Timeline
124-635: The adjective kaiserlich-königlich (usually abbreviated to k. k. ), German for imperial–royal , was applied to the authorities and state institutions of the Austrian Empire until the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , which established the Austro-Hungarian Empire . Thereafter the abbreviation k. k. only applied to institutions of the so-called Cisleithania (i.e. those lands not part of
248-732: A French minister of State's declaration that Italy would never lay its hands on Rome, the Emperor had commented "You know, in politics, one should never say 'never'." ) and had made various proposals for resolving the Roman Question , but Pius IX rejected them all. Despite his support for Italian unification, Napoleon could not press the issue for fear of angering Catholics in France. Raffaele de Cesare, an Italian journalist, political scientist, and author, noted that: The alliance, proposed two years before 1870, between France, Italy, and Austria,
372-473: A House of Deputies ( Abgeordnetenhaus ). But most nationalities of the monarchy remained dissatisfied. After the second war with Denmark in 1864, Holstein came under Austrian administration, and Schleswig and Lauenburg under Prussian administration. But the internal difficulties continued. Diets replaced the parliament in 17 provinces, the Hungarians pressed for autonomy, and Venetia was attracted by
496-422: A Korps headquarters and its component units. Most reservists lived close to their regimental depots and could be swiftly mobilized. Austrian policy was to ensure that units were stationed far from home to prevent them from taking part in separatist revolts. Conscripts on leave or reservists recalled to their units during mobilization faced a journey that might take weeks before they could report to their units, making
620-495: A decisive part in the overthrow of Napoleon in the campaigns of 1813–14. It participated in a second invasion of France in 1815, and put an end to Murat's regime in south Italy. The latter period of Napoleonic Wars featured Metternich exerting a large degree of influence over foreign policy in the Austrian Empire, a matter nominally decided by the Emperor. Metternich initially supported an alliance with France, arranging
744-516: A dispatch to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Alexander Mensdorff-Pouilly . He explained to him that Prussian public opinion had become extremely sensitive about the Duchies issue and that he had no doubt that "this artificial exaggeration of the danger by public opinion formed an essential part of the calculations and actions of Count Bismarck [who considered] the annexation of the Duchies ...
868-548: A federal union" in 1871. The resulting German Empire would become one of the most influential European powers. In addition to war reparations, the following territorial changes took place: The war meant the end of the German Confederation. Those states who remained neutral or passive during the conflict took different actions after the Prague treaty: The Austrian Chancellor Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust
992-582: A matter of life and death for his political existence [and wished] to make it appear such for Prussia too." Possible evidence can be found in Bismarck's orchestration of the Austrian alliance during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark, which can be seen as his diplomatic "masterstroke". Taylor also believes that the alliance was a "test for Austria rather than a trap" and that the goal
1116-553: A partial mobilization against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June. Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June. For several centuries, Central Europe was split into a few large- or medium-sized states and hundreds of tiny entities , which while ostensibly being within the Holy Roman Empire ruled by
1240-584: A stable economy and reached an almost balanced budget, despite having a major deficit following the Napoleonic Wars. From March 1848 through November 1849, the Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, most of which were of a nationalist character. Besides that, liberal and even socialist currents resisted the empire's longstanding conservatism. Although most of the revolution plans failed, some changes were made; significant lasting reforms included
1364-511: A system which delegated the responsibilities of the Kreise among subordinate Amtsbezirke [ de ] ('office districts'), a system which persisted until 1867. In the course of the post-1848 reforms Transylvania was also divided into Kreise in 1851 (re-divided in 1854 ); the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar was also divided into Kreise . German was
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#17327765442111488-471: A unique rifling system invented by Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg called the Lenk system. The Prussians, however, by this point had replaced up to 60% of their smooth bore artillery with the technologically superior C64 (field gun) , which had been in production since 1859. However, due to tactical reluctance on the part of Prussian high command to utilise relatively unfamiliar technology, and doctrinal stagnation in
1612-533: A united Germany had also become unpopular following the fall of the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849. One of the strongest social forces in Germany at the time was religion, which provided Germans with common confessional values and identities that transcended national boundaries. This led to a strong confessional rivalry between the southern Catholic and northern Protestant states. Breuilly remarks that
1736-697: A variety of other names, was fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia , with each also being aided by various allies within the German Confederation . Prussia had also allied with the Kingdom of Italy , linking this conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification . The Austro-Prussian War was part of the wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia , and resulted in Prussian dominance over
1860-495: A very bad reputation among Czechs and subsequently led to the strengthening of the Czech national movement . However, Bach's relaxed ideological views (apart from the neo-absolutism) led to a great rise in the 1850s of economic freedom . Internal customs duties were abolished, and peasants were emancipated from their feudal obligations. In her capacity as leader of the German Confederation, Austria participated with volunteers in
1984-496: A whole. Further, Metternich opposed the weakening of France in the years after Napoleon, and viewed the new monarchy in Paris as an effective tool in keeping Russia at bay. From 1815 to 1848, Metternich steered Austria Imperial foreign policy, and indeed the mood of Europe, and managed to keep peace on the continent despite the growing liberal and radical movements inside most major powers. His resignation in 1848, forced by moderates in
2108-466: A widespread disinterest in the establishment of armed home guards". Nevertheless, the formed North German Confederation would go on to win the war and annex Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg in 1871. According to Geoffrey Wawro , the political and military power accumulated by Prussia allowed it to annex the northern German states in 1866 and then "force the Catholic states very much against their will into
2232-550: Is also referred to as the " Age of Metternich ". During this period, Metternich controlled the Habsburg monarchy 's foreign policy. He also had a major influence in European politics. He was known for his strong conservative views and approach in politics. Metternich's policies were strongly against revolution and liberalism. In his opinion, liberalism was a form of legalized revolution. Metternich believed that absolute monarchy
2356-493: Is known that even on 6 August 1866, I was in the position to observe the French ambassador make his appearance to see me in order, to put it succinctly, to present an ultimatum: to relinquish Mainz , or to expect an immediate declaration of war. Naturally I was not doubtful of the answer for a second. I answered him: "Good, then it's war!" He travelled to Paris with this answer. A few days after one in Paris thought differently, and I
2480-518: The Landwehr , the home guard. Introducing universal conscription for three years increased the size of the active duty army and provided Prussia with a reserve army equal in size to that which Moltke deployed against Austria. Had France under Napoleon III attempted to intervene against the Prussians, they could have faced him with equal or superior numbers of troops. Prussian conscript service
2604-547: The Alvensleben Convention of February 1863 with Russia, whereas Austria had not. France : France was also unlikely to enter on the side of Austria, because Bismarck and Napoleon III met in Biarritz and allegedly discussed whether or not France would intervene in a potential Austro-Prussian war. The details of the discussion are unknown but many historians think Bismarck was guaranteed French neutrality in
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#17327765442112728-654: The Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and countries. This confederation, under French influence, de facto put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, Francis proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was not recognized by George III of the United Kingdom who
2852-528: The Creditanstalt , and the state was heavily in debt. Historian Christopher Clark wrote that there is little to suggest that Prussia had an overwhelming economic and industrial advantage over Austria and wrote that a larger portion of the Prussian population was engaged in agriculture than in the Austrian population and that Austrian industry could produce the most sophisticated weapons in the war (rifled artillery). The Austro-Prussian War ended quickly and
2976-612: The Emperor of Austria . In k. k. , the second k. ( königlich = "royal", literally "kingly") referred, from 1867, to the King of Bohemia (the Kingdom of Bohemia / Lands of the Bohemian Crown were part of Cisleithania). In k. u. k. , the second k. ( königlich ) referred to the King of Hungary . Both the titles King of Bohemia and King of Hungary were borne by the Emperor. The abbreviation h. k. k. , which
3100-524: The First War of Schleswig (1848–1850). Sardinia allied itself with France for the conquest of Lombardy–Venetia . Austria was defeated in the 1859 armed conflict. The Treaties of Villafranca and Zürich removed Lombardy, except for the part east of the Mincio river, the so-called Mantovano . The Constitution of 1861 , also known as "February Patent", created a House of Lords ( Herrenhaus ) and
3224-480: The Holy Roman Emperor , operated in a largely independent fashion. When an existing Emperor died, seven secular and ecclesiastical princes, each of whom ruled at least one of the states, would elect a new Emperor. Over time the Empire became smaller and by 1789 came to consist of primarily German peoples (aside from Bohemia, Moravia, the southern Netherlands and Slovenia). Aside from five years (1740–1745),
3348-554: The Italian annexation of the Austrian realm of Venetia . The war erupted as a result of the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein , which the two of them had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The crisis started on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to permit
3472-650: The Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen /Transleithania: Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia ; Bosnia and Herzegovina , annexed in 1878 from the Ottoman Empire , was a condominium of Cis- and Transleithania). Common institutions of both halves of the empire were described from 1867 to 1918 as kaiserlich und königlich /k. u. k. ("imperial and royal"). Contrary to the regulations, the Common Army continued to use
3596-624: The Sixth Coalition War . Austria and its allies emerged victorious in the war, leading to the Congress of Vienna , which reaffirmed the empire as one of the great powers of the 19th century. The Kingdom of Hungary —as Regnum Independens—was administered by its own institutions separately from the rest of the empire. After Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
3720-417: The abbreviation k. k. to describe itself until 1889. Today, the abbreviation k. k. is often loosely replaced by k. u. k. ("k and k"), but the two terms are historically and legally distinct. The prefix k. u. k. ( kaiserlich und königlich ) only properly referred to the authorities and institutions of both halves of the empire. The first k. ( kaiserlich = "imperial") referred to
3844-531: The first Minister-President of the Austrian Empire. The liberal Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire forced Metternich's resignation. Metternich is remembered for his success in maintaining the status quo and the Habsburg influence in international affairs. No Habsburg foreign minister following Metternich held a similar position within the empire for such a long time nor held such a vast influence on European foreign affairs. Historians generally consider
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3968-566: The free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, but the actual consequence of the Imperial Recess, along with the French occupying the Electorate of Hanover in the same month and various Holy Roman states becoming allied with or against France, was the end of the empire. Taking this significant change into consideration, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II created
4092-516: The "royal" part referred to the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary. However, during World War I Austria-Hungary issued military stamps for use in occupied regions, with the text "K.u.K. Feldpost" or K.u.K. Militärpost. The Napoleonic Wars dominated Austrian foreign policy from 1804 to 1815. The Austrian army was one of the most formidable forces the French had to face. After Prussia signed a peace treaty with France on 5 April 1795, Austria
4216-614: The 1815 Congress of Vienna , including the local government reorganizations from the Revolutions of 1848 to the 1860 October Diploma : The old Habsburg possessions of Further Austria (in today's France, Germany and Switzerland) had already been lost in the 1805 Peace of Pressburg. From 1850, Croatia , Slavonia , and the Military Frontier constituted a single land with disaggregated provincial and military administration, and representation. Administratively, most of
4340-518: The Anglo-French coalition. Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war, which contributed to Russia's non-intervention in the 1859 Franco-Austrian War , which meant the end of Austrian influence in Italy; and in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War , with the loss of its influence in most German-speaking land. Crown lands of the Austrian Empire after
4464-522: The Artillery Corps, the modern Krupp guns were either sent to reserve units or used in tandem and to the same effect as their smooth bore counterparts, something that massively throttled their effectiveness in the war, and many of the guns that saw combat were the old smooth bore muzzle loaders. The Austrians too, while having standardised the Lenk system of rifling in their cannon, did not use their artillery to full effect. They specifically targeted
4588-705: The Atlantic Ocean to go and observe the American Civil War. These officers met with high ranking commanders and recorded both Union and Confederate tactics. They wrote about troop movements, artillery positioning, and new methods of attack that worked well for the Americans. These officers then travelled back to Prussia and briefed their generals about these observations. Some officers, such as Justus Scheibert , published their adventures in America for
4712-475: The Austrian Army to preparedness for another war. Johann Philipp von Stadion, the foreign minister, personally hated Napoleon due to an experience of confiscation of his possessions in France by Napoleon. In addition, the third wife of Francis I, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este , agreed with Stadion's efforts to begin a new war. Klemens Wenzel von Metternich , located in Paris, called for careful advance in
4836-581: The Austrian Empire with other European powers whose monarchs had a similar interest in preserving conservative political direction, Metternich was able to establish the Austrian Empire's influence on European politics. Also, because Metternich used the fear of revolutions among European powers, which he also shared, he was able to establish security and predominance of the Habsburgs in Europe. Under Metternich, nationalist revolts in Austrian north Italy and in
4960-580: The Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia . There, the Prussian armies, led nominally by King William I , converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové) on 3 July. The Prussian Army of the Elbe advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the First Army on the center, prematurely; they risked being counter-flanked on their own left. Victory therefore depended on
5084-549: The Austrian foreign minister, other congresses would meet to resolve European foreign affairs. These included the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), and Verona (1822). The Metternich congresses aimed to maintain the political equilibrium among the European powers and prevent revolutionary efforts. These meetings also aimed to resolve foreign issues and disputes without resorting to violence. By means of these meetings and by allying
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5208-519: The Austrian mobilization much slower than that of the Prussian Army. The railway system of Prussia was more extensively developed than that within Austria. Railways made it possible to supply larger numbers of troops than hitherto and allowed the rapid movement of troops within friendly territory. The more efficient Prussian rail network allowed the Prussian army to concentrate more rapidly than
5332-704: The Austrian-Prussian war, which concentrate mainly on the fact that he had a master plan that resulted in this war, the North German Confederation and the unification of Germany. Bismarck maintained that he orchestrated the conflict in order to bring about the North German Confederation, the Franco-Prussian War and the eventual unification of Germany. On 22 February 1866, Count Károlyi , Austrian ambassador in Berlin , sent
5456-585: The Austrians rapidly, rather than continue the war in hopes of further gains. William had "planned to install both the crown prince of Hanover and the nephew of the elector of Hesse as titular grand dukes in small territorial residuals of their dynastic inheritance" due to opposition in the government cabinet, including Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia , to the annexation of several German states. The Austrians accepted mediation from France's Napoleon III . The Peace of Prague on 23 August 1866 resulted in
5580-413: The Austrians. Moltke, reviewing his plans to Roon stated, "We have the inestimable advantage of being able to carry our Field Army of 285,000 men over five railway lines and of virtually concentrating them in twenty-five days. ... Austria has only one railway line and it will take her forty-five days to assemble 200,000 men." Moltke had also said earlier, "Nothing could be more welcome to us than to have now
5704-465: The Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria was the leading member of the German Confederation. Following the Congress, the major European powers agreed to meet and discuss resolutions in the event of future disputes or revolutions. Because of Metternich's main role in the architecture of the Congress, these meetings are also referred to as the "Metternich congress" or "Metternich system". Under Metternich as
5828-513: The Electorate of Hesse by the crown of Prussia". Anti-annexationist petitions were organised and reached a significant number of signatures, with a separatist petition in Hanover reaching half a million signatures. In Nassau, Prussian soldiers were reportedly attacked by locals "with stones and axes"; according to Jasper Heinzen, "brawls between occupation troops and local veterans soon became so prevalent that one historian has called these incidents
5952-549: The First French Empire, unifying all Habsburg possessions under one central government. It remained part of the Holy Roman Empire until the latter's dissolution in 1806. It continued fighting against Napoleon throughout the Napoleonic Wars , except for a period between 1809 and 1813, when Austria was first allied with Napoleon during the invasion of Russia and later neutral during the first few weeks of
6076-462: The French and assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, Maximilian IV Joseph , the prince-elector and Duke of Bavaria , proclaimed himself king, followed by the Duke of Württemberg Frederick III on 11 December. Charles Frederick , Margrave of Baden , was given the title of Grand Duke on 12 December. Each of these new states became French allies. Francis II agreed to
6200-599: The German states were forcibly crushed. At home, he pursued a similar policy to suppress revolutionary and liberal ideals. He employed the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which used strict censorship of education, press and speech to repress revolutionary and liberal concepts. Metternich also used a wide-ranging spy network to dampen down unrest. Metternich operated very freely with regard to foreign policy under Emperor Francis I's reign. Francis died in 1835. This date marks
6324-521: The German states. The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony . It resulted in the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by the unification of all of the northern German states in the North German Confederation that excluded Austria and the other southern German states, a Kleindeutsches Reich . The war also resulted in
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#17327765442116448-524: The Habsburg family, whose personal territory was Austria , controlled the Emperorship from 1440 to 1806, although it became increasingly ceremonial only as Austria found itself at war at certain times with other states within the Empire, such as Prussia , which in fact defeated Austria during the War of Austrian Succession to seize the province of Silesia in 1742. While Austria was traditionally considered
6572-625: The Italian government wanted to join this potential alliance, but Italian public opinion was bitterly opposed so long as Napoleon III kept a French garrison in Rome protecting Pope Pius IX , thereby denying Italy the possession of its capital (Rome had been declared capital of Italy in March 1861, when the first Italian Parliament had met in Turin). Napoleon III was not strictly opposed to this (in response to
6696-488: The Metternich era as a period of stability : the Austrian Empire fought no wars nor did it undergo any radical internal reforms. However, it was also thought of as a period of economic growth and prosperity in the Austrian Empire. The population of Austria rose to 37.5 million by 1843. Urban expansion also occurred and the population of Vienna reached 400,000. During the Metternich era, the Austrian Empire also maintained
6820-438: The Prussian army, and thus would remain arbiter of the European situation. But when the war suddenly broke out, before anything was concluded, the first unexpected French defeats overthrew all previsions, and raised difficulties for Austria and Italy which prevented them from making common cause with France. Wörth and Sedan followed each other too closely. The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon's feet—that dragged him into
6944-419: The Prussian artillery with their own batteries, limiting their impact on the battlefield in regards to Prussian infantry. One notable exception is the use of Austrian artillery to good effect against infantry at Battle of Königgrätz . The Generals of the Prussian army realized that, in order to stay ahead of their Austrian enemies, they needed to explore new military tactics. They sent officers to travel across
7068-415: The Russian Empire in November 1804. This convention was to assure mutual cooperation in the case of a new war against France. Austrian unwillingness to join the Third Coalition was overcome by British subsidies, but the Austrians withdrew from the war yet again after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz. Although the Austrian budget suffered from wartime expenditures and its international position
7192-466: The abolition of serfdom , cancellation of censorship and a promise made by Ferdinand I of Austria said to implement a constitution throughout the whole Empire. After the death of Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg in 1852, the Minister of the Interior Baron Alexander von Bach largely dictated policy in Austria and Hungary. Bach centralized administrative authority for the Austrian Empire, but he also endorsed reactionary policies that reduced freedom of
7316-421: The abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan, that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made Emperor, and was supported by the votes of the conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it was his supreme duty not to abandon the Pontiff. ... For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations ... Without him
7440-419: The advantages of the Prussian army against the Austrian Empire. Taylor wrote that Bismarck was reluctant to pursue war as it "deprived him of control and left the decisions to the generals whose ability he distrusted". (The two most important personalities within the Prussian army were the War Minister Albrecht Graf von Roon and Chief of the General Staff Helmuth Graf von Moltke .) Taylor suggested that Bismarck
7564-526: The case of the war against France. The defeat of French army at the Battle of Bailén in Spain on 27 July 1808 triggered the war. On 9 April 1809, an Austrian force of 170,000 men attacked Bavaria . Despite military defeats of the Austrian army —especially the Battles of Marengo , Ulm , Austerlitz and Wagram —and consequently lost territory throughout the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (the Treaties of Campo Formio in 1797, Luneville in 1801, Pressburg in 1806, and Schönbrunn in 1809), Austria played
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#17327765442117688-404: The civil commissioner who oversaw the integration of Hanover into Prussia, to remark that "As a whole the Hanoverians are a tougher, less accommodating tribe than the Saxons. Their particularism rests not solely on Prussophobia .. . but above all on a deep-rooted conviction that life is nowhere better than in Hanover. Theirs is a solid ... national feeling". The protests of George V of Hanover and
7812-415: The confessional rivalry was so strong that "a Hamburg Lutheran had more in common with a Swedish Lutheran than with an Austrian Catholic". The minor nations of Germany valued their independence and believed that their ability to remain sovereign depended on Austro-Prussian dualism, with neither side allowed to become too powerful. Confessional division also played an important role in German dualism, and there
7936-403: The court, and revolutionaries in the streets, may have caused the spread of the revolutions throughout the monarchy. It is stipulated that Metternich's departure emboldened liberal factions in Austria and Hungary, but this cannot be confirmed for certain. During the Crimean War , Austria maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia , and, while not going to war, was supportive of
8060-437: The crown lands excluding Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, Lombardy–Venetia and the Military Frontier were divided into Kreise (' circles '), an administrative division introduced under Maria Theresa in the 18th century. Following the revolutions of 1848 a brief attempt was made to introduce modern-style political districts (in addition to the Kreise ), but the reforms of Bach in 1853/54 instead instituted
8184-421: The decline of Metternich's influence in the Austrian Empire. Francis' heir was his son Ferdinand I, but he suffered from health issues. Ferdinand's accession preserved the Habsburg dynastic succession, but he was not capable of ruling. The leadership of the Austrian Empire was transferred to a state council composed of Metternich, Francis I's brother Archduke Louis, and Count Franz Anton Kolowrat , who later became
8308-422: The dissolution of the German Confederation , Prussian annexation of four of Austria's former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. This left Prussia free to form the North German Confederation the next year, incorporating all the German states north of the Main River . Prussia chose not to seek Austrian territory for itself, and this made it possible for Prussia and Austria to ally in
8432-517: The estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, declaring the Austrian decision a breach of the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria replied on 7 February, asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights in the duchies. In March 1866, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia. Prussia responded with a partial mobilization of five divisions on 28 March. The Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck made an alliance with Italy on 8 April, committing it to
8556-416: The event of a war. Bismarck was aware of his numerical superiority but still "he was not prepared to advise it immediately even though he gave a favourable account of the international situation". When the Prussian victory became clear, France attempted to extract territorial concessions in the Palatinate , Rhenish Hesse and Luxembourg . In his speech to the Reichstag on 2 May 1871, Bismarck said: It
8680-473: The future, since Austria felt threatened more by Italian and Pan-Slavic irredentism than by Prussia. The war left Prussia dominant in German politics (since Austria was now excluded from Germany and no longer the top German power). The northern states protested against their annexation to Prussia, and both the dethroned rulers and the local population lamented the loss of their nation's sovereignty. Local resistance and regional loyalty led Hans von Hardenberg ,
8804-428: The great powers of Europe intervened is listed below: Britain : Britain had no stake economically or politically in the war between Prussia and Austria, thus, was not going to intervene. Russia : Russia was unlikely to enter on the side of Austria, due to ill will over Austrian support of the anti-Russian alliance during the Crimean War and Prussia had stood by Russia during the January Uprising in Poland, signing
8928-629: The humiliating Treaty of Pressburg , signed in Pressburg (today Bratislava , Slovakia) on 26 December 1805, in which he recognised these new titles and ceded large amounts of territory to Napoleon's German allies and the French Satellite Kingdom of Italy . In practice this meant the dissolution of the long-lived Holy Roman Empire and a reorganization under a Napoleonic model of the German states. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806,
9052-446: The leader of the German states, Prussia became increasingly powerful and by the late 18th century was ranked as one of the great powers of Europe. Francis II 's abolition of the office of Holy Roman Emperor in 1806 also deprived him of his imperial authority over most of German-speaking Europe, though little true authority remained by that time; he did, however, retain firm control of an extensive multi-ethnic empire (most of it outside
9176-605: The local population proved to be an effective obstacle to Hanover's assimilation into Prussia, and led to the founding of the German-Hanoverian Party , which received 46.6% of the Hanoverian vote in the March 1871 Reichstag election . Hostility to annexation was also felt in smaller annexed kingdoms such as Hesse, where the dethroned Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel strongly condemned "the usurpation of
9300-538: The lower part of Trentino , and moved towards Trento . The Prussian peace with Austria forced the Italian government to seek an armistice with Austria on 12 August. According to the Treaty of Vienna , signed on 12 October, Austria ceded Veneto to France, which, in turn, ceded it to Italy. In order to prevent "unnecessary bitterness of feeling or desire for revenge" and forestall intervention by France or Russia, Bismarck pushed King William I of Prussia to make peace with
9424-515: The marriage between Napoleon and Francis I's daughter, Marie-Louise; however, by the 1812 campaign, he had realised the inevitability of Napoleon's downfall and took Austria to war against France. Metternich's influence at the Congress of Vienna was remarkable, and he became not only the premier statesman in Europe but the virtual ruler of the Empire until 1848—the Year of revolutions —and the rise of liberalism equated to his political downfall. The result
9548-464: The monarch joined the Austrians, despite the Hessian Landtag voting for neutrality. King George V of Hanover during the spring of 1866 was contacted by Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph about establishing a coalition against the Prussians, but his success took some time. The Hanoverian monarch concluded that his kingdom would fall if it were to fight against the Prussian armies. Most of
9672-475: The most distinctive inaugural feature of the Prussian era". Anti-Prussian and separatist sentiment in newly annexed kingdoms continued into 1871, as local Prussian authorities complained about "a not insignificant number" of deserters from Hanover and Schleswig, and the population reacted to the Franco-Prussian War with "recurrent acts of sabotage on telegraph lines, latent French sympathies, and
9796-740: The next day. Prussia's general mobilization orders were signed in steps on 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12 May. When Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet on 1 June and also decided on 5 June to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June, Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865 had thereby been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for
9920-684: The now unified Italy. After the Austrian army was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the German Confederation was dissolved, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted. By this act, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two separate entities joined on an equal basis to form the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The frequent abbreviation K.u.K. ( Kaiserliche und Königliche , "Imperial and Royal") does not refer to that dual monarchy but originated in 1745, when
10044-614: The other two instantly attack their flank and rear, threatening their lines of communication. Prussian infantry were equipped with the Dreyse needle gun , a bolt-action rifle which could be fired faster than the muzzle-loading Lorenz rifles of the Austrian army. In the Franco-Austrian War of 1859, French troops took advantage of poorly trained enemies who did not readjust their gunsights as they got closer – thus firing too high at close range. By rapidly closing
10168-561: The press and abandoned public trials. He later represented the Absolutist (or Klerikalabsolutist ) party, which culminated in the concordat of August 1855 that gave the Roman Catholic Church control over education and family life. This period in the history of the Austrian Empire would become known as the era of neo-absolutism, or Bach's absolutism. The pillars of the so-called Bach system ( Bachsches System ) were, in
10292-608: The previous boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire). After 1815, the German states were once again reorganized into a loose confederation: the German Confederation , under Austrian leadership. Prussia had been contesting Austria's supremacy in Germany since at least 1850, when a war between the two powers had nearly erupted over Prussia's leadership of the Erfurt Union , though at that time Prussia had backed down . At
10416-673: The primary language of higher education in the empire. Austro-Prussian War Prussian -led German states and Italian victory Prussian-led German states [REDACTED] Austrian-led German Confederation states 637,262 522,203 The Austro-Prussian War , (German: Preußisch-Österreichischer Krieg ) also by many variant names such as Seven Weeks' War , German Civil War , Brothers War or Fraternal War , known in Germany as Deutscher Krieg ("German War"), Deutsch-Deutscher Krieg ("German-German War"), Deutscher Bruderkrieg ( pronounced [ˌdɔʏtʃɐ ˈbʁuːdɐkʁiːk] ; "German Brothers War") and by
10540-635: The public to enjoy. In 1866, the Prussian economy was rapidly growing, partly as a result of the Zollverein , which gave Prussia an advantage in the war. Prussia could equip its armies with breech-loading rifles and later with new Krupp breech-loading artillery but the Austrian economy was suffering from the effects of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Second Italian War of Independence . Austria had only one bank,
10664-529: The range, French troops came to close quarters with an advantage over the Austrian infantry. After the war, the Austrians adopted the same methods, which they termed the Stoßtaktik ("shock tactics"). Although they had some warnings of the Prussian weapon, they ignored these and retained Stoßtaktik . The Austrians were equipped with breech-loading rifled cannon, which was superior to the Prussian muzzle loading smooth bore cannon. The Austrian Artillery used
10788-420: The size of the army had been fixed by earlier laws that had not taken population growth into account, making conscription inequitable and unpopular for this reason. While some Prussian men remained in the army or the reserves until they were forty years old, about one man in three (or even more in some regions where the population had expanded greatly as a result of industrialisation) was assigned minimal service in
10912-456: The soldier was seeking cover on the ground, whereas the Austrian muzzle-loading rifles could be loaded only slowly, and generally from a standing position. The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia . Prussian Chief of General Staff Helmuth von Moltke had planned meticulously for the war. He rapidly mobilized the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where
11036-622: The southern German states sided with Austria against Prussia. Those that sided with Austria included the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Württemberg . Smaller middle states such as Baden , Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Hesse-Darmstadt , and Nassau also joined with Austria. Many of the German princes allied with the Habsburgs principally out of a desire to keep their thrones. Most of the northern German states joined Prussia, in particular Oldenburg , Mecklenburg-Schwerin , Mecklenburg-Strelitz , and Brunswick . The Kingdom of Italy participated in
11160-474: The state as a Regnum Independens . Hungary's affairs remained administered by its own institutions (King and Diet) as they had been beforehand; thus no Imperial institutions were involved in its government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805. On 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by General Karl Mack von Leiberich
11284-409: The status of its component lands at first stayed much the same as they had been under the composite monarchy. This was especially demonstrated by the status of the Kingdom of Hungary , a country that had never been a part of the Holy Roman Empire and which had always been considered a separate realm – a status that was affirmed by Article X, which was added to Hungary's constitution in 1790 and described
11408-412: The throne of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. This new empire or " Kaiserthum " ( lit. ' Kaiser -dom ' ) comprised all the lands of the Habsburg monarchy , which had until then been legally separate realms in personal union (a composite monarchy ) under Francis and his predecessors. By contrast, the Austrian Empire was legally a single state, although the overarching structure and
11532-446: The time of the war, there was no strong national consciousness in Germany. Michael Hughes notes that in regards to Germany, "nationalism was a minority movement, deeply divided and with only a marginal impact on German political life". German newspapers were almost exclusively concerned with local affairs or their respective state governments, and the individual German states cultivated loyalty towards themselves. While rivalry with France
11656-514: The timely arrival of the Second Army on the left wing. This was achieved through the brilliant work of its Chief of Staff, Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal . Superior Prussian organization and élan decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, and the victory was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure. An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July. A preliminary peace
11780-548: The title Emperor of Austria for himself and his successors, thereby becoming Francis I of Austria. This new title and state were created to safeguard his dynasty's imperial status as he foresaw either the end of the Holy Roman Empire, or the eventual accession of Napoleon as Holy Roman Emperor, who had earlier that year adopted the title Emperor of the French and established the First French Empire . Initially Francis II/I continued to hold both titles but abdicated
11904-416: The war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months, which was an obvious incentive for Bismarck to go to war with Austria within three months so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Austria responded with a mobilization of its Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April. Italy called for a general mobilization on 26 April and Austria ordered its own general mobilization
12028-489: The war that we must have." The Austrian army under Ludwig von Benedek in Bohemia (the present-day Czech Republic ) might previously have been expected to enjoy the advantage of the "central position", by being able to concentrate on successive attacking armies strung out along the frontier, but the quicker Prussian concentration nullified this advantage. By the time the Austrians were fully assembled, they would be unable to concentrate against one Prussian army without having
12152-714: The war to strengthen his negotiating position for territory along the Rhine , while the Russian Empire still bore a grudge against Austria from the Crimean War . The first war between two major continental powers in seven years, it used many of the same technologies as the Second Italian War of Independence , including railways to concentrate troops during mobilization and telegraphy to enhance long-distance communication. The Prussian Army used von Dreyse 's breech-loading needle gun , which could be rapidly loaded while
12276-419: The war with Prussia, because Austria held Venetia and other, smaller territories wanted by Italy to further the process of Italian unification . In return for Italian aid against Austria, Bismarck agreed not to make a separate peace until Italy had obtained Venetia. Notably, the other foreign powers abstained from this war. French Emperor Napoleon III , who expected a Prussian defeat, chose to remain out of
12400-430: The words of Adolf Fischhof , four "armies": a standing army of soldiers, a sitting army of office holders, a kneeling army of priests and a fawning army of sneaks . Prisons were full of political prisoners, like Czech nationalist journalist and writer Karel Havlíček Borovský who was forcibly expatriated (1851–1855) to Brixen . This exile undermined Borovský's health and he died soon afterwards. This affair earned Bach
12524-445: Was defeated by French armies near the city of Ulm . The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers and many cannons. Napoleon's army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, which concluded with an armistice on 6 December 1805. The French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to ally themselves with
12648-524: Was "impatient to take his revenge on Bismarck for Sadowa ". As a preliminary step, the Ausgleich with Hungary was "rapidly concluded". Beust "persuaded Francis Joseph to accept Magyar demands which he had until then rejected", but Austrian plans fell short of French hopes (e.g. Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen proposed a plan which required the French army to fight alone for six weeks in order to allow Austrian mobilisation). Victor Emmanuel II and
12772-592: Was a multinational European great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs . During its existence, it was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom , while geographically, it was the third-largest empire in Europe after the Russian Empire and the First French Empire . The empire was proclaimed by Francis II in 1804 in response to Napoleon 's declaration of
12896-415: Was a strong pressure in Catholic states to support Austria. In the absence of nationalist sentiment, a united German state could only be created through external force. Bismarck recognised this, remarking in 1862 that a united German state could not be forged through "speeches and majority decisions" but only through "blood and iron". There are many interpretations of Otto von Bismarck 's behaviour before
13020-527: Was adopted, joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form Austria-Hungary . Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt (1797–1799) and Regensburg (1801–1803). On 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess (German: Reichsdeputationshauptschluss ) was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and
13144-469: Was also the Elector of Hanover (formally Brunswick-Lüneburg) and Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg ; Hanover and Lauenburg were incorporated into the French satellite Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, having been occupied several times since 1801, but Britain remained at war with France and no treaty was signed recognising their annexation. His claims were later settled by the creation of the Kingdom of Hanover which
13268-503: Was an important element of German nationalist myth-making, many Germans cooperated with France during the Napoleonic Era, and those who resisted France did not do so out of nationalist sentiment. According to John Breuilly , any sense of a common German identity "was weakly developed and confined to particular groups" and "there was very little demand, certainly at popular level, for unification". The liberal-nationalist concept of
13392-411: Was forced to carry the main burden of war with Napoleonic France for almost ten years. This severely overburdened the Austrian economy, making the war greatly unpopular. Emperor Francis I therefore refused to join any further war against Napoleon for a long time. On the other hand, Francis I continued to intrigue for the possibility of revenge against France, entering into a secret military agreement with
13516-580: Was fought mainly with existing weapons and munitions, which reduced the influence of economic and industrial power relative to politics and military culture. Before the war started, both the Austrian and Prussian governments sought to rally allies in Germany. On 15 June Bismarck offered territorial compensation in the Grand Duchy of Hesse to the Electorate of Hesse , if Elector Frederick William were to ally with Prussia. The proposition grievously offended Frederick William's "legitimist sensibilities" and
13640-455: Was frequently used in connection with the central ministries, meant "high" imperial–royal ( hohes kaiserlich-königliches ), e.g. in h. k. k. Ministerium für Kultus und Unterricht , h. k. k. Statthalterei für Tirol und Vorarlberg , h. k. k. Ministerium für Handel und Volkswirthschaft , etc. Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire , officially known as the Empire of Austria ,
13764-418: Was given to understand that this instruction had been torn from Emperor Napoleon during an illness. The further attempts in relation to Luxemburg are known. Italy : Italy had already allied itself with Prussia because it wanted Lombardy - Venetia . This meant that Austria would be fighting both Italy and Prussia, without any non-German allies of its own. Bismarck may well have been encouraged to go to war by
13888-548: Was held by George IV and William IV as Kings of Hanover. Succession could only be in the male line, so on Queen Victoria 's accession to the British throne, her uncle, Ernest Augustus , succeeded as King of Hanover, thus ending the personal union with Great Britain that dated to 1714. Klemens von Metternich became Foreign Minister in 1809. He also held the post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848, under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I . The period of 1815–1848
14012-455: Was hoping to force Austrian leaders into concessions in Germany, rather than provoke war. The truth may be more complicated than simply that Bismarck, who famously said that "politics is the art of the possible", initially sought war with Austria or was initially against the idea of going to war with Austria. In 1862, von Roon had implemented several army reforms that ensured that all Prussian citizens were liable to conscription. Before this date,
14136-479: Was never concluded because Napoleon III ... would never consent to the occupation of Rome by Italy. ... He wished Austria to avenge Sadowa, either by taking part in a military action, or by preventing South Germany from making common cause with Prussia. ... If he could ensure, through Austrian aid, the neutrality of the South German States in a war against Prussia, he considered himself sure of defeating
14260-427: Was not war with Austria, contradicting what Bismarck later gave in his memoirs as his main reason for establishing the alliance. It was in the Prussian interest to gain an alliance with Austria to defeat Denmark and settle the issue of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The alliance can be regarded as an aid to Prussian expansion, rather than a provocation of war against Austria. Many historians believe that Bismarck
14384-436: Was one of continuous training and drill, in contrast to the Austrian army where some commanders routinely dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave soon after their induction into the army, retaining only a cadre of long-term soldiers for formal parades and routine duties. Austrian conscripts had to be trained almost from scratch when they were recalled to their units on the outbreak of war. The Prussian army
14508-514: Was shelled by Prussian artillery, but the garrison defended its position until armistice day. The Austrians were more successful in their war with Italy , defeating the Italians on land at the Battle of Custoza (24 June), and on sea at the Battle of Lissa (20 July). However, Italy's " Hunters of the Alps " led by Garibaldi defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Bezzecca on 21 July, conquered
14632-598: Was signed on 26 July at Nikolsburg . Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. Hanover's army defeated Prussia at the Second Battle of Langensalza on 27 June 1866, but, within a few days, they were forced to surrender by superior numbers. Prussian armies fought against Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Hessian states on the river Main , reaching Nuremberg and Frankfurt . The Bavarian fortress of Würzburg
14756-576: Was significantly undermined, the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg provided plenty of time to strengthen the army and economy. Moreover, the ambitious Archduke Charles and Johann Philipp von Stadion never abandoned the goal of further war with France. Archduke Charles of Austria served as the Head of the Council of War and Commander in Chief of the Austrian army. Endowed with the enlarged powers, he reformed
14880-526: Was simply a Prussian expansionist , rather than a German nationalist, who sought the unification of Germany. It was at the Gastein Convention that the Austrian alliance was set up to lure Austria into war. The timing of the Prusso-Italian alliance of 8 April 1866 was perfect, because all other European powers were either bound by alliances that forbade them from entering the conflict, or had domestic problems that had priority. The reason why none of
15004-435: Was that the Austrian Empire was seen as one of the great powers after 1815, but also as a reactionary force and an obstacle to national aspirations in Italy and Germany. During this time, Metternich was able to maintain an elaborate balance between Prussia, the lesser German states, and Austria in the German Confederation . Thanks to his efforts, Austria was seen as the senior partner with Prussia keeping watch over Germany as
15128-487: Was the chief architect of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Austrian Empire was the main beneficiary from the Congress of Vienna and it established an alliance with Britain, Prussia , and Russia forming the Quadruple Alliance . The Austrian Empire also gained new territories from the Congress of Vienna, and its influence expanded to the north through the German Confederation and also into Italy. Due to
15252-410: Was the only proper system of government. This notion influenced his anti-revolutionary policy to ensure the continuation of the Habsburg monarchy in Europe. Metternich was a practitioner of balance-of-power diplomacy. His foreign policy aimed to maintain international political equilibrium to preserve the Habsburgs' power and influence in international affairs. Following the Napoleonic Wars , Metternich
15376-472: Was thus better trained and disciplined than the Austrian army, particularly in the infantry. While Austrian cavalry and artillery were as well trained as their Prussian counterparts, with Austria possessing two elite divisions of heavy cavalry, weapons and tactics had advanced since the Napoleonic Wars and cavalry charges had been rendered obsolete. The Prussian army was locally based, organized in Kreise (military districts, lit.: circles), each containing
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