List of forms of government
111-548: Chief Olusegun Matthew Okikiola Ogunboye Aremu Obasanjo GCFR ( // ; Yoruba : Olúṣẹ́gun Ọbásanjọ́ [olúʃɛ́ɡũ ɔbásanɟɔ] ; born c. 5 March 1937) is a Nigerian general and statesman who served as Nigeria's head of state from 1976 to 1979 and later as its president from 1999 to 2007. Ideologically a Nigerian nationalist , he was a member of the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) from 1998 to 2015, and since 2018. Born in
222-531: A legislature (such as a parliament or congress), which may be composed of a single chamber (unicameral), two chambers (bicameral), or more than two chambers (multicameral). Where two or more chambers exist, their members are often elected in different ways . The power of representatives is usually curtailed by a constitution (as in a constitutional democracy or a constitutional monarchy ) or other measures to balance representative power: Some political theorists, such as Edmund Burke , believe that part of
333-475: A military coup established a junta with Obasanjo as part of its ruling triumvirate. After the triumvirate's leader, Murtala Muhammed , was assassinated the following year, the Supreme Military Council appointed Obasanjo as head of state. Continuing Murtala's policies, Obasanjo oversaw budgetary cut-backs and an expansion of access to free school education. Increasingly aligning Nigeria with
444-472: A balanced budget. In August 1985, Buhari was also overthrown, with the Army Chief of Staff Ibrahim Babangida taking power. Obasanjo was critical of some of the economic reforms that Babangida introduced, including the devaluation of the naira . By 1992, his opposition to Babangida's rule had led him to call for a re-democratisation of Nigeria. He also began to reject the economic indigenisation policies of
555-717: A brick farmhouse. There was local hostility to his obtaining so much land, and much litigation was brought against him because of it. His agricultural activities were organised through his Temperance Enterprises Limited, later renamed Obasanjo's Farms Limited. He devoted particular attention to poultry farming; by the mid-1980s, his farm was hatching 140,000 chicks a week. He also set up farms in other southwestern cities, and by 1987 his farms had over 400 employees at eight locations. Like other popular Yoruba figures, Obasanjo sponsored poor students at his former school in Abeokuta. Obasanjo grew critical of Shagari's civilian government, deeming
666-641: A cause reflected in their foreign policy choices. This cause increasingly became a preoccupation for Obasanjo. After Angola secured independence from Portugal, a civil war broke out in the country . Nigeria recognised the legitimacy of the government declared by the MPLA , a Marxist group backed by the Soviet Union , because the rival FNLA and UNITA were being assisted by the white minority government in South Africa. As well as providing material aid to
777-728: A civilian government. Under the military government, Obasanjo sat on the decommissioning committee which recommended dramatic reductions of troop numbers in the Nigerian Army over the course of the 1970s. In 1974 Obasanjo went to the UK for a course at the Royal College of Defence Studies . On returning, in January 1975 Gowon appointed him as the Commissioner for Works and Housing, a position he held for seven months, during which he
888-673: A commission and a certificate in engineering. While Obasanjo was in England , his mother died. His father then died a year later. In 1959, Obasanjo returned to Nigeria. There, he was posted to Kaduna as an infantry subaltern with the Fifth Battalion. His time in Kaduna was the first time that Obasanjo lived in a Muslim-majority area. It was while he was there, in October 1960, that Nigeria became an independent country. Shortly after,
999-603: A conference at Kano to mediate the Chadian Civil War . Several factions agreed to a ceasefire, to form a government of national unity, and to allow Nigerian troops to act as peacekeepers. The war nevertheless continued and Nigeria responded by cutting off its oil supply to Chad. A second conference on the conflict took place in Lagos in August 1979, resulting in the formation of another short-lived transitional government. In
1110-487: A consequence of Nigeria's state-directed development, the country saw a rapid growth in the public sector . Evidence emerged of extensive corruption in the country's government, and while accusations were often made against Obasanjo himself, no hard evidence was produced. To hinder the image of corruption in the government, Obasanjo's administration banned the use of Mercedes cars as government transport and instead introduced more modest Peugeot 504s . The import of champagne
1221-473: A coup against Nigeria's government , during which General Murtala Muhammed was assassinated. An attempt was also made on Obasanjo's life, but the wrong individual was killed. Dimka lacked widespread support among the military and his coup failed, forcing him to flee. Obasanjo did not attend Murtala's funeral in Kano , but declared that the government would finance construction of a mosque on the burial site. After
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#17327796637231332-449: A four-star general he continued to receive a salary from the state. Having left office in October, he returned to Abeokuta. Following a six-week course at an agricultural training college, Obasanjo then set himself up as a farmer, hoping to set an example in encouraging agricultural self-reliance. He obtained at least 230 hectares of land in Ota on which to establish his farm, there moving in to
1443-526: A military coup. Obasanjo was openly critical of Abacha's administration and in 1995 was arrested and convicted of being part of a planned coup, despite protesting his innocence. While imprisoned, he became a born again Christian , with providentialism strongly influencing his subsequent worldview. He was released following Abacha's death in 1998. Obasanjo entered electoral politics, becoming the PDP candidate for
1554-598: A protest against the government's political repression. Obasanjo was eager to establish Nigeria as a prominent leader in Africa and under his tenure its influence in the continent increased. He revived Gowon's plan to hold the second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture in Nigeria; it took place in Lagos in February 1977, although domestic critics argued that it was too expensive. Obasanjo gave low priority to
1665-665: A quarrel among several East African states and thus prevent the collapse of the East African Community , but failed in this attempt. As the chair of the OAU mediation committee, he tried to mediate the Ogaden dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia but was again unsuccessful. He also failed to mend the breach that had emerged between Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo. On behalf of the OAU, Obasanjo held
1776-718: A salary; he did not immediately inform his family, fearing that his parents would object. It was at this time that the Nigerian Army was being transferred to the control of the Nigerian colonial government, in preparation for an anticipated full Nigerian independence, and there were attempts afoot to get more native Nigerians into the higher ranks of its military. He was then sent to a Regular Officers' Training School at Teshie in Ghana . When stationed abroad, he sent letters and presents to his fiancé in Nigeria. In September 1958, he
1887-517: A sixth, curtailing prestige projects while spending more on education, health, housing, and agriculture. He also set up an anti-inflation task force, and within a year of Obasanjo taking office, inflation had fallen to 30%. Obasanjo was generally adverse to borrowing money, but with the support of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund Nigeria took out a $ 1 billion loan from a syndicate of banks. Leftist critics argued that doing so left
1998-641: A two-party system in Nigeria. In 1990, his third book, Not My Will , was published. It provided an account of his time governing the country. Seeking to retain influence on the global stage, Obasanjo launched the Africa Leadership Forum from his Ota farm. From 1981 to 1982, he also sat on the Palme Commission, a group chaired by the former Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme which discussed disarmament and international security. Obasanjo followed this with membership on similar panels for
2109-449: A village in southwest Nigeria . His later passport gave his date of birth as 5 March 1937, although this was a later estimate, with no contemporary records surviving. His father was Amos Adigun Obaluayesanjo "Obasanjo" Bankole and his mother was Bernice Ashabi Bankole. The first of nine children, only he and a sister (Adunni Oluwole Obasanjo) survived childhood. He was born to the Owu branch of
2220-407: Is known as the iron law of oligarchy . Representative democracies which are stable have been analysed by Adolf Gasser and compared to the unstable representative democracies in his book Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas which was published in 1943 and a second edition in 1947. Adolf Gasser stated the following requirements for a representative democracy in order to remain stable, unaffected by
2331-537: The 1976 Summer Olympics because New Zealand, which was competing, had sporting ties with South Africa, a country that was banned from competing due to apartheid. In 1977, Obasanjo barred any contractors with South African links from operating in Nigeria; the main companies that were hit were British Petroleum and Barclays Bank . That same year, Nigeria hosted the United Nations Conference for Action Against Apartheid in Lagos, while Obasanjo visited
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#17327796637232442-425: The 1999 presidential election which he won. As president, he de-politicised the military and both expanded the police and mobilised the army to combat widespread ethnic, religious, and secessionist violence. He withdrew Nigeria's military from Sierra Leone and privatised various public enterprises to limit the country's spiraling debt. He was re-elected in the 2003 election . Influenced by Pan-Africanist ideas, he
2553-661: The Camberwell Green Registry Office, only informing their families after the event. That year, Obasanjo was ordered back to Nigeria, although his wife remained in London for three more years to finish her course. Once in Nigeria, Obasanjo took command of the Field Engineering Squadron based at Kaduna. Within the military, Obasanjo steadily progressed through the ranks, becoming a major in 1965. He used his earning to purchase land, in
2664-557: The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and angered many of its Francophone members after insisting that, as the largest financial contributor to the organisation, Nigeria should host the organisation's headquarters in Lagos. Relations with nearby Ghana also declined; in 1979, Nigeria cut off oil supplies to the country to protest the execution of political opponents by Jerry Rawlings ' new military junta. Under Obasanjo, Nigeria loosened its longstanding ties with
2775-577: The Reform Act 1832 with launching modern representative democracy in the United Kingdom. Globally, a majority of governments in the world are representative democracies, including constitutional monarchies and republics with strong representative branches. Separate but related, and very large, bodies of research in political philosophy and social science investigate how and how well elected representatives, such as legislators, represent
2886-594: The Uli airstrip on 12 January. At this, the Biafran leaders agreed to surrender. On 13 January, Obasanjo met with Biafran military commander Philip Effiong . Obasanjo insisted that Biafran troops surrender their arms and that a selection of the breakaway state's leaders go to Lagos and formally surrender to Gowon. The next day, Obasanjo spoke on regional radio, urging citizens to stay in their homes and guaranteeing their safety. Many Biafrans and foreign media sources feared that
2997-1077: The United Kingdom (a unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy ), Germany (a federal parliamentary republic ), France (a unitary semi-presidential republic ), and the United States (a federal presidential republic). This is different from direct democracy , where the public votes directly on laws or policies, rather than representatives. Political parties often become prominent in representative democracy if electoral systems require or encourage voters to vote for political parties or for candidates associated with political parties (as opposed to voting for individual representatives). Some political theorists (including Robert Dahl , Gregory Houston, and Ian Liebenberg) have described representative democracy as polyarchy . Representative democracy can be organized in different ways including both parliamentary and presidential systems of government . Elected representatives typically form
3108-504: The Yoruba people . The village church was part of a mission set up by the U.S. Southern Baptist Church and Obasanjo was raised Baptist . His village also contained Muslims and his sister later converted to Islam to marry a Muslim man. Obasanjo's father was a farmer and until he was eleven years old, the boy was involved in agricultural labour. Aged eleven, he joined the village primary school, and after three years, in 1951, he moved on to
3219-477: The marginalized . Proponents of direct democracy criticize representative democracy due to its inherent structure. As the fundamental basis of representative democracy is non inclusive system, in which representatives turn into an elite class that works behind closed doors, as well as the criticizing the elector system as being driven by a capitalistic and authoritarian system. The system of stochocracy has been proposed as an improved system compared to
3330-480: The military regime . Obasanjo encouraged debate and consensus among the Supreme Military Council. Many wondered why Obasanjo – as a Yoruba and a Christian – had appointed Yar'Adua, a member of the northern aristocracy , as his second-in-command, rather than a fellow Yoruba Christian. Obasanjo emphasised national concerns over those of the regions; he encouraged both children and adults to recite
3441-465: The 1970s and for his Pan-African efforts to encourage cooperation across the continent. Critics maintain that he was guilty of corruption, that his administrations oversaw human rights abuses, and that as president he became too interested in consolidating and maintaining his personal power. Olusegun Matthew Okikiola Aremu Obasanjo (or Matthew Olusegun Aremu Obasanjo) was born in Ibogun-Olaogun,
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3552-475: The 1970s, arguing that the constitution should prohibit the confiscation of foreign investments. Instead, he thought the government should emphasise private-led development. He became increasingly concerned by rapid population growth, a topic he had ignored while in power, urging Nigerians to have smaller families "in their own economic and national socio-economic interest". During the eleven years after Obasanjo left office, he published four books. In 1980, Obasanjo
3663-901: The Baptist Day School in Abeokuta 's Owu quarter. In 1952 he transferred to the Baptist Boys' High School , also in the town. His school fees were partly financed by state grants. Obasanjo did well academically, and at school became a keen Boy Scout . Although there is no evidence that he was then involved in any political groups, it was at secondary school that Obasanjo rejected his forename of "Matthew" as an anti-colonial act. Meanwhile, Obasanjo's father had abandoned his wife and two children. Falling into poverty, Obasanjo's mother had to operate in trading to survive. To pay his school fees, Obasanjo worked on cocoa and kola farms, fished, collected firewood, and sold sand to builders. During
3774-518: The Commonwealth, Emeka Anyaoku , Obasanjo was nominated to co-chair the group alongside former Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser . Obasanjo reluctantly agreed. In February 1986, he and Fraser travelled to Cape Town where they asked to meet with the imprisoned anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela , a prominent member of the banned African National Congress (ANC). Obasanjo alone was permitted to meet with Mandela; he later commented that he
3885-657: The Democratic Republic of Congo to urge their governments to do the same. However, after Thatcher became UK Prime Minister, Nigeria distanced itself from British efforts to end the Rhodesian Bush War and was excluded from any significant role in the UK-brokered process that led to multi-racial democratic elections in Rhodesia . As head of state, Obasanjo attended OAU summits. At that held in July 1977, he proposed
3996-918: The Federal Republic and Grand Commander in the Order of the Niger and they are awarded to the President and vice-president respectively. The Presiding Judge in the Supreme Court and the Chairman of the Senate are former officials Grand Commanders in the Order of the Niger . The Nigerians have followed the British example in the form and structure of the Order. There are also post-nominal letters for
4107-571: The Fifth Battalion were sent to the Congo as part of a United Nations peacekeeping force. There, the battalion were stationed in Kivu Province , with their headquarters at Bukavu . In the Congo, Obasanjo and others were responsible for protecting civilians, including the ethnic Belgian minority, against soldiers who had mutinied against Patrice Lumumba 's government. In February 1961, Obasanjo
4218-538: The Ibadan City Hall. Troops retaliated, killing ten of the rioters. When Obasanjo returned he ordered a court of inquiry into the events. Gowon decide to replace Colonel Benjamin Adekunle , who was leading the attack on Biafra, but needed another senior Yoruba. He chose Obasanjo, despite the latter's lack of combat experience. Obasanjo arrived at Port Harcourt to take up the new position on 16 May 1969; he
4329-652: The MPLA, Nigeria began lobbying other African countries to also recognise the MPLA administration, and by early 1976 most states in the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) had done so. In February 1976, Obasanjo led a Nigerian delegation to an MPLA anniversary celebration in Luanda , where he declared: "This is a symbolic date, marking the beginning of the final struggle against colonialism, imperialism and racism in Africa." In February 1976, Colonel Buka Suka Dimka launched
4440-583: The Nation , a project to revitalise small-scale farming and which involved students being paid to farm during the holidays. The project also involved abolishing duties on livestock feed and farm implements, subsidizing the use of fertilisers, and easing agricultural credit. In March 1978, Obasanjo issued the Land Use Decree which gave the state propriety rights over all land. This was designed to stop land hoarding and land speculation, and brought praise from
4551-400: The Nigerian Army would commit widespread atrocities against the defeated population, although Obasanjo was keen to prevent this. He ordered his troops in the region to remain within their barracks, maintain that the local police should take responsibility for law and order. The Third Division , which was more isolated, did carry out reprisal attacks on the local population. Obasanjo was tough on
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4662-499: The Nigerian left although was disliked by many land-owning families. Obasanjo saw it as one of his government's main achievements. Obasanjo continued the push for universal primary education in Nigeria, a policy inherited from Gowon. He introduced the Primary Education Act in 1976; between 1975–76 and 1979–80, enrolment in free but voluntary primary schooling grew from 6 million to 12.5 million, although there
4773-813: The Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792. Universal male suffrage was re-established in France in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848 . Representative democracy came into general favour particularly in post- industrial revolution nation states where large numbers of citizens evinced interest in politics , but where technology and population figures remained unsuited to direct democracy. Many historians credit
4884-586: The Roman than the Greek model, because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated leader. Representative democracy is a form of democracy in which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives; as opposed to direct democracy, a form of democracy in which people vote on policy initiatives directly. A European medieval tradition of selecting representatives from
4995-463: The Supreme Court. Shagari took office in October 1979; at his inauguration ceremony, Obasanjo presented Shagari with a copy of the new constitution. This marked the start of Nigeria's Second Republic. Obasanjo's role in returning Nigeria to civilian rule would form the basis of the good reputation he retained for the next two decades. However, various domestic and foreign individuals, including
5106-710: The U.S. in October where he urged the country to stop selling arms to South Africa. While in the country he addressed the United Nations General Assembly and two weeks later Nigeria received a seat on the United Nations Security Council . Opposition to white minority rule in Rhodesia had sparked the Rhodesian Bush War and Obasanjo's government maintained that armed struggle was the only option for overthrowing Rhodesia's government. He encouraged unity among
5217-450: The U.S. presidential system whereby a single elected president would be both head of state and head of government . To avoid this president becoming a dictator , as had happened elsewhere in Africa, it argued for various checks on their power, including a federal structure whereby independent elected institutions would exist at the federal, state, and local level. The draft constitution was published in October 1976 and debated in public for
5328-571: The UK, but ultimately did not. Obasanjo nevertheless refused to visit the UK and discouraged his officials from doing so. Relations were further damaged when Margaret Thatcher became British Prime Minister in 1979 , initiating a warmer British approach to the white minority administrations of Rhodesia and South Africa . In response, Nigeria seized a British tanker that was believed to be transporting Nigerian oil to South Africa, banned British firms from competing for Nigerian contracts, and nationalised British Petroleum 's Nigerian operations. Obasanjo
5439-495: The United Kingdom and aligned more closely with the United States. Obasanjo was favourable to the administration of U.S. President Jimmy Carter , who was elected in 1976, because of Carter's commitment to ensuring majority rule across southern Africa. Carter's ambassador to Nigeria, Andrew Young , formed a close personal friendship with Obasanjo, while Carter visited Nigeria in 1978. However, the decision to shift allegiances
5550-783: The United Nations, the World Health Organization , and the Inter-Action Council of Former Heads of Government . When Javier Pérez de Cuéllar , the UN Secretary-General , fell ill, Obasanjo was considered as a potential successor. After Pérez de Cuéllar announced his resignation, Obasanjo began campaigning to replace him. At a vote of the UN Security Council , he came third, with Egypt's Boutros Boutros-Ghali taking on
5661-506: The United States in 1787, with a national legislature based partly on direct elections of representatives every two years, and thus responsible to the electorate for continuance in office. Senators were not directly elected by the people until the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. Women, men who owned no property, and Black people, and others not originally given voting rights, in most states eventually gained
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#17327796637235772-487: The United States, he also emphasised support for groups opposing white minority rule in southern Africa. Committed to restoring democracy, Obasanjo oversaw the 1979 election , after which he transferred control of Nigeria to the newly elected civilian president, Shehu Shagari . Obasanjo then retired to Ota, Ogun , where he became a farmer, published four books, and took part in international initiatives to end various African conflicts. In 1993, Sani Abacha seized power in
5883-592: The Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda and Togo President Gnassingbé Eyadéma , urged him to remain in power. His refusal to back Awolowo, a fellow Yoruba, earned him the enmity of much of the Yoruba elite. Awolowo accused Obasanjo of orchestrating Shagari's victory, something Obasanjo strenuously denied. Before he left office, in April 1979, Obasanjo promoted himself to the role of general; as
5994-454: The assassination, Obasanjo attended a meeting of the Supreme Military Council . He expressed his desire to resign from government, but the Council successfully urged him to replace Murtala as head of state. He therefore became the council's chair. Concerned about further attempts on his life, Obasanjo moved into the Dodan Barracks , while 39 people accused of being part of Dimka's coup were executed, generating accusations that Obasanjo's response
6105-425: The city, Obasanjo taught a course in military science at the University of Ibadan and built his contacts in the Yoruba elite. During the war, there was popular unrest in the Western State, and to avoid responsibility for these issues, Obasanjo resigned from the Western State Executive Council. While Obasanjo was away from Ibadan in November 1968, armed villagers mobilised by the farmers' Agbekoya Association attacked
6216-435: The civil service. In October 1975, the government announced plans for an election which would result in civilian rule in October 1979. It also declared plans to create a committee to draft a new constitution, with Obasanjo largely responsible for selecting the 49 committee members. On the recommendation of the Irifeke Commission , the government also announced the creation of seven new states; at Obasanjo's insistence, Abeokuta
6327-428: The constituents do not fully agree with the decision, then the representative acts as a trustee. The Roman Republic was the first known state in the Western world to have a representative government, despite taking the form of a direct government in the Roman assemblies . The Roman model of governance would inspire many political thinkers over the centuries, and today's modern representative democracies imitate more
6438-447: The construction of 200,000 new housing units by 1980, although ultimately only 28,500 were built. In 1976, Obasanjo's government also announced rent and price controls. To counteract the disruption of labour strikes, in 1976 Obasanjo's government introduced legislation that defined most major industries as essential services, banned strikes within them, and authorised the detention of disruptive union leaders. In 1978 it merged 42 unions into
6549-486: The corruption that was becoming increasingly widespread in Nigeria , although no hard evidence of this ever emerged. His marriage with Oluremi became strained as she opposed his relationships with other women. In the mid-1970s their marriage was dissolved. In 1976 he married Stella Abebe in a traditional Yoruba ceremony. In July 1975, a coup led by Shehu Musa Yar'Adua and Joseph Garba ousted Gowon, who fled to Britain. They had not informed Obasanjo of their plans as he
6660-447: The country in the midst of a military coup led by Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna . Almost all of those involved in organising the coup were from the Igbo people of southern Nigeria. Obasanjo was among those warning that the situation could descend into civil war. He offered to serve as an intermediary between the coup plotters and the civilian government, which had transferred power to the military Commander-in-Chief Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi . As
6771-581: The country subservient to Western capitalism. In the subsequent two years of Obasanjo's government, Nigeria borrowed a further $ 4,983 million. Nigeria was undergoing nearly 3% annual population growth during the 1970s, something which would double the country's population in just over 25 years. Obasanjo later noted that he was unaware of this at the time, with his government having no policy on population control . Nigeria's population growth contributed to rapid urbanisation and an urban housing shortage. To deal with this, Obasanjo's 1976 budget outlined plans for
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#17327796637236882-420: The coup failed, Olusegun met Ironsi in Lagos. Ironsi soon ended federalism in Nigeria through his unification decree in May 1966, something which inflamed ethnic tensions. In late July, a second coup took place . In Ibadan, troops of northern Nigerian origin rebelled and killed Ironsi, also massacring around two hundred Igbo soldiers. General Yakubu Gowon took power. While this coup was taking place, Obasanjo
6993-457: The course of July and August 1979. Turnout was low, at between 30 and 40 percent of legally registered voters, and there was rigging on various sides, although it was peaceful. There was debate as to who won the presidential vote , and Obasanjo refused to adjudicate, insisting that the Electoral Commission take on that role. They declared that Shehu Shagari was the winner, something that the runner up, Obafemi Awolowo , unsuccessfully challenged at
7104-543: The creation of a liquefaction plant at Bonny , which was 62% financed by the NNPC; the project was abandoned by his successor amid spiralling cost increases. Obasanjo also continued the planning of the Ajaokuta integrated steel mill, an inherited project that many critics in the civil service argued was unviable. In the mid-1970s, Nigeria also faced declining agricultural production, a process caused by successive governments finding it cheaper to import food than grow it domestically. In May 1976, Obasanjo launched Operation Feed
7215-418: The duty of a representative is not simply to follow the wishes of the electorate but also to use their own judgment in the exercise of their powers, even if their views are not reflective of those of a majority of voters. A representative who chooses to execute the wishes of their constituents acts as a delegate. If the representative chooses to use their best judgment and knowledge in making decisions, even when
7326-518: The early 1960s obtaining property in Ibadan, Kaduna, and Lagos . In 1965, Obasanjo was sent to India. En route, he visited his wife in London. In India , he studied at the Defence Services Staff College in Wellington and then the School of Engineering in Poona . Obasanjo was appalled at the starvation that he witnessed in India although took an interest in the country's culture, something that encouraged him to read books on comparative religion . Obasanjo flew back to Nigeria in January 1966 to find
7437-450: The encroachment of the Sahara Desert in the north. To meet the country's growing demand for electricity, Obasanjo oversaw the launch of two new hydroelectric projects and a thermal plant. The oil industry remained an important part of Nigeria's economy and under Obasanjo the Ministry of Petroleum Resources was merged with the Nigerian National Oil Corporation to form the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC). Obasanjo also supported
7548-424: The entrance exam for University College Ibadan , but although he passed it he found that he could not afford the tuition fees. Obasanjo then decided to pursue a career as a civil engineer , and to access this profession, in 1958 answered an advert for officer cadet training in the Nigerian Army. In March 1958, Obasanjo enlisted in the Nigerian Army. He saw it as an opportunity to continue his education while earning
7659-408: The final year of his military government, he headed an OAU mission to resolve the conflict in Western Sahara . The military government has assembled a constituent drafting committee to devise a new constitution which could be used amid a transfer to civilian rule. The committee argued that Nigeria should change its governance system, which was based on the British parliamentary system, to one based on
7770-423: The following year. A constituent assembly met to discuss the draft in October 1977. The assembly deadlocked over what role to give sharia law in the constitution. Obasanjo called the assembly together and warned them of the social impact of their decision, urging them to take a more conciliatory attitude. In September 1978, the Supreme Military Council announced the new constitution; it had made several amendments to
7881-538: The formation of a standing committee to mediate disputes between OAU member states. At the 1978 conference, he warned of interference from both sides in the Cold War . At the next conference, he urged the formation of a Pan-African military which could engage in peace-keeping efforts on the continent. To promote Nigeria's role internationally, Obasanjo involved himself in various mediation efforts across Africa. In 1977, he persuaded Benin and Togo to end their border dispute and reopen their frontier. He also attempted to mediate
7992-696: The independence of Igbo-majority areas in the southeast, forming the Republic of Biafra . On 3 July, Nigeria's government posted Obasanjo to Ibadan to serve as commander of the Western State . The fighting between the Nigerian Army and the Biafran separatists broke out on 6 July. On 9 July, Ojukwu sent a column of Biafran troops over the Niger Bridge in an attempt to seize the Mid-West, a position from which it could attack Lagos. Obasanjo sought to block
8103-410: The interests or preferences of one or another constituency. The empirical research shows that representative systems tend to be biased towards the representation of more affluent classes to the detriment of the population at large. In his book Political Parties , written in 1911, Robert Michels argues that most representative systems deteriorate towards an oligarchy or particracy . This
8214-418: The iron law of oligarchy: A drawback to this type of government is that elected officials are not required to fulfill promises made before their election and are able to promote their own self-interests once elected, providing an incohesive system of governance. Legislators are also under scrutiny as the system of majority-won legislators voting for issues for the large group of people fosters inequality among
8325-488: The members of the Order of the Niger. There is a Civil Division and a Military Division. The ribbon of the latter division has a small red line in the middle. The order has four grades: Representative democracy Representative democracy , electoral democracy or indirect democracy is a type of democracy where representatives are elected by the public. Nearly all modern Western-style democracies function as some type of representative democracy: for example,
8436-586: The new national pledge and the national anthem. Interested in getting a broader range of perspectives, each Saturday he held an informal seminar on a topical issue to which people other than politicians and civil servants were invited. Among those whose advice he sought were Islamic scholars and traditional chiefs. By the mid-1970s, Nigeria had an overheated economy with a 34% inflation rate. To deal with Nigeria's economic problems, Obasanjo pursued austerity measures to reduce public expenditure. In his 1976 budget, Obasanjo proposed to reduce government expenditure by
8547-405: The perpetrators, having those guilty of looting flogged and those guilty of rape shot. Gowon's government made Obasanjo responsible for reintegrating Biafra into Nigeria, in which position he earned respect for emphasising magnanimity. As an engineer, he emphasised restoration of the water supply; by May 1970 all major towns in the region were reconnected to the water supply. Obasanjo's role in ending
8658-601: The president weak and ill-prepared. Nigeria entered economic recession due to fluctuations in global oil prices. In May 1983, senior military figures asked Obasanjo to take over control in the country again, but he declined. In December, they overthrew Shagari without Obasanjo's involvement, in a coup that saw little violence. Muhammadu Buhari became the new military head of state. Obasanjo was initially supportive of Buhari's government, stating that representative democracy had failed in Nigeria. He praised Buhari's War Against Indiscipline , his halving of imports, and his restoration of
8769-470: The roads leading to the city. The Yoruba commander Victor Banjo , who was leading the Biafran attack force, tried to convince Obasanjo to let them through, but he declined. Obasanjo was then appointed the rear commander of Murtala Muhammed 's Second Division , which was operating in the Mid-West. Based at Ibadan, Obasanjo was responsible for ensuring that the Second Division was kept supplied. In
8880-496: The role. He left his home on several visits; in 1986 he visited Japan, and in 1987 the U.S. Amid a dispute in the Commonwealth of Nations over the UK's more lenient view of South Africa, it was agreed that an Eminent Persons Group (EPG) would be formed to initiate dialogue with the South African government in the hope of encouraging it toward dismantling apartheid. At the recommendation of Nigeria's Deputy Secretary-General of
8991-461: The school holidays he also worked at the school, cutting the grass and other manual jobs. In 1956, Obasanjo took his secondary school exams, having borrowed money to pay for the entry fees. That same year, he began courting Oluremi Akinlawon , the Owu daughter of a station master. They were engaged to be married by 1958. Leaving school, he moved to Ibadan , where he took a teaching job. There, he sat for
9102-771: The single Nigerian Labour Congress . Obasanjo continued with three major irrigation schemes in northern Nigeria that were first announced under Murtala: the Kano River Project , the Bakalori Scheme , and the South Chad Irrigation Project . His government also continued the Agricultural Development Projects launched in Funtua , Gusau , and Gombe . Some reforestation projects were also initiated to stall
9213-497: The system of representative democracy, where representatives are elected. Stochocracy aims to at least reduce this degradation by having all representatives appointed by lottery instead of by voting. Therefore, this system is also called lottocracy. The system was proposed by the writer Roger de Sizif in 1998 in his book La Stochocratie . Choosing officeholders by lot was also the standard practice in ancient Athenian democracy and in ancient India . The rationale behind this practice
9324-582: The towns . Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England implemented some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy , culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689 . Widening of the voting franchise took place through a series of Reform Acts in the 19th and 20th centuries. The American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of
9435-428: The triumvirate, Obasanjo was "the work-horse and the brains" and was the most eager for a return to civilian rule. Together, the triumvirate introduced austerity measures to stem inflation, established a Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau, replaced all military governors with new officers who reported directly to Obasanjo as Chief of Staff, and launched "Operation Deadwood" through which they fired 11,000 officials from
9546-525: The unrest, Obasanjo closed several universities, banned political activity on campus, and proscribed the National Union of Nigerian Students . The severity of these measures was perhaps due to suspicions that the student unrest was linked to a planned military coup that was uncovered in February 1978. Obasanjo was frustrated at the protesting student's behaviour, arguing that it reflected a turn away from traditional values such as respect for elders. As
9657-443: The various estates ( classes , but not as we know them today) to advise/control monarchs led to relatively wide familiarity with representative systems inspired by Roman systems. In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments. The first , in 1258, stripped the king of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from
9768-405: The various anti-government factions there, urging Robert Mugabe , the head of ZANU , to accept the leadership of his rival, Joshua Nkomo of ZAPU . In 1977, the UK and US drew up proposals for a transition to majority rule in Rhodesia, amid a period in which the country would be under the management of United Nations forces. Obasanjo backed the plan, and visited Tanzania, Zambia, Mozambique, and
9879-625: The version put forward by the constituent assembly. Along with the new constitution, Obasanjo lifted the ban on political parties. A variety of groups then formed to compete in the ensuing election, most notably the Unity Party of Yoruba , the Nigerian People's Party , and the National Party of Nigeria . Obasanjo was angered that many of the politicians were making promises that they could not keep. The elections took place over
9990-513: The village of Ibogun-Olaogun to a farming family of the Owu branch of the Yoruba , Obasanjo was educated largely in Abeokuta , Ogun State . He joined the Nigerian Army and specialised in engineering and was assigned to the Congo , Britain, and India , rising to the rank of major. In the late 1960s, he played a senior role in combating Biafran separatists during the Nigerian Civil War , accepting their surrender in 1970. In 1975,
10101-597: The violence abated. After this, Obasanjo sent his wife to Lagos while returning to Kaduna himself, where he remained until January 1967. At this point he was the most senior Yoruba officer present in the north. In January 1967, Obasanjo was posted to Lagos as the Chief Army Engineer. Tensions between the Igbo and northern ethnic groups continued to grow, and in May the Igbo military officer C. Odumegwu Ojukwu declared
10212-711: The vote through changes in state and federal law in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until it was repealed by the Fourteenth Amendment following the Civil War , the Three-Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of
10323-586: The war made him a war hero and a nationally known figure in Nigeria. In June 1970, Obasanjo returned to Abeokuta, where crowds welcomed him as a returning hero. He was then posted to Lagos as the Brigadier commanding the Corps of Engineers. In October, Gowon announced that the military government would transfer authority to a civilian administration in 1976. In the meantime, a ban on political parties remained in forces; Gowon made little progress towards establishing
10434-536: Was a Distinguished Fellow at the University of Ibadan , where he wrote My Command , an account of his experiences during the civil war; it was published in November that year. Some readers criticised what they saw as Obasanjo's disloyalty to Murtala Muhammed, while Robert Adeyinka Adebayo , a senior Yoruba political figure, urged for the book to be withdrawn to prevent it sowing division. A more positive assessment
10545-675: Was a keen supporter of the formation of the African Union and served as its chair from 2004 to 2006. Obasanjo's attempts to change the constitution to abolish presidential term limits were unsuccessful and brought criticism. After retiring, he earned a PhD in theology from the National Open University of Nigeria . Obasanjo has been described as one of the great figures of the second generation of post-colonial African leaders. He received praise both for overseeing Nigeria's transition to representative democracy in
10656-483: Was a shortage of teachers and materials to cope with the demand. In the 1977–78 school year, Obasanjo introduced free secondary educational in technical subjects, something extended to all secondary schooling in 1979–80. Concomitantly, Nigeria cut back on university funding; in 1978 it ceased issuing student loans and trebled university food and accommodation charges. Student protests erupted in several cities, resulting in fatal shootings in Lagos and Zaria . In response to
10767-436: Was also banned. Pushing for cut-backs in the military, Obasanjo's government saw 12,000 soldiers demobilised over the course of 1976 and 1977. These troops went through new rehabilitation centres to assist them in adjusting to civilian life. Obasanjo was also accused of being responsible for political repression. In one famous instance, the compound of the Nigerian musician and political activist Fela Kuti , Kalakuta Republic ,
10878-477: Was also eager to hasten the end of white minority rule in southern Africa; according to Iliffe, this became "the centrepiece of his foreign policy". Nigeria gave grants to those fighting white minority rule in the region, allowed these groups to open offices in Lagos, and offered sanctuary to various refugees fleeing the governments of southern Africa. Taking a hard line against the apartheid regime in South Africa, Obasanjo announced that Nigeria would not take part in
10989-477: Was captured by the mutineers while he was evacuating Roman Catholic missionaries from a station near Bukavu. The mutineers considered executing him but were ordered to release him. In May 1961, the Fifth Battalion left the Congo and returned to Nigeria. During the conflict, he had been appointed a temporary captain. He later noted that the time spent in the Congo strengthened the "Pan-African fervour" of his battalion. On his return, Obasanjo bought his first car, and
11100-434: Was excessive. As head of state, Obasanjo vowed to continue Murtala's policies. Aware of the danger of alienating northern Nigerians, Obasanjo brought General Shehu Yar'Adua as his replacement and second-in-command as Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters completing the military triumvirate, with Obasanjo as head of state and General Theophilus Danjuma as Chief of Army Staff , the three went on to re-establish control over
11211-713: Was greatly impressed by him. Obasanjo then met with senior ANC figures in exile in Lusaka . Grand Commander of the Order of the Federal Republic The Order of the Federal Republic ( OFR ) is one of two orders of merit, established by the Federal Republic of Nigeria in 1963. It is senior to the Order of the Niger . The highest honours are the Grand Commander in the Order of
11322-587: Was hospitalised for a time with a stomach ulcer. On his recovery, he was transferred to the Army Engineering Corps. In 1962 he was stationed at the Royal College of Military Engineering in England. There, he excelled and was described as "the best Commonwealth student ever". That year, he paid for Akinlawon to travel to London where she could join a training course. The couple married in June 1963 at
11433-561: Was in Maiduguri . Hearing of it, he quickly returned to Kaduna. There, he found that northern troops from the Third Battalion were rounding up, torturing, and killing Igbo soldiers. The Governor of Northern Nigeria , Hassan Katsina , recognised that although Olusegun was not Igbo, as a southerner he was still in danger from the mutinous troops. To protect them, Katsina sent Olusegun and his wife back to Maiduguri for ten days, while
11544-423: Was known to be critical of coups as an instrument of regime change. The coup plotters wanted to replace Gowon's autocratic rule with a triumvirate of three brigadiers whose decisions could be vetoed by a Supreme Military Council. For this triumvirate, they convinced General Murtala Muhammed to become head of state, with Obasanjo as his second-in-command, and Danjuma as the third. Historian John Iliffe noted that of
11655-512: Was largely responsible for building military barracks. In 1970, Obasanjo bought a former Lebanese company in Ibadan, employing an agent to manage it. In 1973 he registered a business, Temperance Enterprises Limited, through which he could embark on commercial ventures after retiring from the military. He also continued to invest in property; by 1974 he owned two houses in Lagos and one each in Ibadan and Abeokuta. Rumours arose that Obasanjo engaged in
11766-409: Was made by his friend, Ken Saro-Wiwa , who called it masterly but believed that it had involved much editorial assistance. In 1987, he published Nzeogwu , a memoir of his friend Chukwuma Nzeogwu , with whom he had served in the Congo. 1989 saw the publication of Obasanjo's next book, Constitution for National Integration and Development , in which he warned against Babangida's argument for instituting
11877-483: Was made for pragmatic rather than ideological reasons; the discovery of oil in the North Sea meant that the UK had become a competitor rather than a customer of Nigerian oil. Obasanjo's government was also angry that the UK refused to extradite Gowon and suspected that the British government might have been involved in the coup against Murtala. For these reasons, in 1976 it considered suspending diplomatic relations with
11988-492: Was now in charge of between 35,000 and 40,000 troops. He spent his first six weeks repelling a Biafran attack on Aba . He toured every part of the front, and was wounded while doing so. These actions earned him a reputation for courage among his men. In December, Obasanjo launched Operation Finishing Touch , ordering his troops to advance towards Umuahia , which they took on Christmas Day . This cut Biafra in half. On 7 January 1970, he then launched Operation Tail-Wind , capturing
12099-457: Was raided and burned to the ground after a member of his entourage was involved in an altercation with military personnel. Fela and his family were beaten and raped and his aged mother, the political activist and founding mother Chief Funmilayo Ransome Kuti , was thrown from a window. This resulted in serious injuries, and eventually led to her death. Fela subsequently carried a coffin to the then presidential residence at Dodan Barracks in Lagos as
12210-529: Was selected for six months of additional training at Mons Officer Cadet School in Aldershot , southern England . Obasanjo disliked it there, believing that it was a classist and racist institution, and found it difficult adjusting to the colder, wetter English weather. It reinforced his negative opinions of the British Empire and its right to rule over its colonised subjects. At Mons, he received
12321-417: Was to become the capital of one of these new states, Ogun . Also on the commission's recommendation, it announced gradual plans to move the Nigerian capital from Lagos to the more central Abuja. In January 1976, both Obasanjo and Danjuma were promoted to the ranks of Lieutenant General. Both Murtala and Obasanjo were committed to ending ongoing European colonialism and white minority rule in southern Africa ,
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