131-864: The Loyal Publication Society was founded in 1863, during a time when the Union Army had suffered many reverses in the Civil War . The purpose of the society was to bolster public support for the Union effort, by disseminating pro-Union news articles and editorials to newspapers around the country. There were two such societies: the Loyal Publication Society of New York and the Boston-based New England Loyal Publication Society, both founded in early 1863. These two organizations were similar to
262-551: A brevet brigadier general when the war ended. Francis B. Spinola recruited four regiments in New York, was soon appointed Brigadier General by President Abraham Lincoln and given command of the Spinola Brigade . Later he commanded another unit, the famed Excelsior Brigade . The Garibaldi Guard recruited volunteers for the Union army from Italy and other European countries to form the 39th New York Infantry . At
393-549: A 110-metre (360 ft) tunnel under the border between British Columbia and Washington , intended for the use of smuggling marijuana , the first such tunnel known on this border. From 2007 to 2010, 147 people were arrested for smuggling marijuana on the property of a bed-and-breakfast in Blaine, Washington, but agents estimate that they caught only about 5% of smugglers. Because of its location, Cornwall, Ontario , experiences ongoing smuggling—mostly of tobacco and firearms from
524-507: A Canadian province or territory, or an enhanced identification/photo card issued by a Canadian province or territory. Several other documents may be used by Canadians to identify their citizenship at the border, although the use of such documents requires it to be supported with additional photo identification. American and Canadian citizens who are members of a trusted traveler program such as FAST or NEXUS, may present their FAST or NEXUS card as an alternate form of identification when crossing
655-633: A birth certificate and driver's license/government-issued identification card when crossing the Canada–United States border. However, in late 2006, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced the final rule of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which pertained to new identification requirements for travelers entering the United States. This rule, which marked the first phase of
786-705: A border that followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. The dispute was resolved in the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary through the Rockies. The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–1861) laid out the land boundary. However, the water boundary was not settled for some time. After the Pig War in 1859, arbitration in 1872 established the border between
917-449: A chief quartermaster, a chief commissary of subsistence, an assistant inspector general, an ordnance officer (all with the rank of colonel ) and a medical director. The actual number of personnel assigned to an army's headquarters could be quite large: at Gettysburg the headquarters of General Meade (excluding engineers, the artillery reserve and the headquarters of each corps) was no less than 3,486 strong. The military organization of
1048-611: A further 18% were second-generation Americans. 596,670 Union soldiers were killed, wounded or went missing during the war. The initial call-up in 1861 was for just three months, after which many of these men chose to reenlist for an additional three years. When the American Civil War began in April 1861, the U.S. Army included ten regiments of infantry , four of artillery , two of cavalry , two of dragoons , and one of mounted rifles . The regiments were scattered widely. Of
1179-505: A hundred Black men were eventually made officers (not counting those passing as white), none were promoted to a rank higher than major. If captured by Confederate forces, Black soldiers risked being made slaves or summarily executed . Women took on many significant roles in the Union army and were important to its ultimate success on the battlefield. The most direct way they could help was to enlist and fight as soldiers, although women were officially barred from doing so. Nevertheless, it
1310-419: A land or sea port-of-entry (including ferries ) has been required to present one of the above forms of identification to enter the United States. Conversely, to cross into Canada, a traveler must also carry identification, as well as a valid visa (if necessary) when crossing the border. Forms of identification include a valid passport, a Canadian Emergency Travel Document, an enhanced driver's license issued by
1441-536: A misconception that the South held an advantage because of the large percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the U.S. Military Academy on the active list; of these, 296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were then civilians, 400 returned to
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#17327762204751572-461: A process that made their crossing more tedious, believing it violated their treaty rights of free passage. When traveling from the U.S. to Cornwall Island , they must first cross a second bridge into Canada, for inspection at the new Canadian border station. Discussions between inter-governmental agencies were being pursued on the feasibility of relocating the Canadian border inspection facilities on
1703-461: A role. Thus for example, comparing two infantry regiments at their full authorized strength one might have twice as many soldiers as the other. Furthermore, even when units were of equivalent size, their actual effectiveness depended greatly on training, leadership, equipment and other factors. During the course of the Civil War, the vast majority of soldiers fighting to preserve the Union were in
1834-521: A sharp turn towards the northeast. The border then reaches the St. Lawrence River, proceeding through it until finally, at 45°00′N 74°40′W / 45.000°N 74.667°W / 45.000; -74.667 (between Massena, New York and Cornwall, Ontario ), the border splits from the river and continues into Quebec. The province of Quebec borders (west to east) the U.S. states of New York, Vermont , New Hampshire , and Maine , beginning where
1965-480: A volunteer army of up to 500,000 troops to the cause. The call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, abolitionists , and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 German Americans in New York and Pennsylvania immediately responded to Lincoln's call, along with Northern French Americans , who were also quick to volunteer. As more men were needed, however,
2096-619: A water boundary. It begins at the north-westernmost point of Minnesota's Northwest Angle ( 49°23′N 95°09′W / 49.383°N 95.150°W / 49.383; -95.150 ). From here, it proceeds eastward through the Angle Inlet into the Lake of the Woods , turning southward at 49°19′N 94°48′W / 49.317°N 94.800°W / 49.317; -94.800 (near Dawson Township, Ontario ) where it continues into
2227-575: Is believed hundreds of women disguised themselves as men in order to enlist. While many were discovered and forced to quit, others were only found out after they were killed in combat, and a number managed to serve throughout the entire war with their true identity successfully concealed. One of the more traditional roles played by women in the Union army was that of camp followers . Thousands of white and Black women accompanied Union armies in an unofficial capacity to provide their services as cooks , laundresses , nurses and/or prostitutes . Many were
2358-414: Is no border zone ; the U.S. Customs and Border Protection routinely sets up checkpoints as far as 100 miles (160 km) into U.S. territory. In August 2020, the United States constructed 3.8 km (2.4 mi) of short cable fencing along the border between Abbotsford, British Columbia , and Whatcom County, Washington . Before 2007, American and Canadian citizens were only required to produce
2489-495: Is the longest international border in the world. The boundary (including boundaries in the Great Lakes , Atlantic, and Pacific coasts) is 8,891 km (5,525 mi) long. The land border has two sections: Canada 's border with the contiguous United States to its south, and with the U.S. state of Alaska to its west. The bi-national International Boundary Commission deals with matters relating to marking and maintaining
2620-858: The 69th New York , 63rd New York, 88th New York, 28th Massachusetts, 116th Pennsylvania; the Swiss Rifles (15th Missouri); the Gardes de Lafayette (55th New York); the Garibaldi Guard (39th New York); the Martinez Militia (1st New Mexico); the Polish Legion (58th New York); the German Rangers ; Sigel Rifles (52nd New York, inheriting the 7th); the Cameron Highlanders ( 79th New York Volunteer Infantry ); and
2751-646: The American Civil War , the United States Army , the land force that fought to preserve the collective Union of the states , was often referred to as the Union army , the federal army , or the northern army . It proved essential to the restoration and preservation of the United States as a working, viable republic. The Union Army was made up of the permanent regular army of the United States , but further fortified, augmented, and strengthened by
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#17327762204752882-727: The American News Company , the publisher George Palmer Putnam , the German-born academic Francis Lieber , and the future vice-president of the United States Levi P. Morton . In Boston, the members included Charles Eliot Norton , the Harvard professor and prominent cultural critic, John Murray Forbes , a railroad magnate, and James Bradley Thayer , who was to become one of the country's foremost legal scholars. In their first months, these groups would share
3013-751: The Appalachian Mountains as it turns into the border of Maine. It continues to do so until 46°25′N 70°03′W / 46.417°N 70.050°W / 46.417; -70.050 (near Saint-Camille-de-Lellis, Quebec on the Canadian side, and unorganized territory on the American side), where it heads north, then northeastward at 46°41′N 69°59′W / 46.683°N 69.983°W / 46.683; -69.983 (near Lac-Frontière, Quebec ). Finally, at 47°27′N 69°13′W / 47.450°N 69.217°W / 47.450; -69.217 (near Pohénégamook , Quebec),
3144-648: The Confederate army . Almost 200 United States Military Academy graduates who previously left the U.S. Army, including Ulysses S. Grant , William Tecumseh Sherman , and Braxton Bragg , returned to service at the outbreak of the Civil War. This group's loyalties were far more evenly divided. Clayton R. Newell (2014) states, 92 wore Confederate gray and 102 put on the blue of the United States Army. Hattaway and Jones (1983), John and David Eicher (2001), and Jennifer M. Murray (2012), state that 99 joined
3275-527: The Department of War . These included, at the onset of the war, the adjutant general , inspector general , paymaster-general , judge advocate general , chief of engineers , chief of topographical engineers , quartermaster general , commissary general of subsistence, chief of ordnance , and surgeon general . After the war started, the position of Provost Marshal General was also created. Originally established on September 24, 1862, as an office in
3406-743: The Fairweather Glacier ), where the border heads northwestward towards the Coast Mountains . At 59°48′N 135°28′W / 59.800°N 135.467°W / 59.800; -135.467 (near Skagway, Alaska ), the border begins a general southeastward direction along the Coast Mountains. The border eventually reaches the Portland Canal and follows it outward to the Dixon Entrance , which takes
3537-648: The Gulf Islands and the San Juan Islands . The International Boundary Survey (or, the "Northern Boundary Survey" in the U.S.) began in 1872. Its mandate was to establish the border as agreed to in the Treaty of 1818. Archibald Campbell led the way for the United States, while Donald Cameron, supported by chief astronomer Samuel Anderson , headed the British team. This survey focused on the border from
3668-622: The Lake of the Woods . From the northwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods , the boundary was agreed to go straight west until it met the Mississippi River . That line never meets the river since the river's source is farther south. The Jay Treaty of 1794 (effective 1796) created the International Boundary Commission , which was charged with surveying and mapping the boundary. It also provided for
3799-775: The Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies , there were over 200 Italians who served as officers in the U.S. army. By 1860, the African American or Black population of the United States consisted of four million enslaved and half a million free Blacks . When the Civil War began, many freedmen in the North attempted to enlist in federal service but were barred from doing so. Popularly-held prejudices doubted whether Black people could be effective soldiers, and President Lincoln believed allowing their enlistment would anger Northern whites and alienate not just
3930-809: The Rainy River . The border follows the River to Rainy Lake , then subsequently through various smaller lakes, including Namakan Lake, Lac la Croix , and Sea Gull Lake . The border then crosses the Height of Land Portage over the divide between the Hudson Bay drainage basin, and that of the Great Lakes. The boundary then follows the Pigeon River , which leads it out into Lake Superior. The border continues through Lake Superior and Whitefish Bay , into
4061-491: The Saint John River . The border moves through the River until 47°04′N 67°47′W / 47.067°N 67.783°W / 47.067; -67.783 (between Hamlin, Maine and Grand Falls, New Brunswick ), where it splits from the river. It heads southward to 45°56′N 67°47′W / 45.933°N 67.783°W / 45.933; -67.783 (near Amity, Maine ), from whence it follows
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4192-826: The Southwest was still part of Mexico . Some Confederate propaganda condemned foreign-born soldiers in the Union army, likening them to the German Hessian troops who fought alongside the British Army during the American Revolutionary War . A relatively smaller number of Native Americans , including members of Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw and Muscogee peoples, fought for the Confederacy. The great majority of Italian Americans , for both demographic and ideological reasons, served in
4323-638: The St. Clair River , leading it to Lake St. Clair . The border proceeds through Lake St. Clair, reaching the Detroit River , which leads it to Lake Erie , where it begins turning northeast. From Lake Erie, the border is led into the Niagara River , which takes it into Lake Ontario . From here, the boundary heads northwestward until it reaches 43°27′N 79°12′W / 43.450°N 79.200°W / 43.450; -79.200 , where it makes
4454-537: The St. Mary's River then the North Channel . At 45°59′N 83°26′W / 45.983°N 83.433°W / 45.983; -83.433 (between Drummond Township, Michigan to the west and Cockburn Island (Ontario) to the east), the border turns southward into the False Detour Channel , from which it reaches Lake Huron . Through the Lake, the border heads southward until reaching
4585-494: The Union Leagues that cropped up throughout the North, in that they provided civilians an opportunity to support the war effort. The Union League of Philadelphia was also involved in the development of pro-Union publications. The founders and members represented the literary and financial elite of Boston and New York. In New York, they included Charles King , president of Columbia University, Sinclair Tousey, president of
4716-631: The United States–Mexico border (which is one-third the length of the Canada–U.S. border), which is actively patrolled by U.S. Customs and Border Protection personnel to prevent illegal migration and drug trafficking . Parts of the International Boundary cross through mountainous terrain or heavily forested areas, but significant portions also cross remote prairie farmland and the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, in addition to
4847-435: The regimental colors and rallied their fellow soldiers to fight, provided first aid or helped the wounded back to a field hospital. A related (and sometimes conflated) role was that of "daughter of the regiment". Often literally a daughter of one of the regimental officers, these women looked to the soldiers' well-being but also served as their regiment's "mascot" who inspired the men by wearing stylish clothing and enduring
4978-443: The volunteer units . The pre-war regular army numbered approximately 16,400 soldiers, but by the end while the Union army had grown to over a million soldiers, the number of regular personnel was still approximately 21,699, of whom several were serving with volunteer forces. Only 62,000 commissions and enlistments in total were issued for the regular army during the war as most new personnel preferred volunteer service. Since before
5109-467: The 1760s as the boundary between the provinces of Quebec and New York (including what would later become the State of Vermont ). It was surveyed and marked by John Collins and Thomas Valentine from 1771 to 1773. The St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes became the boundary further west, between the United States and what is now Ontario . Northwest of Lake Superior , the boundary followed rivers to
5240-551: The 197 companies in the U.S. Army, 179 occupied 79 isolated posts in the West , and the remaining 18 manned garrisons east of the Mississippi River , mostly along the Canada–United States border and on the U.S. East Coast . There were only 16,367 servicemen in the U.S. Army, including 1,108 commissioned officers. Approximately 20% of these officers, most of them Southerners , resigned, choosing to tie their lives and fortunes to
5371-647: The Adjutant General's department under Simeon Draper , it was made an independent department in its own right on May 1, 1863, under James B. Fry . The Signal Corps was created and deployed for the first time, through the leadership of Albert J. Myer . One drawback to this system was that the authority and responsibilities of the Secretary of War, his Assistant Secretaries , and the General-in-Chief were not clearly delineated. Additionally,
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5502-584: The Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean", to survey and delimit the boundary between Canada and the U.S. through the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes, by modern surveying techniques, and thus accomplished several changes to the border. In 1925, the International Boundary Commission's temporary mission became permanent for maintaining the survey and mapping of the border; maintaining boundary monuments and buoys; and keeping
5633-539: The CBP on the Northern border that adversely affect enforcement actions; the U.S. Border Patrol "identified an insufficient number of agents that limited patrol missions along the northern border" while CBP Air and Marine Operations "identified an insufficient number of agents along the northern border, which limited the number and frequency of air and maritime missions." There are eight U.S. Border Patrol sectors based on
5764-541: The Canada–U.S. border was shut without any warning, and no goods or people were allowed to cross. In the wake of the impromptu border closure, procedures were jointly developed to ensure that commercial traffic could cross the border even if people were restricted from crossing. These procedures were later used for a border closure caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada and
5895-523: The Canada–U.S. border, each covering a designated "area of responsibility"; the sectors are (from west to east) based in Blaine, Washington ; Spokane, Washington ; Havre, Montana ; Grand Forks, North Dakota ; Detroit, Michigan ; Buffalo, New York ; Swanton, Vermont ; and Houlton, Maine . Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, security along the border was dramatically tightened by
6026-482: The Canadian border. Smuggling of alcoholic beverages ( "rum running" ) was widespread during the 1920s, when Prohibition was in effect nationally in the United States and parts of Canada . In more recent years, Canadian officials have brought attention to drug , cigarette , and firearm smuggling from the United States, while U.S. officials have made complaints of drug smuggling via Canada. In July 2005, law enforcement personnel arrested three men who had built
6157-472: The Canadian government announced that fully vaccinated American citizens and permanent residents could visit Canada starting August 9. The American government reopened its land border to fully vaccinated Canadian citizens effective November 8. The 2020–21 closure was reportedly the first long-term blanket closure of the border since the War of 1812. Business advocacy groups, noting the substantial economic impact of
6288-438: The Civil War was a hazardous occupation: grueling hours spent in close proximity to deadly diseases and nearby battlefields resulted in many suffering permanent disabilities or death. Added to this were the prejudices of the male medical officers in charge who did not want them there and frequently clashed with the nurses over issues of triage , patient treatments and hospice care . Tens of thousands of women served as nurses for
6419-411: The Civil War, the American public had a generally negative view of the nation's armed forces, attributable to a Jeffersonian ideal which saw standing armies as a threat to democracy and instead valorized the " citizen soldier " as being more in keeping with American ideals of equality and rugged individualism . This attitude remained unchanged during the Civil War, and afterwards many would attribute
6550-520: The Confederate army and 114 returned to the Union forces. With the Southern slave states declaring secession from the United States, and with a shortage of soldiers in the army, President Abraham Lincoln called on the states to raise a force of 75,000 troops for three months to put down the Confederate insurrection and defend the national capital in Washington, D.C. Lincoln's call forced
6681-522: The Confederate cause during the Civil War were known as Southern Unionists . They were also known as Union Loyalists or Lincoln's Loyalists. Within the eleven Confederate states, states such as Tennessee (especially East Tennessee ), Virginia (which included West Virginia at the time), and North Carolina were home to the largest populations of Unionists. Many areas of Southern Appalachia harbored pro-Union sentiment as well. As many as 100,000 men living in states under Confederate control would serve in
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#17327762204756812-425: The Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains. In 1903, following a dispute that arose because of the Klondike Gold Rush , a joint United Kingdom–Canada–U.S. tribunal established the boundary of southeast Alaska . On April 11, 1908, the United Kingdom and the United States agreed, under Article IV of the Treaty of 1908 "concerning the boundary between the United States and the Dominion of Canada from
6943-431: The Ontario-New York border ends in the St. Lawrence River at the 45th parallel north . The Quebec-New York border heads inland towards the east, remaining on or near the parallel, becoming the border of Vermont . At 45°00′N 71°30′W / 45.000°N 71.500°W / 45.000; -71.500 (the tripoint of Vermont, New Hampshire , and Quebec), the border begins to follow various natural features of
7074-415: The Scandinavian Regiment (15th Wisconsin). But for the most part, the foreign-born soldiers were scattered as individuals throughout units. The Confederate army was less diverse: 91% of its soldiers were native-born white men and only 9% were foreign-born white men, with Irish being the largest group, other groups included Germans, French, British, and Mexicans. Most Mexicans happened to have been born when
7205-438: The South but the Border States too. However he eventually changed his mind and persuaded Congress to authorize the first official Black enlistment system in late 1862, which evolved into the United States Colored Troops . Before they were allowed to enlist, many Black people volunteered their services to the Union army as cooks, nurses, and in other informal roles, and several volunteer regiments of Black troops were raised by
7336-650: The U.S. Residents of both nations who own property adjacent to the border are forbidden to build within the 6-metre-wide (20 ft) boundary vista without permission from the International Boundary Commission. They are required to report such construction to their respective governments. All persons crossing the border are required to report to the customs agency of the country they have entered. Where necessary, fences or vehicle blockades are used. In remote areas, where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden sensors on roads, trails, railways, and wooded areas, which are located near crossing points. There
7467-410: The U.S. Army and 99 to the Confederacy. The ratio of U.S. Army to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283. One of the resigning officers was Robert E. Lee , who initially was offered the assignment as commander of a field army to suppress the rebellion. Lee disapproved of secession, but refused to bear arms against his native state, Virginia , and resigned to accept the position as commander of
7598-411: The U.S. side of the border. In August 2017, the border between Quebec and New York saw an influx of up to 500 irregular crossings each day, by individuals seeking asylum in Canada. As a result, Canada increased border security and immigration staffing in the area, reiterating the fact that crossing the border irregularly did not affect one's asylum status. From the beginning of January 2017 up until
7729-494: The U.S. state of Alaska , beginning at the Beaufort Sea at 69°39′N 141°00′W / 69.650°N 141.000°W / 69.650; -141.000 and proceeding southwards along the 141st meridian west . At 60°18′N, the border proceeds away from the 141st meridian west in a southeastward direction, following the Saint Elias Mountains . South of the 60th parallel north , the border continues into British Columbia. British Columbia has two international borders with
7860-427: The Union army (including generals Edward Ferrero and Francis B. Spinola ). Six Italian Americans received the Medal of Honor during the war, among whom was Colonel Luigi Palma di Cesnola , who later became the first Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Arts in New York (1879–1904). Most of the Italian-Americans who joined the Union army were recruited from New York City . Many Italians of note were interested in
7991-421: The Union army in maintaining the order and alignment of formations during marches, battles, and transitioning between the two. Sergeants in particular were vital in this role as general guides and their selection ideally reserved for the most distinguished soldiers. NCOs were also charged with training individuals in how to be soldiers. While the captain or other company-level officers were responsible for training
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#17327762204758122-420: The Union army or pro-Union guerilla groups. Although Southern Unionists came from all classes, most differed socially, culturally, and economically from the region's dominant pre-war planter class . Native-born White Americans made up roughly two-thirds of the soldiers in the Union army, with the rest of many different ethnic groups, including large numbers of immigrants. About 25% of the white men who served in
8253-422: The Union army were foreign-born. The U.S. experienced its heaviest rate of immigration during the 1850s, and the vast majority of these people moved to the Northeastern states. Among these immigrants, Germans constituted the largest group with a million arrivals between 1850 and 1860, many of them Forty-Eighters . Nearly as many Irish immigrants arrived during the same period. Immigrant soldiers were among
8384-408: The Union army, among whom are included Clara Barton , Susie King Taylor , Mary Edwards Walker , and Louisa May Alcott . No less vital were the thousands of women who provided service to the Union army in the field of espionage . Early in the war, women were at a distinct advantage as spies , scouts , smugglers , and saboteurs : the idea of women participating in such dangerous lines of work
8515-407: The Union army. He established a military school in New York City where many young Italians were trained and later served in the Union army. Di Cesnola received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Aldie . Two more famous examples were Francesco Casale and Luigi Tinelli, who were instrumental in the formation of the 39th New York Infantry Regiment . According to one evaluation of
8646-457: The Union's victory to the volunteers rather than the leadership and staff work provided by the regular army. In return, officers of the regular army despised the militia and saw them as having dubious value. Commentators such as Emory Upton would later argue that the reliance on militia for the nation's defense was responsible for prolonging conflicts and making them more expensive in both money and lives spent. Despite these attitudes towards
8777-461: The United States , the governments of Canada and the United States agreed to close the border to "non-essential" travel on March 21, 2020, for an initial period of 30 days. The closure was extended 15 times. In mid-June 2021, the Canadian government announced it would ease some entry requirements for fully vaccinated Canadian citizens, permanent residents, and foreign nationals starting on July 5. The closure finally expired on July 21. In mid-July,
8908-472: The United States Army was based on the traditions developed in Europe, with the regiment being the basis of recruitment, training and maneuvering. However, for a variety of reasons there could be vast differences in the number of actual soldiers organized even into units of the same type. Changes in how units were structured during the course of the war, contrasts in organizational principals between regular and volunteer units, and even simple misnaming all played
9039-436: The United States. The Treaty of 1818 saw the expansion of both British North America and the United States, with their boundary extending westward along the 49th parallel , from the Northwest Angle at Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains . While the Laurentian Divide had previously been agreed to as a border, the flatness of the terrain made it difficult to locate this line. The treaty extinguished British claims to
9170-449: The United States. The neighboring Mohawk territory of Akwesasne straddles the Ontario–Quebec–New York borders, where its First Nations sovereignty prevents Ontario Provincial Police , Sûreté du Québec , Royal Canadian Mounted Police , Canada Border Services Agency, Canadian Coast Guard , United States Border Patrol , United States Coast Guard , and New York State Police from exercising jurisdiction over exchanges taking place within
9301-448: The United States: with the state of Alaska along BC's northwest, and with the contiguous United States along the southern edge of the province, including (west to east) Washington , Idaho , and Montana . BC's Alaskan border, continuing from Yukon's, proceeds through the Saint Elias Mountains , followed by Mount Fairweather at 58°54′N 137°31′W / 58.900°N 137.517°W / 58.900; -137.517 (near
9432-495: The Virginian Confederate forces. Lee eventually became the overall commander of the Confederate army. The Confederacy had the advantage of having several military colleges, including The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute , but they produced fewer officers. Though officers were able to resign, enlisted soldiers did not have this right. As they usually had to either desert or wait until their enlistment term
9563-399: The border at Rouses Point, New York , on Lake Champlain. After a significant portion of the construction was completed, measurements revealed that at that point, the actual 45th parallel was three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) south of the surveyed line. The fort, which became known as " Fort Blunder ", was in Canada, which created a dilemma for the U.S. that was not resolved until a provision of
9694-574: The border clear of brush and vegetation for 6 m (20 ft). This " border vista " extends for 3 m (9.8 ft) on each side of the line. In 1909, under the Boundary Waters Treaty , the International Joint Commission was established for Canada and the U.S. to investigate and approve projects that affect the waters and waterways along the border. As a result of the 2001 September 11 attacks ,
9825-581: The border down and out into the Pacific Ocean, terminating it upon reaching international waters . BC's border along the contiguous U.S. begins southwest of Vancouver Island and northwest of the Olympic Peninsula , at the terminus of international waters in the Pacific Ocean and the northwest corner of the American state of Washington . It follows the Strait of Juan de Fuca eastward, turning northeastward to enter Haro Strait . The border follows
9956-416: The border heads toward Beau Lake , going through it and continuing into New Brunswick. The entire border of New Brunswick is shared with the U.S. state of Maine, beginning at the southern tip of Beau Lake at 47°18′N 69°03′W / 47.300°N 69.050°W / 47.300; -69.050 (between Rivière-Bleue , Quebec and Saint-François Parish, New Brunswick ), subsequently proceeding to
10087-426: The border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. It turned out that the war itself proved to be much longer and far more extensive in scope and scale than anyone on either side, Union North or Confederate South, expected or even imagined at the outset on the date of July 22, 1861. That was the day that Congress initially approved and authorized subsidy to allow and support
10218-538: The border with Canada in connection with the pandemic. He later abandoned the idea following vocal opposition from Canadian officials. The International Boundary is commonly said to be the world's "longest undefended border", though this is true only in the military sense, as civilian law enforcement is present. It is illegal to cross the border outside border controls, as anyone crossing the border must be checked per immigration and customs laws. The relatively low level of security measures stands in contrast to that of
10349-569: The boundary, and the International Joint Commission deals with issues concerning boundary waters. The agencies responsible for facilitating legal passage through the international boundary are the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the United States. In
10480-439: The closure on both sides of the border, called for more nuanced restrictions in place of the blanket ban on non-essential travel. The Northern Border Caucus, a group in the U.S. Congress composed of members from border communities, made similar suggestions to the governments of both countries. Beyond the closure itself, US President Donald Trump also initially suggested the idea of deploying United States military personnel near
10611-451: The colors. There were a number of staff NCO positions including quartermaster sergeant , ordnance sergeant , and commissary sergeant. NCOs in the volunteer forces were quite different from their regular counterparts as the war began. Appointed to their role as each regiment was created, they were often on a first-name basis with both their superior officers and the enlisted men they were tasked to lead. Discipline among friends and neighbors
10742-445: The efforts of the four "supply" departments (Quartermaster, Subsistence, Ordnance & Medical) were not coordinated with each other, a condition that would last throughout the war. Although the "War Board" could provide military advice and help coordinate military policy, it was not until the appointment of Ulysses Grant as General-in-Chief was there more than the vaguest coordination of military strategy and logistics. The Union army
10873-713: The end of March 2018, the RCMP intercepted 25,645 people crossing the border into Canada from an unauthorized point of entry. Public Safety Canada estimates another 2,500 came across in April 2018 for a total of just over 28,000. The length of the terrestrial boundary is 8,891 km (5,525 mi), of which 6,416 km (3,987 mi) is against the contiguous 48 states , and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) against Alaska . Eight out of thirteen provinces and territories of Canada and thirteen out of fifty U.S. states are located along this international boundary. The Canadian territory of Yukon shares its entire western border with
11004-540: The end of the war, prominent examples include Harriet Tubman , Mary Louvestre , Pauline Cushman , Elizabeth Van Lew , and Mary Bowser . In his 1997 book examining the motivations of the American Civil War's soldiers, For Cause and Comrades , historian James M. McPherson states that Union soldiers fought to preserve the United States, as well as to end slavery, stating that: Canada%E2%80%93United States border The Canada–United States border
11135-473: The entire Canada–U.S. border in Manitoba lies along the 49th parallel north. At the province's eastern end, however, the border briefly enters the Lake of the Woods, turning north at 48°59′N 95°09′W / 48.983°N 95.150°W / 48.983; -95.150 where it continues into the land along the western end of Minnesota's Northwest Angle , the only part of the United States besides
11266-537: The field operations of the army. At the start of the war, Simon Cameron served as Secretary of War before being replaced in January 1862 by Edwin Stanton . The role of general-in-chief was filled by several men during the course of the war: The gap from March 11 to July 23, 1862, was filled with direct control of the army by President Lincoln and Secretary Stanton, with the help of an unofficial "War Board" that
11397-650: The flag of the Mohawk people. Although U.S. Customs remained open to southbound traffic, northbound traffic was blocked on the U.S. side by both American and Canadian officials. The Canadian border at this crossing remained closed for six weeks. On July 13, 2009, the CBSA opened a temporary inspection station at the north end of the north span of the bridge in the city of Cornwall, allowing traffic to once again flow in both directions. The Mohawk people of Akwesasne have staged ongoing protests at this border. In 2014, they objected to
11528-561: The initiative, was implemented on January 23, 2007, specifying six forms of identification acceptable for crossing the U.S. border (depending on mode): The requirement of a passport or an enhanced form of identification to enter the United States by air went into effect in January 2007; and went into effect for those entering the U.S. by land and sea in January 2008. Although the new requirements for land and sea entry went into legal effect in January 2008, its enforcement did not begin until June 2009. Since June 2009, every traveler arriving via
11659-424: The international boundary by land or sea, or when arriving by air from only Canada or the United States. Although permanent residents of Canada and the United States are eligible for FAST or NEXUS, they are required to travel with a passport and proof of permanent residency upon arrival at the Canadian border. American permanent residents who are NEXUS members also require Electronic Travel Authorization when crossing
11790-657: The interpretation of the border treaties and mistakes in surveying required additional negotiations, which resulted in the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The treaty resolved the Aroostook War , a dispute over the boundary between Maine , New Brunswick , and the Province of Canada . The treaty redefined the border between New Hampshire , Vermont, and New York on the one hand, and the Province of Canada on
11921-435: The job too unsuitable for women of social rank, particularly at the thought of unmarried women surrounded by thousands of men in close quarters. Nevertheless, Congress eventually approved for women to serve as nurses, to which Dorothea Dix – appointed Superintendent of Army Nurses – was responsible for setting hiring guidelines and starting a training program for prospective candidates. For the women who served, nursing during
12052-495: The many temporary units of dedicated volunteers , as well as including those who were drafted in to service as conscripts . To this end, the Union army fought and ultimately triumphed over the efforts of the Confederate States Army . Over the course of the war, 2,128,948 men enlisted in the Union army, including 178,895, or about 8.4% being colored troops ; 25% of the white men who served were immigrants, and
12183-783: The maritime components of the boundary at the Atlantic , Pacific , and Arctic oceans. The border also runs through the middle of the Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne and even divides some buildings found in communities in New England and Quebec. The US Customs and Border Protection identifies the chief issues along the border as domestic and international terrorism; drug smuggling and smuggling of products (such as tobacco ) to evade customs duties; and illegal immigration. A June 2019 U.S. Government Accountability Office report identified specific staffing and resource shortfalls faced by
12314-462: The most enthusiastic in the Union army, not only from a desire to help save their adoptive home but to prove their patriotism towards it. To help cement immigrant enthusiasm and loyalty to the Union, several generals were appointed from these communities, including Franz Sigel and Michael Corcoran . Many immigrant soldiers formed their own regiments, such as the Irish Brigade , including
12445-426: The necessity of leading their units into combat and their conspicuousness when accompanied by staff and escorts. Among memorable field leaders of the army were Nathaniel Lyon (first Union general to be killed in battle during the war), William Rosecrans , George Henry Thomas , William Tecumseh Sherman , and Phil Sheridan . Others include Benjamin F. Butler . Non-commissioned officers (NCOs) were important in
12576-672: The notion that Black soldiers were a liability, allowing about 200,000 Black soldiers to serve in the Union army during the Civil War. Even as they served their country, Black soldiers were subject to discrimination. They were more often assigned to menial labor. Some Union officers refused to employ them in combat, but when they were they often had to use inferior weapons and equipment. Black soldiers were paid less than white soldiers ($ 10 vs $ 16 per month) until Congress yielded to public pressure and approved equal pay in June 1864. Black units were led predominantly by white officers, and while more than
12707-399: The number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Many Southern Unionists would also fight for the Union army. An estimated 100,000 white soldiers from states within the Confederacy served in Union army units. Between April 1861 and April 1865, at least 2,128,948 men served in the United States Army, of whom the majority were volunteers. It is
12838-605: The other, resolving the Indian Stream dispute and the Fort Blunder dilemma at the outlet to Lake Champlain . The part of the 45th parallel that separates Quebec from the U.S. states of Vermont and New York had first been surveyed from 1771 to 1773 after it had been declared the boundary between New York (including what later became Vermont) and Quebec. It was surveyed again after the War of 1812. The U.S. federal government began to construct fortifications just south of
12969-491: The outbreak of the American Civil War, Giuseppe Garibaldi was a very popular figure. The 39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment , of whose 350 members were Italian, was nicknamed Garibaldi Guard in his honor. The unit wore red shirts and bersaglieri plumes . They carried with them both a Union Flag as well as an Italian flag with the words Dio e popolo, meaning "God and people." In 1861 Garibaldi himself volunteered his services to President Abraham Lincoln . Garibaldi
13100-422: The provinces of both Alberta and Saskatchewan lies along the 49th parallel north. Both provinces share borders with the state of Montana , while, farther east, Saskatchewan also shares a border with North Dakota . On the American side, the states of Montana, North Dakota , and Minnesota all lie on the straight part of the border. Along with the U.S. states of North Dakota and Minnesota (west to east), nearly
13231-586: The regulars' performance could impress even the most battle-hardened volunteers. At The Wheatfield during the Battle of Gettysburg , the regulars' fighting skill and orderly retirement under fire drew the admiration of many observers, including Prince Philippe, Count of Paris . As one volunteer put it, "For two years the U.S. Regulars taught us how to be soldiers [;] in the Wheatfield at Gettysburg, they taught us how to die like soldiers." The regulars became
13362-512: The regulars, they would serve as an important foundation around which the Union army was built. In the disastrous First Battle of Bull Run , it was the regulars who acted as rearguard during the retreat while the volunteers fled, and when George McClellan was put in charge of what became the Army of the Potomac he used regular officers and non-commissioned officers to train the volunteers. Training
13493-563: The removal of British forces from Detroit , as well as other frontier outposts on the U.S. side. The Jay Treaty was superseded by the Treaty of Ghent (effective 1815) concluding the War of 1812 , which included pre-war boundaries. Signed in December 1814, the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812, returning the boundaries of British North America and the United States to the state they were before
13624-591: The responsibility of reading newspapers to identify particularly useful articles and editorials. They would then contact the editors—before the type had been broken up—and request that additional copies of that particular item be printed. These items would then be distributed to Union soldiers or to newspapers. As the war progressed, the societies began to write and publish their own broadsides, which included contributions from well-known persons such as Robert Dale Owen . Union Army American Indian Wars American Civil War Appomattox Court House During
13755-402: The same grade regardless of their date of commission, a feature which could have become a subject of contention. The use of brevet ranks was also a common feature of the Union army. Officer appointments depended on the commission grade and whether it was in the regular or volunteer forces. The President reserved the right to issue commission for all regular officers and for general officers in
13886-511: The same hardships as them. Some of the most prominent women to accompany the Union armies in the field include Anna Etheridge , Marie Tepe , and Nadine Turchin . Women also sought to serve more formally as nurses in the Union army, many having been inspired by the work of Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War . However, there was strong resistance against these efforts at first. Societal prejudices saw women as too delicate and
14017-532: The second article of the Treaty, the parties agreed on all boundaries of the United States, including, but not limited to, the boundary to the north along what was then British North America . The agreed-upon boundary included the line from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia to the northwesternmost head of the Connecticut River and proceeded down along the middle of the river to the 45th parallel of north latitude . The parallel had been established in
14148-406: The soldiers when assembled into squads, platoons or as a company, experienced NCOs could take over this training as well. NCOs were also responsible for the regimental colors , which helped the unit maintain formation and serve as a rally point for the regiment. Typically a sergeant was designated the standard-bearer and protected by a color guard of corporals who only opened fire in defense of
14279-629: The south of the 49th in the Red River Valley , which was part of Rupert's Land . The treaty also extinguished U.S. claims to land north of the 49th in the watershed of the Missouri River , which was part of the Louisiana Purchase . Along the 49th parallel, the border vista is theoretically straight, but in practice follows the 19th-century surveyed border markers and varies by several hundred feet in spots. Disputes over
14410-592: The standard by which the Volunteers were measured, and to be described as being as good or better than them was considered the highest compliment. Commissioned officers in the Union army could be divided in several categories: general officers , including lieutenant general , which was added on March 2, 1864, major generals and brigadier generals ; field officers including colonels , lieutenant colonels and majors ; and company officers including captains , first lieutenants and second lieutenants . There
14541-401: The state of Alaska that is north of the 49th parallel. The border reaches Ontario at 49°23′N 95°09′W / 49.383°N 95.150°W / 49.383; -95.150 . The province of Ontario shares its border (west to east) with the U.S. states of Minnesota, Michigan , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York . The largest provincial international border, most of the border is
14672-498: The states. These included the 1st Kansas Colored Infantry Regiment , the first Black regiment to be raised and the first to engage in combat; the 1st Louisiana Native Guard , raised from both freedmen and escaped slaves after the Capture of New Orleans ; and the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment , which became the most famous Black unit after their valiant participation in the Battle of Fort Wagner . Their efforts helped to dispel
14803-778: The strait in a northward direction, but turns sharply eastward through Boundary Pass , separating the Canadian Gulf Islands from the American San Juan Islands . Upon reaching the Strait of Georgia , the border turns due north and then towards the northwest, bisecting the strait until the 49th parallel north. After making a sharp turn eastbound, the border follows this parallel across the Tsawwassen Peninsula , separating Point Roberts, Washington , from Delta, British Columbia , and continues into Alberta. The entire Canada–U.S. border in
14934-494: The territory. In May 2009, the Mohawk people of Akwesasne occupied the area around the Canada Border Services Agency port of entry building to protest the Canadian government's decision to arm its border agents while operating on Mohawk territory. The north span of the Seaway International Bridge and the CBSA inspection facilities were closed. During this occupation, the Canadian flag was replaced with
15065-648: The treaty left the border on the meandering line as surveyed. The border along the Boundary Waters in present-day Ontario and Minnesota between Lake Superior and the Northwest Angle was also redefined. An 1844 boundary dispute during the Presidency of James K. Polk led to a call for the northern boundary of the U.S. west of the Rockies to be 54°40′N related to the southern boundary of Russia's Alaska Territory . However, Great Britain wanted
15196-531: The two countries in both populated and rural areas. Both nations are also actively involved in detailed and extensive tactical and strategic intelligence sharing. In December 2010, Canada and the United States were negotiating an agreement titled "Beyond the Border: A Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Competitiveness" which would give the U.S. more influence over Canada's border security and immigration controls, and more information would be shared by Canada with
15327-525: The volunteer forces. volunteer field and company-grade officers could be commissioned by either the president or their respective governor. Company officers were also unique in that they were usually elected by members of their company. The political appointment and/or election of volunteer officers was part of a long-standing militia tradition and of a political patronage system common in the United States. While many of these officers were West Point graduates or had prior military experience, others had none, nor
15458-411: The volunteers, especially in regards to critical administrative and logistical matters, remained an important function of the regulars during the war. This was particularly the case with regular army artillery, as they were more widely dispersed than the infantry and cavalry (making them more visible to the olunteers) and were assigned to specific units to train their volunteer counterparts. In battle,
15589-486: The war and joined the army, reaching positions of authority. Brigadier General Edward Ferrero was the original commander of the 51st New York Regiment . He commanded both brigades and divisions in the eastern and western theaters of war and later commanded a division of the United States Colored Troops . Colonel Enrico Fardella, of the same and later of the 85th New York regiment, was made
15720-473: The war. In the following decades, the United States and the United Kingdom concluded several treaties that settled the major boundary disputes between the two, enabling the border to be demilitarized . The Rush–Bagot Treaty of 1817 provided a plan for demilitarizing the two combatant sides in the War of 1812 and also laid out preliminary principles for drawing a border between British North America and
15851-452: The wives or other female relatives of the soldiers themselves who saw to their personal needs and (if time allowed) looked to the well-being of other soldiers. A somewhat more formal role for some camp followers was that of vivandière . Originally a female sutler , the role of vivandière expanded to include other responsibilities, including on the battlefield. Armed for their own protection, they brought water to thirsty soldiers, carried
15982-508: Was Michigan , which designated Fort Wayne as a training center for both officers and NCOs. As the war progressed NCOs gained valuable experience and even drastic disciplinary measures such as execution by firing squad were carried out when deemed necessary. The promotion of soldiers to NCOs (and NCOs to officers) was also increasingly based on battlefield performance, although each state maintained their own standards for when and where promotions could be granted. Southerners who were against
16113-457: Was authorized a number of aides-de-camp as their personal staff and a general staff . The general staff included representatives of the other combat arms, such as a chief of artillery and chief of cavalry (the infantry being typically represented by the commanding officer) and representatives of the staff bureaus and offices. The staff department officers typically assigned to an army or military department included an assistant adjutant general,
16244-475: Was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically. Each of these armies was usually commanded by a major general . Typically, the Department or District commander also had field command of the army of the same name, but some conflicts within the ranks occurred when this was not true, particularly when an army crossed a geographic boundary. The commanding officer of an army
16375-452: Was established on March 17, 1862. The board consisted of Ethan A. Hitchcock , the chairman, with Department of War bureau chiefs Lorenzo Thomas (Adjutant General), Montgomery C. Meigs (Quartermaster General), Joseph G. Totten (Chief of Engineers), James W. Ripley (Chief of Ordnance), and Joseph P. Taylor (Commissary General). Reporting directly to the Secretary of War were the bureau chiefs or heads of staff departments which made up
16506-515: Was further differentiation between line officers, who were members of the artillery, cavalry or infantry branches, and staff officers, who were part of the various departments and bureaus of the War Department. All line officers outranked staff officers except in cases pertaining to their staff assignment, in which they received their orders from their respective department chiefs. Regular general officers outranked volunteer general officers of
16637-452: Was military leadership a primary consideration in such appointments. Such a policy inevitably resulted in the promotion of inept officers over more able commanders. As the war dragged on and casualties mounted, governors reacted to their constituents' complaints and instead began to issue commissions on the basis of battlefield rather than political competence. Officers tended to suffer a higher percentage of battle wounds on account of either
16768-499: Was not enforced as strictly as in the regular army, and while some NCOs brought with them prior battlefield experience (whether from the Mexican–American War or foreign military service) many at the start of the war were as equally ignorant as their officers in military matters. Training for these NCOs took place during off-duty hours and often involved lessons based on manuals such as Hardee's Tactics . One notable exception
16899-402: Was offered a major general's commission in the U.S. Army through the letter from Secretary of State William H. Seward to H. S. Sanford , the U.S. Minister at Brussels , July 17, 1861. Colonel Luigi Palma di Cesnola , a former Italian and British soldier and veteran of the Crimean War , commanded the 4th New York Cavalry and would rise to become one of the highest ranking Italian officer in
17030-628: Was over in order to join the Confederate States Army; though few are believed to have done so, their total number is unknown. U.S. President Abraham Lincoln exercised supreme command and control over the army in his capacity as commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces . Below him was the Secretary of War , who oversaw the administration of the army, and the general-in-chief , who directed
17161-506: Was simply not considered. Eventually though their opponents recognized their existence, and while female spies caught in the act were not typically executed like their male colleagues, they still faced the threat of lengthy prison sentences. For self-evident reasons many of these activities were kept secret and any documentation (if it existed) was often destroyed. As such the identity of many of these women will never be known. Of those who became famous for their espionage work during or after
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