stance as Sukarno, and pointed out that there was still no official confirmation of the Japanese surrender. He then invited the pemuda to go ahead with a proclamation themselves. Wikana in turn demanded a declaration the following day, 16 August, and the delegation left. Wikana felt humiliated by

11328-493: The non-cooperation movement, and in December 1935 the moderate Indonesian National Union and Budi Utomo merged to form the Great Indonesia Party (Parindra), which aimed to work with the Dutch to achieve Indonesian independence. When in 1936, Volksraad member Soetardjo submitted a petition asking for a conference to be held that would lead to Indonesian self-government as part of a Dutch-Indonesian union over

11446-503: The north and west in November through April. Typhoons and large-scale storms pose little hazard to mariners; significant dangers come from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits. Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change . These include unreduced emissions resulting in an average temperature rise of around 1 °C (2 °F) by mid-century, raising

11564-462: The older nationalists as it implied no action by the pemuda , and "in the shortest possible time" was taken by the Indonesians to mean before the Allied forces arrived. Chairul Saleh and other pemuda figures protested ineffectually about the changes, but the majority of the PPKI agreed with the wording. After some debate as to who would sign the proclamation, it was agreed that in order to disassociate

11682-425: The only ones where the indigenous people have privileges in their local government. Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies. The country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other countries. Indonesia was a significant battleground during

11800-487: The opposing forces of the military , political Islam, and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965. The army, led by Major General Suharto , countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in concentration camps . The PKI

11918-565: The places it was first introduced. However, it “did not fit most rice-growing situations,” which involve heavy monsoons or deep flooding. This agriculture article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Poaceae article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Indonesia Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania , between

12036-544: The poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%. During the first year of the global COVID-19 pandemic , the economy suffered its first recession since the 1997 crisis but recovered in the following year. Indonesia has abundant natural resources. Its primary industries are fishing, petroleum, timber, paper products, cotton cloth, tourism, petroleum mining, natural gas, bauxite, coal, and tin. Its main agricultural products are rice, coconuts, soybeans, bananas, coffee, tea, palm, rubber, and sugar cane. Indonesia

12154-580: The preamble to the draft constitution , which had been written by the BPUPK, was read, then Sukarno, with Hatta by his side, read the proclamation: Kami, bangsa Indonesia, dengan ini menjatakan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Hal-hal jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d.l.l., diselenggarakan dengan tjara saksama dan dalam tempo jang sesingkat-singkatnja. Djakarta, hari 17 boelan 8 tahoen 05 Atas nama bangsa Indonesia, Soekarno/Hatta. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] PETA officer Latief Hendraningat raised

12272-603: The proclamation across Java almost immediately using Japanese news and telegraph facilities, and in Bandung the news was broadcast by radio. However many ordinary Indonesians either did not believe the reports or saw them as a Japanese deception. In Sumatra, only the republican elite in major cities knew about the proclamation by the middle of September. The day after the proclamation, the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence met and elected Sukarno as president and Hatta as vice-president. It also ratified

12390-577: The red and white flag of Indonesia and the attendees sung the Indonesian national anthem, Indonesia Raya . An English translation published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as of October 1948 included the entire speech as read by Sukarno . It incorporated remarks made immediately prior to and after the actual proclamation. George McTurnan Kahin , a historian on Indonesia, believed that they were omitted from publication in Indonesia either due to Japanese control of media outlets or fear of provoking

12508-455: The seventh century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished due to trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism . Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan . The Hindu Majapahit kingdom

12626-438: The subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb ) is more pronounced during dry season. Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra , experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season and floods in the wet season. Rainfall varies across regions, with more in western Sumatra, Java, and

12744-474: The two men still refused to make such a proclamation without assurances from the Japanese. Later that morning, Maeda learned that Sukarno and Hatta had disappeared. An Army investigation led to Wikana, who was pressured to return the two men to Jakarta. Following a guarantee of safety and cooperation from Maeda, as well as the use of his house for discussions, Subardjo went to Rengasdengklok and brought Sukarno and Hatta back to Jakarta. They obtained an assurance from

12862-633: The village ( desa ) is divided into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become chief administrative units responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles village or neighbourhood matters through an elected village head ( lurah or kepala desa ). Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua , Central Papua , Highland Papua , South Papua , Southwest Papua , and West Papua —are granted

12980-512: The whole of the East Indies, not just Java. Two days later, Sukarno, Hatta and Rajiman Wediodiningrat were flown by the Japanese to Dalat , near Saigon , to meet with Field Marshall Hisaichi Terauchi , the Japanese commander of the Southern Expeditionary Army Group , who promised independence for the territory of the former Dutch East Indies and formally appointed Sukarno and Hatta as chairman and vice-chairman of

13098-523: The world's most populous island , is home to more than half of the country's population. Indonesia is a presidential republic with an elected legislature . It has 38 provinces , of which nine have special autonomous status . The country's largest city, Jakarta , is the world's second-most-populous urban area . Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea , East Timor , and the eastern part of Malaysia , as well as maritime borders with Singapore , Peninsular Malaysia , Vietnam , Thailand ,

13216-812: Was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Indonesia is a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group , the World Trade Organization (WTO), and a former member of OPEC . Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967, and recently, the country established its first overseas aid programme in late 2019. Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include

13334-579: Was achieved in 2005. Indonesia is the southernmost country in Asia. The country lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E . A transcontinental country spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is the world's largest archipelagic state , extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south. The country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at

13452-402: Was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno , Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His US-backed "New Order" administration encouraged foreign direct investment , which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. Indonesia was

13570-412: Was for the proclamation to be read in public before a crowd at the square in the center of Jakarta, now Merdeka Square . However, the Japanese authorities, fearing disorder, deployed soldiers to the area, and as a result, the proclamation was made at Sukarno's house at 56 Jalan Pegangsaan Timur at 10 AM Japan Standard Time , which was in use during the occupation. The ceremony was very simple. Firstly,

13688-401: Was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada , its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia. This period is often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. The earliest evidence of Islamized populations in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra . Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was

13806-517: Was read at 10:00 Tokyo Standard Time on Friday, 17 August 1945 in Jakarta . The declaration marked the start of the diplomatic and armed resistance of the Indonesian National Revolution , fighting against the forces of the Netherlands and pro-Dutch civilians, until the latter officially acknowledged Indonesia's independence in 1949. The document was signed by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta , who were appointed president and vice-president respectively

13924-718: Was taken from the Japanese propaganda slogan portraying Japan as the leader, protector and light of Asia. However it failed to gain support as no significant Indonesian nationalists were involved, and the propaganda was too heavy-handed. The Japanese then decided that it would be more effective to use pre-war nationalists to mobilize the population in support of their war aims. In July, the 25th Army freed Sukarno from exile in Sumatra, and he joined Hatta and Sjahrir in Jakarta, as Batavia had been renamed. They agreed that Sjahrir would work underground, while Sukarno and Hatta would cooperate with

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