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107-625: The etymology of the ethnonym Lạc applied to this people is uncertain. Based on Chinese observers' remarks that the Lạc people's paddies depended on water-control systems like tidal-irrigation & draining, so that the floody, swampy Red River Delta might be suitable for agriculture, many scholars opted to find its etymology in the semantic field "water". Japanese scholar Gotō Kimpei links Lạc to Vietnamese noun(s) lạch ~ rạch "ditch, canal, waterway". Vietnamese scholar Nguyễn Kim Thản (apud Vũ Thế Ngọc, 1989) suggests that Lạc simply means "water" and

214-743: A tributary relationship with Joseon dynasty Korea following the Qing invasion of Joseon in 1636. In 1882, China and Korea signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882 stipulating that Korea was a dependency of China and granted Chinese merchants the right to conduct overland and maritime business freely within Korean borders as well as the Chinese unilateral extraterritoriality privileges in civil and criminal cases. China also obtained concessions in Korea, such as

321-592: A Chinese attempt to colonialize and civilize , the Trung sisters revolted against the Sinitic ruling class in 39 AD. After gaining a brief independence amid the Trung sisters' rebellion , Lac chiefs along with its social elites were massacred, deported, and forced to adopt Han cultures in a reactionary military response led by Chinese general Ma Yuan . Later, Chinese historians writing of Ma Yuan's expedition referred to

428-640: A country's name (國名). However, neither Lüshi Chunqiu nor Gao You indicated where Yueluo was located. Sinologists Knoblock and Riegel propose that Yueluo 越駱 was probably a mistake for Luoyue 駱越. According to a fourth century chronicle, Thục Phán (King An Dương) led the Western Ou (Âu) tribe or the Âu Việt subdued the Luo tribes and formed the kingdom of Âu Lạc in around 257 BC. The new Âu overlords established their headquarters in Xiwu (Tây Vu), where they built

535-619: A defeated French invasion attempt. After the British expedition to Tibet in the waning days of the Qing dynasty, the Qing responded by sending Zhao Erfeng to further integrate Tibet into China. He succeeded in abolishing the powers of the Tibetan local leaders in Kham and appointing Chinese magistrates in their places by 1909–1910. Qing forces were also sent to Ü-Tsang in 1910 to establish

642-433: A direct control over Tibet proper , though a province was never established in this area. The Qing campaign against Burma (Myanmar) (1765–1769) was its most disastrous and costly frontier war. It ended in a military defeat but the Qing rulers could not accept Burma as an equal, and when diplomatic relations were resumed in 1790, the Qing court considered it a restoration of Chinese suzerainty. The Qing dynasty established

749-464: A domestication of the wild rice Oryza rufipogon by cultures associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien-speakers. This occurred 13,500 to 8,200 years ago south of the Yangtze River in present-day China. There are two likely centers of domestication for rice as well as the development of the wet-field technology. The first is in the lower Yangtze River , believed to be the homelands of

856-624: A family name. Many chose a name based on some geographical feature associated with their residence or occupation, and as nearly three-fourths of the population were farmers, many made family names using ta . Some common examples are Tanaka ( 田中 ), literally meaning "in the paddy field;" Nakata ( 中田 ), "middle paddy field;" Kawada (川田), "river paddy field;" and Furuta ( 古田 ), "old paddy field." In recent years, rice consumption in Japan has fallen and many rice farmers are increasingly elderly. The government has subsidized rice production since

963-559: A great deal of labor and materials to create and need large quantities of water for irrigation. Oxen and water buffalo , adapted for life in wetlands , are important working animals used extensively in paddy field farming. Paddy field farming remains the dominant form of growing rice in modern times. It is practiced extensively in Bangladesh , Cambodia , China , India , Indonesia , northern Iran , Japan , Laos , Malaysia , Mongolia , Myanmar , Nepal , North Korea , Pakistan ,

1070-617: A large citadel, known to history as Cổ Loa or Cổ Loa Thành, "Ancient Conch Citadel." When Zhao Tuo , founder of Nanyue , conquered Âu Lạc and established his rule over the region in 179 BC, these Lac princes became his vassals. In 111 BC, a militarily powerful Western Han dynasty conquered Nanyue and annexed the lands of the Lac Viet into the Han empire, and established the Jiaozhi , Jiuzhen and Rinan commanderies. Reacting against

1177-449: A large scale. Some of the descriptions may apply rather well to the region of present-day Guangxi and Guangdong , which remain inhospitable for many years to come, evident in census of the year 2 AD. Women enjoyed high status in Lạc society. Such a society is a matrilocal society, a societal system in which a married couple resides with or near the wife's parents. Thus, the female offspring of

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1284-492: A male relative of her late husband, often his brother, to obtain heirs. This practice provided an heir for the mother, protecting widows' interests and reflecting female authority, although some patriarchal societies used it to keep wealth within the male family bloodline. The economy was characterized by agriculture with wet rice cultivation, draft animals , metal plowshares, axes and other tools, as well as irrigation complexes. The cultivation of irrigated rice may have started in

1391-820: A million people were slaughtered, and it took generations for it to recover. The Qing ruling family Aisin Gioro was supportive of Tibetan Buddhism and many in the ruling class adopted the religion. The Qing dynasty was seen to be the return of Chinese expansionist policies. Under the Qing rule, China expanded beyond the Great Wall and started to annex more territories in process. The Qing invaded Korea , managed to conquer Mongolia , and also annexed modern territories of Xinjiang and Tibet as well. The Qing also managed to extend its control into Central Asia for once more, mostly concentrated in what would be today Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. The Qing also destroyed

1498-412: A mother remain living in (or near) the mother's house, forming large clan-families couples after marriage would often go to live with the wife's family. It has also been said that Proto-Vietnamese society was matrilineal . The status of Lạc lords transferred through the mother's lineage while women possessed inheritance rights. In addition, they also practiced levirate , meaning widows had a right to marry

1605-499: A newly irrigated paddy field, especially those made during or after the Edo period , may be called Nitta or Shinden (both 新田 ), "new paddy field." In some places, lakes and marshes were likened to a paddy field and were named with ta , like Hakkōda ( 八甲田 ). Today, many family names have ta as a component, a practice which can be largely attributed to a government edict in the early Meiji Period which required all citizens to have

1712-536: A possible environmental and commercial solution. The word "paddy" is derived from the Malay / Indonesian word padi , meaning "rice plant", which is itself derived from Proto-Austronesian *pajay ("rice in the field", "rice plant"). Cognates include Amis panay ; Tagalog pálay ; Kadazan Dusun paai ; Javanese pari ; and Chamorro faʻi , among others. Genetic evidence shows that all forms of paddy rice, including both indica and japonica , spring from

1819-473: A sense, it has been unable to cope with population growth and other rice economies which utilized fertilizers. Rice is now grown in all the three seasons of Myanmar, though primarily in the Monsoon season – from June to October. Rice grown in the delta areas relies heavily on the river water and sedimented minerals from the northern mountains, whilst the rice grown in the central regions require irrigation from

1926-938: A series of events that involved negotiations with the Government of Tibet , a military conflict in the Chamdo area of western Kham in October 1950, and the Seventeen Point Agreement , which was ratified by the 14th Dalai Lama in October 1951 but later repudiated. The Five Fingers of Tibet was a territorial claim attributed to Mao Zedong that considers Tibet to be China's right hand palm, with five fingers on its periphery: Ladakh , Nepal , Sikkim , Bhutan , and North-East Frontier Agency (now known as Arunachal Pradesh ) that are considered China's responsibility to "liberate". The policy has never been discussed in official Chinese public statements and

2033-454: A variety of the Yue . These Yue and Luoyue likely refer to diverse groups of peoples speaking different languages who perhaps shared certain cultural practices, rather than to a clearly defined ethnic group speaking a single language. Paddy field A paddy field is a flooded field of arable land used for growing semiaquatic crops, most notably rice and taro . It originates from

2140-737: Is archaeological evidence that unhusked rice was stored for the military and for burial with the deceased from the Neolithic period to the Han dynasty in China. By the late Neolithic (3500 to 2500 BC), population in the rice cultivating centers had increased rapidly, centered around the Qujialing - Shijiahe and Liangzhu cultures. There was also evidence of intensive rice cultivation in paddy fields as well as increasingly sophisticated material cultures in these two regions. The number of settlements among

2247-489: Is available, rice farmers typically plant Green Revolution rice varieties allowing three growing seasons per year. Since fertilizer and pesticide are relatively expensive inputs, farmers typically plant seeds in a very small plot. Three weeks following germination, the 15-20 centimetre (6–8 in) stalks are picked and replanted at greater separation, in a backbreaking manual procedure. Rice harvesting in Central Java

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2354-425: Is comparable to phonetically similar elements in two compounds nước rạc (lit. "ebbing (tidal) water") & cạn rặc (lit. "utterly dried up [of water]"). On the other hand, French linguist Michel Ferlus proposes that 駱/雒 (OC * rak ) is monosyllabified from the areal ethnonym *b.rak ~ *p.rak by loss of the first element in the iambic cluster. The ethnonym *b.rak ~ *p.rak underlies * prɔːk , ethnonym of

2461-665: Is considered the main rice growing province of the Philippines . The Banaue Rice Terraces are an example of paddy fields in the country. They are located in Banaue in Northern Luzon , Philippines and were built by the Ifugaos 2,000 years ago. Streams and springs found in the mountains were tapped and channeled into irrigation canals that run downhill through the rice terraces. Other notable Philippine paddy fields are

2568-463: Is determined by the variety and quality control of water. The tavy is traditionally the culture of flooded upland rice on burning of cleared natural rain forest (135,966 ha). Criticized as being the cause of deforestation, tavy is still widely practiced by farmers in Madagascar, who find a good compromise between climate risks, availability of labour and food security. By extension,

2675-457: Is found in some place names, especially small farming townships and villages. However, the specific Korean term for 'paddy' is a purely Korean word, "non" ( Korean :  논 ). In Madagascar , the average annual consumption of rice is 130 kg per person, one of the largest in the world. According to a 1999 study of UPDRS / FAO: The majority of rice is related to irrigation (1,054,381 ha). The choice of methods conditioning performance

2782-580: Is grown in Northern Italy, especially in the valley of the Po River . The paddy fields are irrigated by fast-flowing streams descending from the Alps . In the 19th century and much of the 20th century, the paddy fields were farmed by the mondine , a subculture of seasonal rice paddy workers composed mostly of poor women. The acidic soil conditions common in Japan due to volcanic eruptions have made

2889-472: Is now dormant, but concerns have often been raised over its possible continued existence or revival. Following Dalai Lama 's escape to India, China and India fought a border war in 1962 , where China gained Aksai Chin and stampeded into Arunachal Pradesh (called South Tibet in China), before retreating from the latter over increasing turmoil. Before that, China also sought to take over Taiwan, then under

2996-465: Is now modern Mongolia and Siberia and gained control over western regions such as modern Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia.. Following the fall of the Han dynasty, the Korea peninsula gained political independence from The Central Plain dynasties, leaving only northern Vietnam remaining under Chinese control, and the Three Kingdoms era temporarily halted Chinese expansionism. Nonetheless,

3103-548: Is often performed not by owners or sharecroppers of paddies, but rather by itinerant middlemen, whose small firms specialize in the harvest, transport, milling, and distribution of rice. The fertile volcanic soil of much of the Indonesian archipelago—particularly the islands of Java and Bali—has made rice a central dietary staple. Steep terrain on Bali resulted in complex irrigation systems, locally called subak , to manage water storage and drainage for rice terraces. Rice

3210-626: Is the largest in the world, only about 15% of its total land area can be cultivated. About 75% of the cultivated area is used for food crops. Rice is China's most important crop, raised on about 25% of the cultivated area. Most rice is grown south of the Huai River , in the Yangtze valley, the Zhu Jiang delta, and in Yunnan , Guizhou , and Sichuan provinces. Rice appears to have been used by

3317-602: The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian , Âu Lạc was referred as the "Western Ou" (v. Tây Âu) and "Luo" (v. Lạc) and they were lumped into the category of Baiyue by the Sinitic Han Chinese peoples to the north of them. The Warring States period 's encyclopedia Lüshi Chunqiu mentioned the name Yueluo 越駱 (SV: Việt Lạc ), which the Han historian and philosopher Gao You asserted to be

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3424-653: The Aral Sea , Caspian Sea and the Lake Baikal for several decades. China also gained loyalty from the Turkic and Sogdian tribes at the northern and western borders. The Tang managed to encroach into the Tibetan territory and occupy Lhasa , until they had to abandon such expansionist pursuits due to difficult climate. The Tang Chinese expansion was checked following the Battle of Talas in modern-day Kyrgyzstan, when

3531-691: The Cao Wei , Shu Han and Eastern Wu managed to extend its territorial gains in some parts under their territorial control. Once the Three Kingdoms ended and establishment of the Jin dynasty , Chinese expansionism halted for four centuries, as China was in dire need to consolidate back its borderland following its significant population losses. The Sui dynasty , which reunified China after another 350 years of divisions, attempted to embark back on expansionism, but four disastrous campaigns to Goguryeo put

3638-594: The Chinese concession of Incheon . However, Qing China lost its influence over Korea following the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895. When the Qing collapsed in 1912, the newly established Republic of China claimed inheritance of all territories held by the Qing dynasty. When both Tibet and Outer Mongolia declared their independence, they were not recognized by the Republic of China. Most of

3745-835: The Comoros , and the coast of East Africa around the 1st millennium AD by Austronesian settlers from the Greater Sunda Islands . There are ten archaeologically excavated rice paddy fields in Korea. The two oldest are the Okhyun and Yaumdong sites, found in Ulsan , dating to the early Mumun pottery period . Paddy field farming goes back thousands of years in Korea. A pit-house at the Daecheon-ni site yielded carbonized rice grains and radiocarbon dates, indicating that rice cultivation in dry-fields may have begun as early as

3852-541: The Irrawaddy River . The fields are tilled when the first rains arrive – traditionally measured at 40 days after Thingyan , the Burmese New Year – around the beginning of June. In modern times, tractors are used, but traditionally, buffalos were employed. The rice plants are planted in nurseries and then transplanted by hand into the prepared fields. The rice is then harvested in late November – "when

3959-550: The Kingdom of Tungning of Koxinga , and annexed Taiwan as well. This marked for the first time, China managed to directly control Xinjiang, Taiwan, Tibet, Central Asia and Mongolia. China also marked its claims far to Sakhalin , even though the Qing didn't manage to control it; or even to Kashmir where it fought a bitter war against the Sikhs . Ming loyalists led by Koxinga invaded Taiwan and expelled Dutch colonialists from

4066-625: The Malaysian Peninsula , with most of the fields being located in the northern states such as Kedah , Perlis , Perak , and Penang . Paddy fields can also be found on Malaysia's east coast region, in Kelantan and Terengganu . The central state of Selangor also has its fair share of paddy fields, especially in the districts of Kuala Selangor and Sabak Bernam . Before Malaysia became heavily reliant on its industrial output, people were mainly involved in agriculture, especially in

4173-534: The Mán Bạc burial site (dated 1,800 BC) have close proximity to modern Austroasiatic speakers, and then during the Dongson period, genetic examples yield to a significant proportion of Tai stocks (known as Au , Li-Lao ) possibly living along with Vietic speakers. Lạc lords were hereditary aristocrats in something like a feudal system. The status of Lạc lords passed through the family line of one's mother and tribute

4280-683: The Neolithic rice-farming cultures of the Yangtze River basin in southern China, associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien cultures. It was spread in prehistoric times by the expansion of Austronesian peoples to Island Southeast Asia , Madagascar , Melanesia , Micronesia , and Polynesia . The technology was also acquired by other cultures in mainland Asia for rice farming, spreading to East Asia , Mainland Southeast Asia , and South Asia . Fields can be built into steep hillsides as terraces or adjacent to depressed or steeply sloped features such as rivers or marshes . They require

4387-912: The Philippines , South Korea , Sri Lanka , Taiwan , Thailand , and Vietnam . It has also been introduced elsewhere since the colonial era, notably in northern Italy , the Camargue in France , and in Spain , particularly in the Albufera de València wetlands in the Valencian Community , the Ebro Delta in Catalonia and the Guadalquivir wetlands in Andalusia , as well as along

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4494-552: The Philippines , bringing rice cultivation technologies with them. From Luzon, Austronesians rapidly colonized the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia , moving westwards to Borneo , the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra ; and southwards to Sulawesi and Java . By 500 BC, there is evidence of intensive wetland rice agriculture already established in Java and Bali , especially near very fertile volcanic islands. Rice did not survive

4601-762: The Rebellion of Cao Qin and Bozhou rebellion as well as invasions from the north such as from the Later Jin (eventually the Qing) and the Japanese under Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the Imjin war . The Qing dynasty was a Manchu -ruled dynasty, descended from the Jurchens which founded the Jin dynasty earlier. The dynasty embraced Chinese expansionism. By the late 19th century, in response to competition with other states,

4708-583: The Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), two revolutionary improvements in farming technology took place. One was the use of cast iron tools and beasts of burden to pull plows, and the other was the large-scale harnessing of rivers and development of water conservation projects. Sunshu Ao of the 6th century BC and Ximen Bao of the 5th century BC are two of the earliest hydraulic engineers from China, and their works were focused upon improving irrigation systems. These developments were widely spread during

4815-591: The Twenty-One Demands caused public uproars. It also faced strong opposition from the Soviet Union , which also embraced expansionist policy, leading to the border conflict of 1929 . The Soviets and Japanese meddling into Chinese affairs and the lack of compromises from Western leaders over Japanese and Russian expansionism made the work difficult, as Russia had interests with regard to Xinjiang, and Japanese invasion in northeast China at 1931 . On

4922-693: The Wa people , * rɔːk , ethonym of a Khmu subgroup, and possibly the ethnonym of Bai people (白族 Báizú ). Ferlus also suggests that *b.rak ~ *p.rak underlies 百越 Bǎiyuè (< OC* prâk - wat )'s first syllable 百 Bǎi (< OC * prâk ), initially just a phonogram to transcribe the ethnonym *p.rak ~ *b.rak yet later reconstrued as "hundred". Ferlus etymologises 百 bǎi < * p.rak and 白 bái < * b.rak , used to name populations south of China, as from etymon * p.ra:k " taro > edible tuber ", which underlays Kra-Dai cognate words meaning "taro" (e.g. Thai เผือก pʰɨak , Lakkia ja:k , Paha pɣaːk , etc.); and Ferlus additionally proposes that * p.ra:k

5029-451: The Western Xia . This had prevented the Song dynasty from ever taking any serious military expeditions. These various kingdoms (Song, Liao, Jin, Xia) would fight each other until they were all conquered and unified by the Yuan dynasty in 1279. The Yuan dynasty , as a Khagan -ruled division of the Mongol Empire and an imperial Chinese dynasty , was founded by the Mongols in the traditional Chinese style in 1271. The Mongol Empire

5136-523: The Yue tribes , and extended its reach to the Korean Peninsula . The Han dynasty marked the height of early Chinese expansionism. Under Emperor Wu of Han , the Han China became the regional center of geopolitical influence in East Asia, projecting much of its imperial power on its neighbors. Han China managed to conquer northern Korea and northern Vietnam , annexing and incorporating several parts of these territories. The Han dynasty also managed to conquer various nomadic tribes as far north as what

5243-520: The first invasion delivering a devastating blow to the Pagan Kingdom and effectively resulted in its collapse. The Yuan dynasty also managed to conquer Korea and Tibet , thereby incorporating Tibet into Chinese territory for the first time in history. However, the Yuan dynasty had been unsuccessful in its attempt to conquer Vietnam , with the Mongols being repelled by Trần Thái Tông . Furthermore, The Yuan's naval expeditions to invade Java and Japan yielded disastrous results, eventually leading to

5350-523: The tanety , which literally means "hill," is also growing upland rice, carried out on the grassy slopes that have been deforested for the production of charcoal (139,337 ha). Among the many varieties, rice of Madagascar includes: Vary lava - a translucent long and large grain rice, considered a luxury rice; Vary Makalioka - a translucent long and thin grain rice; Vary Rojofotsy - a half-long grain rice; and Vary mena , or red rice, exclusive to Madagascar. Paddy fields can be found in most states on

5457-404: The 1950s have argued that the Lạc Việt/Luoyue were exclusively ancestors of the Vietnamese Kinh people. On the Chinese side, the Lạc Việt/Luoyue are remembered as an ancient Zhuang kingdom and ancestors of the Zhuang. Lạc Việt/Luoyue however was a merely xenonym used by ancient Han Empire scribers to refer the tribal confederation in ancient Guangxi and Northern Vietnam whom they believed to be

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5564-399: The 1970s, and favors protectionist policies regarding cheaper imported rice. Arable land in small alluvial flats of most rural river valleys in South Korea are dedicated to paddy-field farming. Farmers assess paddy fields for any necessary repairs in February. Fields may be rebuilt, and bund breaches are repaired. This work is carried out until mid-March, when warmer spring weather allows

5671-538: The 220s BCE reported "unorthodox customs" of inhabitants in parts of the region:“To crop the hair, decorate the body, rub pigment into arms and fasten garments on the left side is the way of the Baiyue . In the country of Xiwu ( Vietnamese : Tây Vu ) the habit is to blacken teeth, scar cheeks and wear caps of sheat [catfish] skin stitched crudely with an awl.” Hou Hanshu described the region as thick with dense forests, and full of ponds and lakes, with countless wild animals like elephants, rhinoceros and tigers, while

5778-586: The Austronesian voyages into Micronesia and Polynesia ; however, wet-field agriculture was transferred to the cultivation of other crops, most notably for taro cultivation. The Austronesian Lapita culture also came into contact with the non-Austronesian ( Papuan ) early agriculturists of New Guinea and introduced wetland farming techniques to them. In turn, they assimilated their range of indigenous cultivated fruits and tubers before spreading further eastward to Island Melanesia and Polynesia . Rice and wet-field agriculture were also introduced to Madagascar ,

5885-403: The Batad Rice Terraces, the Bangaan Rice Terraces, the Mayoyao Rice Terraces and the Hapao Rice Terraces. Chinese expansionism Territorial expansion took place during multiple periods of Chinese history , especially under the dynasties of Han , Tang , Yuan , and Qing . Chinese expansionism as a motivation or even coherent phenomenon has been contentiously discussed in regard to

5992-437: The Chinese Communist Party Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China, and, at the first stage, styled his rule after Soviet leader Joseph Stalin . China temporarily abandoned the irredentist idea to focus on internationalism promoted by the communist world. However it would soon reconquer Xinjiang, absorbing the then- Second East Turkestan Republic with help from Stalin. China regained control of Tibet through

6099-477: The Chinese government also provoked tensions in Bhutan. In 1974, China launched its first naval expedition to reclaim the Paracel Islands and defeated the 50-strong South Vietnamese occupation force. Tensions triggered between China and later unified communist Vietnam led to the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979. China and Vietnam later fought another bitter skirmish in the South China Sea in 1988, resulting in China's consolidation of some disputed islands. In

6206-437: The Early Neolithic populations of Lijiacun and Yunchanyan in China. Evidence of possible rice cultivation from ca. 11,500 BC has been found, however it is still questioned whether the rice was indeed being cultivated, or instead being gathered as wild rice. Bruce Smith, an archaeologist at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., who has written on the origins of agriculture, says that evidence has been mounting that

6313-569: The Early Mumun pottery period (c. 1100–850 BC). KUM has conducted excavations, that have revealed similarly dated paddy field features, at Yaeum-dong and Okhyeon, in modern-day Ulsan . The earliest Mumun features were usually located in low-lying narrow gullies, that were naturally swampy and fed by the local stream system. Some Mumun paddy fields in flat areas were made of a series of squares and rectangles, separated by bunds approximately 10 cm in height, while terraced paddy fields consisted of long irregular shapes that followed natural contours of

6420-565: The Lac/Luo as the "Luoyue" or simply as the "Yue." Furthermore, there is no information and record about the Lac after 44 AD. Some of them were hypothesized to have fled to the southern hinterlands. The linguistic origins of the Lạc Việt have continued to remain controversial as they were generally believed to be Austroasiatic speakers. Specifically, they are thought to be Khmer -speaking by Sinologist Edward Schafer . French linguist Michel Ferlus in 2009 draws his conclusion that they were northern Vietic (Viet–Muong) speakers and believes that

6527-406: The Middle Jeulmun pottery period (c. 3500–2000 BC) in the Korean Peninsula . Ancient paddy fields have been carefully unearthed in Korea by institutes such as Kyungnam University Museum (KUM) of Masan . They excavated paddy field features at the Geumcheon-ni Site near Miryang , South Gyeongsang Province . The paddy field feature was found next to a pit-house that is dated to the latter part of

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6634-525: The Ming loyalists and the Qing during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories , the Qing attacked the Kingdom of Tungning. the Qing won the Battle of Penghu and the Ming loyalists submitted to Qing rule. Tungning was annexed as part of Fujian . The Qing were "reluctant colonizers" but became convinced of Taiwan's value to their empire due to the threat the island posed if used as a base by rival powers, and by its abundant resources. The Qing turned Taiwan into its own province in 1885, after Japanese interest and

6741-399: The Mongols in the Tumu Crisis . Following its failures in Vietnam and the north, the Ming dynasty started to concentrate only in internal affairs, and refused to make further interventions or expeditions, except for naval expeditions and trades such as the Ming treasure voyages by Zheng He . Rather than expanding, the Ming was more defensive in nature and faced internal rebellions such as

6848-553: The Monsoon . The paddy cultivation plays a major role in socio-cultural life of rural India. Many regional festivals celebrate the harvest, such as Onam , Bihu , Thai Pongal , Makar Sankranti , and Nabanna . The Kaveri delta region of Thanjavur is historically known as the rice bowl of Tamil Nadu , and Kuttanadu is called the rice bowl of Kerala . Gangavathi is known as the rice bowl of Karnataka . Prime Javanese paddies yield roughly 6 metric tons of unmilled rice (2.5 metric tons of milled rice) per hectare . When irrigation

6955-420: The Qing government of China attempted to exert direct control of its frontier areas by conquest or, if already under military control, conversion into provinces. The ability of Qing China to project power into Central Asia came about because of two changes, one social and one technological. The social change was that under the Qing dynasty, from 1642, the Chinese military forces were organized around cavalry which

7062-416: The Tang dynasty collapsed, China entered the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . After this period, China remained fragmented and was divided into a number of smaller countries that emerged from the turmoil. These included the Song dynasty to the south and the Liao and Jin dynasties to the north. The Song, Liao, and Jin would continue to fight each other for centuries. As a result of perpetual instability,

7169-424: The Tang was defeated by the Arabs. However, China remained strong enough to process a significant weight until the An Lushan Rebellion which crippled the Tang. The rebellion partly led to the collapse and implosion of the Tang into several warring states and kingdoms. After the Tang collapse, China would be divided into several smaller nations until the unification during the Yuan dynasty and Mongol empire. When

7276-585: The Vietnamese are direct descendants of the Dongsonians (i.e. Lac Viet). Keith Taylor (2014) speculates that, the Lac Viet were either Proto-Viet-Muong speakers or Khmuic speakers, another Austroasiatic group who inhabit northwest Vietnam and northern Laos. James Chamberlain (2016), on the other hand, proposes that the Lac Viet were ancestors to Central Tai speakers and Southwestern Tai -speakers (including Thai people ); however, based on layers of Chinese loanwords in proto- Southwestern Tai and other historical evidence, Pittayawat Pittayaporn (2014) proposes that

7383-407: The Vietnamese eventually seceded from the union in the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 938 , Song dynasty , unified much of China's south and launched an invasion of northern Vietnam in the process, but was repelled by Lê Hoàn . From then, the Song dynasty had struggled to reconsolidate back the borderland and inner territories, as well as repeated wars with Vietnam, the Liao dynasty , the Jin dynasty and

7490-402: The Yangtze cultures and their sizes increased, leading some archeologists to characterize them as true states , with clearly advanced socio-political structures. However, it is unknown if they had centralized control. In the terminal Neolithic (2500 to 2000 BC), Shijiahe shrank in size, and Liangzhu disappeared altogether. This is largely believed to be the result of the southward expansion of

7597-461: The Yangtze was probably the site of the earliest rice cultivation. In 1998, Crawford & Shen reported that the earliest of 14 AMS or radiocarbon dates on rice from at least nine Early to Middle Neolithic sites is no older than 7000 BC, that rice from the Hemudu and Luojiajiao sites indicates that rice domestication likely began before 5000 BC, but that most sites in China from which rice remains have been recovered are younger than 5000 BC. During

7704-500: The Yangtze, but by 1250, 75% of China's population lived south of it. Such large-scale internal migration was possible due to introduction of quick-ripening strains of rice from Vietnam suitable for multi-cropping. Famous rice paddies in China include the Longsheng Rice Terraces and the fields of Yuanyang County, Yunnan . India has the largest paddy output in the world and is also the largest exporter of rice in

7811-532: The archaeological site of Matsutaka in Mie Prefecture that dates to the late 2nd century. Ta ( 田 ) is used as a part of many place names as well as in many family names. Most of these places are somehow related to the paddy field and, in many cases, are based on the history of a particular location. For example, where a river runs through a village, the place east of the river may be called Higashida ( 東田 ), literally "east paddy field." A place with

7918-693: The area along and the delta of the Kaladan River , and the Central plains around Mandalay , though there has been an increase in rice farming in Shan State and Kachin State in recent years. Up until the later 1960s, Myanmar was the main exporter of rice. Termed the rice basket of Southeast Asia, much of the rice grown in Myanmar does not rely on fertilizers and pesticides, thus, although "organic" in

8025-420: The area comprising the present-day Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) became a de facto independent polity except for border areas such as Amdo and Eastern Kham . The Republic of China focused its efforts on consolidating their control over Chinese territories and refused to embrace expansionist policy. Republic of China, however, faced numerous pressure from the expansionist Empire of Japan in 1915, with

8132-535: The authority of the rival Republic of China, causing the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis , but was unsuccessful due to American threats in response. China also sought to take over Sikkim in 1967 , but it was unsuccessful. A Chinese map published in 1961 showed China claiming territories in Bhutan, Nepal and the Kingdom of Sikkim . Incursions by Chinese soldiers and Tibetan herdsmen allying with

8239-458: The beginning of the second millennium BCE, evidenced by findings from palynological sequences, while metal tools were regularly used before any significant Sino-Vietic interaction. Chapuis (1995) also suggested the existence of line fishing and some specialization and division of labor. The region was also a major node or hub of interregional access and exchange, connected to other area through an extensive extraregional trade network, since well before

8346-462: The contemporary People's Republic of China and its territorial claims . China slowly became a major geopolitical power center during the ancient era. Various ancient Chinese dynasties enlarged their realms. However, it was only under the unified Qin dynasty that China truly started its process of expansion into other nations. Qin's expansionism led to its first contacts with the Xiongnu ,

8453-565: The dynasty to an end. The establishment of the Tang dynasty marked the comeback of Chinese expansionism. Like its Han predecessor, the Tang empire established itself as a medieval East Asian geopolitical superpower that marked another golden age for Chinese history . Tang China managed to maintain its grip over northern Vietnam and Korea . The Tang empire also managed to extend its control over Xinjiang and Central Asia , reaching as far west as

8560-760: The early Sino-Tibetan Longshan culture . Fortifications like walls (as well as extensive moats in Liangzhu cities) are common features in settlements during this period, indicating widespread conflict. This period also coincides with the southward movement of rice-farming cultures to the Lingnan and Fujian regions, as well as the southward migrations of the Austronesian, Kra-Dai, and Austroasiatic -speaking peoples to Mainland Southeast Asia and Island Southeast Asia . The spread of japonica rice cultivation and paddy field agriculture to Southeast Asia started with

8667-707: The eastern coast of Brazil , the Artibonite Valley in Haiti , Sacramento Valley in California , and West Lothian in Scotland among other places. Paddy cultivation should not be confused with cultivation of deepwater rice , which is grown in flooded conditions with water more than 50 cm (20 in) deep for at least a month. Global paddies' emissions account for at least 10% of global methane emissions . Drip irrigation systems have been proposed as

8774-652: The end of Sino-Mongol expansionist desires. Following the collapse of the Yuan dynasty, the newly established Ming dynasty was initially reluctant to embark on expansionism due to destruction from rebellions in the waning years of the Yuan dynasty. The first Ming emperor, Hongwu , was openly against expansionism and was more concerned with killing his internal political opponents than dealing with outside threats. He specifically warned future Emperors only to defend against foreign barbarians, and not engage in military campaigns for glory and conquest. However, once Hongwu died,

8881-636: The ensuing Warring States period (403–221 BC), culminating in the enormous Du Jiang Yan Irrigation System engineered by Li Bing by 256 BC for the State of Qin in ancient Sichuan . During the Eastern Jin (317–420) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589), land-use became more intensive and efficient, rice was grown twice a year and cattle began to be used for plowing and fertilization . By about 750, 75% of China's population lived north of

8988-580: The farmer to buy or grow rice seedlings. They are transplanted (usually by rice transplanter ) from the indoors into freshly flooded paddy fields in May. Farmers tend and weed their paddy fields through the summer until around the time of Chuseok , a traditional holiday held on 15 August of the Lunar Calendar (circa mid-September on the Solar Calendar). The harvest begins in October. Coordinating

9095-403: The first millennium BC, thanks to its strategic location, enjoying access to key interaction routes and resources, including proximity to major rivers or the coast and a high distribution of copper, tin, and lead ores. Kim (2015) believed its economic and commercial value, including its location and access to key waterways and exotic tropical goods, would have been main reasons the Chinese conquered

9202-399: The harvest can be challenging because many Korean farmers have small paddy fields in a number of locations around their villages, and modern harvesting machines are sometimes shared between extended family members. Farmers usually dry the harvested grains in the sun before bringing them to market. The Hanja character for 'field', jeon ( Korean :  전 ; Hanja :  田 ),

9309-721: The island during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia and founded the Chinese Kingdom of Tungning . The Ming loyalists quickly moved to replace the institutions and culture of Dutch colonial rule with Han Chinese colonial rule. Language and religious institutions left by the Dutch were closed and replaced with Confucian temples and Chinese language schools for both Han Chinese and aboriginals. Officials encouraged new immigration of Han Chinese from China into territory further inland, turning aboriginal lands into new farmland. After fighting between

9416-636: The land at various levels. Mumun Period rice farmers used all of the elements that are present in today's paddy fields, such as terracing, bunds, canals, and small reservoirs. We can grasp some paddy-field farming techniques of the Middle Mumun (c. 850–550 BC), from the well-preserved wooden tools excavated from archaeological rice fields at the Majeon-ni Site. However, iron tools for paddy-field farming were not introduced until sometime after 200 BC. The spatial scale of paddy-fields increased, with

9523-411: The locals earned their living by hunting and fishing, using bows propelling poisoned arrows, tattooing themselves, and wearing chignon and turbans. They also are said to know how to cast copper implements and pointed arrowheads, chewing betel nuts and blackening their teeth. However, such descriptions of the kingdom bear little resemblance to what we know: not a place of fertile cultivation or habitation on

9630-572: The migrations of the Austronesian Dapenkeng culture into Taiwan between 3500 and 2000 BC. The Nanguanli site in Taiwan, dated to ca. 2800 BC, has yielded numerous carbonized remains of both rice and millet in waterlogged conditions, indicating intensive wetland rice cultivation and dryland millet cultivation. From about 2000 to 1500 BC, the Austronesian expansion began, with settlers from Taiwan moving south to migrate to Luzon in

9737-494: The native people in the Hong River Delta were deficient in knowledge of agriculture, metallurgy, politics, and their civilization was a by-product of Chinese colonization. They denied in situ cultural evolution or social complexity, attributing any development to Sinicization, though they were aware of this "stable, structured, productive, populous, and relatively sophisticated" society they encountered. A record from

9844-419: The paddy field the most productive farming method. Paddy fields are represented by the kanji 田 (commonly read as ta or as den ) that has had a strong influence on Japanese culture. In fact, the character 田 , which originally meant 'field' in general, is used in Japan exclusively to refer to paddy fields. One of the oldest samples of writing in Japan is widely credited to the kanji 田 found on pottery at

9951-696: The pre-Austronesians and possibly also the Kra-Dai , and associated with the Kuahuqiao , Hemudu , Majiabang , Songze , Liangzhu , and Maquiao cultures . The second is in the middle Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of the early Hmong-Mien speakers and associated with the Pengtoushan , Nanmuyuan , Liulinxi , Daxi , Qujialing , and Shijiahe cultures . Both of these regions were heavily populated and had regular trade contacts with each other, as well as with early Austroasiatic speakers to

10058-586: The production of rice. It was for that reason, that people usually built their houses next to paddy fields. The very spicy chili pepper that is often eaten in Malaysia, the bird's eye chili , is locally called cili padi , literally "paddy chili". Some research pertaining to Rainfed lowland rice in Sarawak has been reported. Rice is grown in Myanmar primarily in three areas – the Irrawaddy Delta ,

10165-469: The project, by sending troops to occupy northern Vietnam. Later, as the Chinese Civil War resumed, Chiang had to redeploy most of his army to fight the now-stronger communist force inside the border. In 1949, the government of Republic of China lost the war and was forced to retreat to Taiwan where it continues to rule today. Following the de facto end of the Chinese Civil War, Chairman of

10272-632: The region, giving them unrestricted access to other parts of Southeast Asia. The Lạc Việt'sh vague identity and heritage are claimed today by from both those in China and Vietnam. Nationalist scholarships from both sides misinterpret the Lạc Việt/Luoyue as a distinct ancient ethnic group with direct unbreakable connections to modern Vietnamese people (Kinh people) in Vietnam and Zhuang people in Southern China . Several Vietnamese scholars from

10379-686: The regular use of iron tools, in the Three Kingdoms of Korea Period (c. AD 300/400-668). The first paddy fields in Japan date to the Early Yayoi period (300 BC – 250 AD). The Early Yayoi has been re-dated, and based on studies of early Japanese paddy formations in Kyushu it appears that wet-field rice agriculture in Japan was directly adopted from the Lower Yangtze river basin in Eastern China. Although China's agricultural output

10486-508: The reign of Yongle saw the Ming attempt to expand its territories. The Ming launched an invasion to Vietnam , eventually leading to the fourth Chinese domination . However, the Ming was defeated in the Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động 20 years later. Moreover, the Ming launched an attack on the Mongols and Northern Yuan to the north, but the Ming failed, and their emperors were even captured by

10593-655: The rice bends with age". Most of the rice planting and harvesting is done by hand. The rice is then threshed and stored, ready for the mills. In Nepal, rice (Nepali: धान, Dhaan) is grown in the Terai and hilly regions. It is mainly grown during the summer monsoon in Nepal . Paddy fields are a common sight in the Philippines. Several vast paddy fields exist in the provinces of Ifugao , Nueva Ecija , Isabela , Cagayan , Bulacan , Quezon , and other provinces. Nueva Ecija

10700-631: The same time, the Chinese Civil War also prevented any attempts of a possible Chinese expansion. When World War II broke out, nonetheless Chiang Kai-shek had sought to restore Chinese influence. Being a major ally and one of the Big Four , Chiang wanted to restore Chinese influence in Korea and Southeast Asia, in a vision for a new Asia under Chiang's command. Once the World War II ended, Chiang Kai-shek started trying to implement

10807-538: The southwestward migration of southwestern Tai-speaking tribes from the modern Guangxi to the mainland of Southeast Asia must have taken place sometimes between the 8th–10th centuries CE at the earliest, long after 44BCE, when the Luoyue had been last mentioned. Archaeological evidence reveals that during the pre-Dongson period, the Red River Delta was prominently Austroasiatic: for instance, genetic samples from

10914-640: The west, and early Kra-Dai speakers to the south, facilitating the spread of rice cultivation throughout southern China. The earliest paddy field found dates to 4330 BC, based on carbon dating of grains of rice and soil organic matter found at the Chaodun site in Kunshan . At Caoxieshan, a site of the Neolithic Majiabang culture , archaeologists excavated paddy fields. Some archaeologists claim that Caoxieshan may date to 4000–3000 BC. There

11021-420: The world as of 2020. In India, West Bengal is the largest rice producing state. Paddy fields are a common sight throughout India, both in the northern Gangetic Plains and the southern peninsular plateaus. Paddy is cultivated at least twice a year in most parts of India, the two seasons being known as Rabi and Kharif respectively. The former cultivation is dependent on irrigation, while the latter depends on

11128-554: Was characterized by unprecedented territorial expansionism north and west, reaching as far as Eastern Europe and the Middle East , although the Yuan dynasty based in China was unable to exert actual power over the west khanates due to the disintegrated nature of the Mongol Empire. The Yuan dynasty in China undertook attempts to conquer other territories further east and south too. It launched two invasions of Burma , with

11235-534: Was more suited for power projection than prior Chinese infantry. The technological change was advances in artillery which negated the military advantage that the people of the steppe had with their cavalry. The Dzungar Khanate was the last great independent nomadic power on the steppe of Central Asia. The Dzungars were deliberately exterminated in a brutal campaign during the Dzungar genocide by Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols. It has been estimated that more than

11342-526: Was obtained from communities of agriculturalists who practiced group responsibility. In Lạc society, access to land was based on communal usage rather than individual ownership and women possessed inheritance rights. While in Chinese society men inherited wealth through their fathers, in Lạc society both men and women inherited wealth through their mothers. Ancient Han Chinese had described the people of Âu Lạc as barbaric in need of civilizing, regarding them as lacking morals and modesty. Chinese chronicles maintain

11449-545: Was used to by rice-growers to designate taro-growing horticulturists. According to a legend recorded in the Lĩnh Nam chích quái , the Lạc Việt founded a state called Văn Lang in 2879 BC. They formed a loose circle of power led by Lac lords and princes, the territory is subdivided into fiefs governed by hereditary chiefs. Their leaders were called Lạc kings (Hùng kings) who were served by Lạc marquises and Lạc generals. According to

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