Roman Republic
52-760: Lusitanian tribes The Lusitanian War , called Pyrinos Polemos ("the Fiery War") in Greek, was a war of resistance fought by the Lusitanian tribes of Hispania Ulterior against the advancing legions of the Roman Republic from 155 to 139 BC. The Lusitanians revolted in 155 BC, and again in 146 BC and were pacified. In 154 BC, a long war in Hispania Citerior , known as the Numantine War ,
104-470: A European branch of Indo-European dialects, termed "North-west Indo-European" and associated with the Beaker culture, may have been ancestral to not only Celtic and Italic, but also to Germanic and Balto-Slavic. Ellis Evans believes that Gallaecian - Lusitanian were one language (not separate languages) of the "P" Celtic variant. The Lusitanians were a people formed by several tribes that lived between
156-597: A city named Tribola. Vitilius, seeing the Lusitanian forces scattering, attacked Viriathus directly, but Viriathus and 1000 of his best men occupied Vitilus for two days while the others regrouped to safety. Viriathus then evaded the Romans and rejoined with his army. The success of Viriathus' campaign convinced neighboring Celtic tribes, such as the Gallaecians to support his cause. Viriathus gained renown throughout
208-466: A peace treaty with the Lusitanians. The Romans charged the native tribes with heavy taxes: a fixed vectigal or land-tax, the tributum and a certain quantity of cereals. Taxes were not the only source of income; mine exploitation and peace treaties were a source of denarius as well as war spoils and war prisoners who were sold as slaves. The indigenous towns had to deliver their own treasures to
260-470: A place called Venus mountain, but later returned to battle, slaying 1,000 of Quintus' men. Viriathus drove out the garrison of Ittuca and raided the Iberian Bastetani . Quintus wintered at Córdoba in the middle of autumn and sent Caius Marcius, a Hispanic from Italica , to fight Viriathus. In 142 BC, Fabius Maximus Servilianus succeeded Quintus, bringing two new legions and more allies, up to
312-415: A second name linked to a locality such as Bandua Aetobrico, and Nabia , a goddess of rivers and streams. According to Strabo the Lusitanians were given to offering sacrifices; they practiced divination on the sacrificial offering by inspecting its vitals and veins. They also sacrificed human victims, prisoners of war, by striking them under coarse blankets and observing which way they fell. They cut off
364-558: A settlement called Carmone. Galba reassembled his forces and wintered in Conistorgis. Lucullus was wintering in Turditania . Lucullus' forces discovered and attacked Lusitanians, killing 4,000 in the process. He then crossed the straits near Gades , killing another 1,500, and invaded Lusitania. Galba joined in the invasion of Lusitania. Lucullus and Galba's invasion convinced the Lusitanians to send ambassadors to Galba to renew
416-579: A total of 18,000 men on foot and 1,600 on horse. Maximus was reinforced by 300 horse and ten elephants from Africa. Maximus defeated Viriathus, who still managed to inflict 3,000 deaths and drive the Romans back to camp. The Romans were saved by night time and managed to defend their camp initially, but constant attacks by Viriathus drove them back to Itucca. Viriathus returned to Lusitania, but Maximus, instead of following him, raided five towns against Lusitanian allies in Baeturia . Afterwards, he marched against
468-450: The Beaker culture . The Lusitanians worshiped various gods in a very diverse polytheism , using animal sacrifice . They represented their gods and warriors in rudimentary sculpture. Endovelicus was the most important god for the Lusitanians. He is considered a possible Basque language loan god by some, yet according to scholars like José Leite de Vasconcelos , the word Endovellicus
520-498: The Celtiberians . They threw their darts from some distance, yet often hit their marks and wounded their targets deeply. Being active and nimble warriors, they would pursue their enemies and decapitate them. "In a narrow pass 300 Lusitani faced 1000 Romans; as a result of the action 70 of the former and 320 of the latter died. When the victorious Lusitani retired and dispersed confidently, one of them on foot became separated, and
572-546: The Cunei and only then into Lusitania. While moving against Viriathus, Maximus was attacked by an army of 10,000 led by Curius and Apuleius . Curius was killed in battle and Maximus succeeded in capturing the Lusitanian cities of Escadia, Gemella, and Obolcola. Maximus captured around 10,000 men. He beheaded 500 and sold the rest as slaves. While following Viriathus, Maximus' army rested in Erisana. Viriathus managed to infiltrate
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#1732765113271624-456: The Cunei , who were subject to Rome, and captured Conistorgis . Some of the Lusitanians then raided North Africa, laying siege to a city named Ocile. Mummius followed them into Africa and defeated the Lusitanian rebels and ended the siege of Ocile. With this victory, Mummius returned to Rome and was awarded a triumph . Mummius was succeeded by Marcus Atilius, who fought the Lusitanians and conquered their largest city, Oxthracae . This terrified
676-547: The Italic languages ; based on the names of Lusitanian deities with other grammatical elements of the area. The Lusitanian language may in fact have been basal Italo-Celtic , a branch independent from Celtic and Italic , and splitting off early from Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic populations who spread from Central Europe into western Europe after new Yamnaya migrations into the Danube Valley. Alternatively,
728-634: The Lex Calpurnia created in 149 BC. The Lusitanian War began in 155 when Punicus attacked neighboring lands belonging to Roman subjects. In this raid, the Lusitanians killed 6,000 Romans, including a quaestor named Terentius Varro. After this first victory, the Lusitanians formed an alliance with the Vettones . Together, the Lusitanians and Vettones laid siege to the Blastophoenicians, a Phoenician settlement subject to Rome. Punicus
780-560: The Romans , the land was subsequently incorporated as a Roman province named after them ( Lusitania ). Frontinus mentions Lusitanian leader Viriathus as the leader of the Celtiberians , in their war against the Romans. The Greco-Roman historian Diodorus Siculus likened them to another Celtic tribe: "Those who are called Lusitanians are the bravest of all similar to the Cimbri ". The Lusitanians were also called Belitanians, according to
832-634: The Sertorian War , when they recruited the outlaw ex-general Quintus Sertorius to lead a rebellion against Rome. The Lusitanian War, and Viriathus in particular, would become an enduring symbol of Portuguese nationality and independence (see Lusitanic ). Lusitanians The Lusitanians were an Indo-European -speaking people living in the far west of the Iberian Peninsula , in present-day central Portugal and Extremadura and Castilla y Leon of Spain . After its conquest by
884-462: The Turdetani ( Celtic , pre-Celtic Indo-European , or Iberians ) and came from the south. The name Turduli Veteres (older or ancient Turduli), a tribe that dwelt in today's Aveiro District , seems to indicate they came from the north and not from the south (contrary to what is assumed on the map). Several Turduli peoples were possibly Callaeci tribes that initially came from the north, towards
936-809: The Elder and Pomponius Mela distinguished the Lusitanians from neighboring Celtic groups like the Artabrians in their geographical writings. The original Roman province of Lusitania briefly included the territories of Asturia and Gallaecia , but these were soon ceded to the jurisdiction of the Provincia Tarraconensis in the north, while the south remained the Provincia Lusitania et Vettones . Later, Gallaecia would become its own province (taking much of modern Galicia and Northern Portugal). After this, Lusitania's northern border
988-587: The Lusitanians assembled a force of 10,000 and attacked Turdetania . Gaius Vetilius was sent to deal with the raid. After he amassed a force equal to those of the Lusitanians in numbers, Vetilius defeated the Lusitanians, who ask for peace terms. As peace terms were being arranged, Viriathus reminded his fellow Lusitanians of the treachery of the Romans, which he had witnessed firsthand with Galba. The Lusitanians chose Viriathus as their leader and concocted an escape plan: they would organize as if going into battle, but then flee in every direction and later reassemble in
1040-751: The Mediterranean Coast of the Iberian Peninsula. This marked the first incursion of the Roman Republic into the peninsula and possibly the first clash between Lusitanians and Romans, as Lusitanian mercenaries fought on the Carthaginian side during the Punic Wars. In 194 BC, the Romans launched their first offensives in Lusitanian land. By 179 BC, the Romans had mostly succeeded in subduing most tribes in region and signed
1092-529: The Roman conquest. They ruled the Lusitanians (before Viriathus ) for some time, leading the tribes in the resistance against Roman attempts of conquest, and were successful. The known Lusitanian tribes were: It remains to be known if the Turduli Veteres , Turduli Oppidani , Turduli Bardili , and Turduli were Lusitanian tribes (coastal tribes), were related Celtic peoples, or were instead related to
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#17327651132711144-483: The Roman world as a guerrilla fighter . In the words of Theodor Mommsen , "It seemed as if, in that thoroughly prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared." In 148 BC, Vitilius followed Viriathus into Tribola. Viriathus' forces ambushed the Romans. About 6,000 Romans managed to flee to Carpessus with their quaestor , while the remaining of the original 10,000 were either killed or imprisoned. Vitilius himself
1196-402: The Romans, which left them only with their yearly earnings to pay the taxes. In 174 BC, when Publius Furius Philus was accused of paying very little for the cereals that Iberia was compelled to deliver to Rome, Cato defended the interests of the native tribes. The exploitation and extortion reached such an extreme degree in the provinces that Rome had to create a special tribunal and laws, like
1248-516: The Turduli territory was governed from the conventus of Corduba (modern-day Córdoba). According to research by Alicia M. Canto, initially proposed in 1991 and further detailed in 1995 and 1997, the division of the territory of Beturia between the Celtici and the Turduli was influenced by their respective mining expertise. The Celtici specialized in iron extraction, while the Turduli were skilled in
1300-506: The aftermath. Maximus pursued Viriathus into a place called Baecor, killing many of his men but failing to capture Viriathus. Maximus wintered in Córdoba and then left for Rome. He was succeeded by Quintus Pompeius Aulus . In 143 BC, Viriathus managed to persuade several other Celtic tribes ( Arevaci , Titii , and Belli ) to resist the Romans, leading to the Numantine War . Afterwards, Viriathus skirmished with Quintus. He took refuge in
1352-460: The diviner Artemidorus . Strabo differentiated the Lusitanians from the Iberian tribes and thought of them as being Celtiberians who had been known as Oestriminis in ancient times. However, based on archeological findings, Lusitanians and Vettones seem to have been largely pre-Celtic Indo-European populations that adopted Celtic cultural elements by proximity. On the other hand, Pliny
1404-729: The enemy. Appian claims that when Praetor Brutus sacked Lusitania after Viriathus's death, the women fought valiantly next to their men as women warriors . While the Lusitanians did not speak a Romance language, nowadays Lusitanian is often used as a metonym for the Portuguese people , and similarly Lusophone is used to refer to a Portuguese speaker within or outside Portugal , Brazil , Macau , Timor-Leste , Angola , Mozambique , Cape Verde , São Tomé and Príncipe , Guinea Bissau and others territories and countries. Baeturia, Spain Baeturia , Beturia , or Turdetania
1456-556: The leader of the Lusitanians, and severely damaged the Roman rule in Lusitania and beyond. In 139 BC, Viriathus was betrayed and killed in his sleep by three of his companions (who had been sent as emissaries to the Romans), Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus , bribed by Marcus Popillius Laenas (although they were Viriathus warrior companions they were not Lusitanians themselves, they seem to have been Turdetanians , or from other people that
1508-575: The mining of silver and lead. In Arab times both territories continued to exist in a distinctive form, the Celts survived in the kûra of Firrís, and the Turduli in that of Fahs al-Ballut (Canto, ERBC 1997, p. 46. In the present day, Celtic Beturia is primarily located in the southwest of the province of Badajoz and extends into Portugal as far as Serpa and the Guadiana River, which marked its ancient western boundary. A smaller portion lies in
1560-459: The neighboring tribes (including the Vettones) into offering their surrender. During the winter of 152 BC, the Lusitanians rebelled again and besieged some Roman subjects. Servius Galba , the successor of Atilius, rushed to rescue them. After an initial victory, Galba was defeated while trying to pursue the fleeing Lusitanian forces. About 7,000 Romans were killed, forcing Galba to take refuge in
1612-497: The rest of the Romanised Iberian peninsula , eventually gained the status of "Citizens of Rome". Categorising Lusitanian culture generally, including the language, is proving difficult and contentious. Some believe it was essentially a pre-Celtic Iberian culture with substantial Celtic influences, while others argue that it was an essentially Celtic culture with strong indigenous pre-Celtic influences associated with
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1664-537: The right hands of their captives, which they offered to the gods. The Lusitanian language was a Paleohispanic language that clearly belongs to the Indo-European family. The precise affiliation of the Lusitanian language inside the Indo-European family is still in debate: there are those who endorse that it is a para-Celtic language with an obvious Celticity to most of the lexicon, over many anthroponyms and toponyms. A second theory relates Lusitanian with
1716-463: The rivers Douro and Tagus , in most of today's Beira and Estremadura regions of central Portugal, and some areas of the Extremadura region (Spain). They were a tribal confederation, not a single political entity; each tribe had its own territory and was independent, and was formed by smaller clans . However, they had a cultural sense of unity and a common name for the tribes. Each tribe
1768-662: The similarly named chieftain). According to Livy , Lusitanian and Celtiberian cavalry performed raids in the north of Italy whenever the terrain was too rough for Hannibal's famed Numidian cavalry . Since 193 BC, the Lusitanians had been fighting the Romans in Hispania. In 150 BC, they were defeated by Praetor Servius Galba: springing a treacherous trap, he killed 9,000 Lusitanians and later sold 20,000 more as slaves in Gaul (modern France ). This massacre would not be forgotten by Viriathus , who three years later (147 BC) would become
1820-562: The south along the coast and then migrated inland along the Tagus and the Anas ( Guadiana River ) valleys. If there were more Lusitanian tribes, their names are unknown. The Lusitanians were considered by historians to be particularly adept at guerrilla warfare . The strongest amongst them were selected to defend the populace in mountainous sites. They used hooked javelins or saunions made of iron, and wielded swords and helmets like those of
1872-404: The town and, in defeating Maximus' armies, asked for an end to the war. In 140 BC, Fabius Maximus Caepius succeeded Maximus and wrote to Rome complaining of the treaty made with Viriathus, saying it was unworthy of the dignity of the Roman people. The Senate first permitted Caepius only to fight Viriathus secretly before deciding to break the treaty and declare war against Viriathus. Caepius took
1924-727: The town of Arsa and won a battle over Viriathus, who fled in Carpetania. Although Viriathus escaped, Caepius turned against the Vettones and Callaici , destroying their fields. Afterwards, Viriathus sent his most trusted friends Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus to negotiate peace terms with Caepio. Caepio bribed them to assassinate Viriathus. Viriathus slept little and in his armor but allowed his friends to enter his tent at any time so he could be summoned to battle as soon as possible. Taking advantage of this, his friends entered his tent and killed him in his sleep by slitting his throat. Viriathus
1976-437: The treaty they made with Atilius in 152 BC. Galba pretended to accept a truce and promised them fertile land. The Lusitanians, following the good news of the ambassadors, gathered at a place appointed by Galba and were divided into three parts in a plain. Galba approached each Lusitanian division separately, asked them to lay down their arms, and slaughtered them. Viriathus was one of the few Lusitanians who escaped. In 148 BC,
2028-643: Was along the Douro River, while its eastern border passed through Salmantica and Caesarobriga to the Anas ( Guadiana ) river. Lusitanian mercenaries fought for Carthage between the years 218 and 201 BC, during the Second Punic War against Rome. Silius Italicus describes them as forming a combined with the Gallaeci and being led both by a commander named Viriathus (not to be confused with
2080-749: Was an extensive ancient territory in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula (in modern Spain ) situated between the middle and lower courses of the Guadiana and the Guadalquivir rivers. From the Second Iron Age , it was inhabited by two distinct ethnic groups: the Celtici , who were Celtic Indo-Europeans in the west, and the Turduli , related to the Turdetans, in the east. The territory
2132-433: Was annexed by Rome in the early 2nd century BC and became part of the province of Hispania Ulterior . In 27 B.C., Emperor Augustus reorganized the provincial boundaries, incorporating the entirety of Beturia into the senatorial province of Baetica . This integration involved different administrative-judicial dependencies: the Celtici area was affiliated with the juridical conventus of Hispalis (modern-day Seville), while
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2184-448: Was begun by the Celtiberians . It lasted until 133 and is an important event in the integration of what would become Portugal into the Roman and Latin-speaking world. And yet the country north of the Tagus, Lusitania, is the greatest of the nations in Hispania, and is the nation against which the Romans waged war for the longest times. In the sequence of the Second Punic War , the Roman Republic defeated Carthage and its colonies in
2236-585: Was defeated by Viriathus, who then proceeded to raid Hispania Ulterior without check. In 145 BC, the general Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus was sent by Rome to fight the Lusitanians. With the end of the wars against Carthago and Greece , Maximus managed to assemble a great force: 15,000 men on foot and 2,000 on horse. The forces assembled in Urso and skirmished frequently with the Lusitanians, but without full-scale battle. In 144 BC, Maximus attacked Viriathus and put him to flight, capturing two of his cities in
2288-535: Was elected to succeed Viriathus and lead the Lusitanians. The Lusitanians' attempt to raid Saguntum failed. On crossing the river Baetis on their return, they were defeated by Caepio and became Roman subjects. This marked the end of the Lusitanian War. The end of the Lusitanian Wars began a period of relative peace in Lusitania. The Lusitanians rebelled against the Romans again in 80 to 72 BC, in
2340-444: Was found dead in the morning, long after the assassins had escaped. Unable to avenge him as they knew not who murdered him, the Lusitanians instead held a grand funeral: they dressed Viriathus in special garments, burned him in a pyre , held processions, gladiator battles and songs. The popular story of the traitors' fate says that the Roman general Servilius Caepio executed them, declaring that "Rome does not pay traitors". Tautalus
2392-703: Was killed during this ambush, as he was considered to be of little worth as a slave (he supposedly was old and fat). The Quaestor asked for reinforcements from the Celtic tribes allied to Rome, the Belli and the Titii . However, the 5,000 Belli and Titii forces were all slain in skirmishes against the Lusitanian forces. In 146 BC, Viriathus raided the Roman vassal Iberians in Carpetania until Gaius Plautius Hypsaeus arrived with 10,000 men on foot and 1,300 on horse. Plautius
2444-468: Was killed during this siege and was succeeded by Caesarus . Rome sent Mummius to fight Caesarus. Caesarus was initially defeated but, while fleeing, managed to turn the battle around, killing 9,000 Romans in the end. Mummius used his 5,000 remaining soldiers and attacked the Lusitanians by surprise, slaying a large number of them. The Lusitanians on the other side of the Tagus , led by Caucenus , invaded
2496-491: Was not Lusitanian). However, when the three returned to receive their reward from the Romans, the Consul Quintus Servilius Caepio ordered their execution, declaring, "Rome does not pay traitors". After the death of Viriathus, the Lusitanians kept fighting under the leadership of Tautalus , but gradually acquired Roman culture and language; the Lusitanian cities, in a manner similar to those of
2548-570: Was originally Celtic , Andevellicos . Endovelicus is compared with Welsh and Breton names, giving him the meaning of "Very Good God", the same epithet of the Irish god Dagda . Even the Romans worshiped him for his ability to protect. His cult eventually spread across the Iberian peninsula and beyond, to the rest of the Roman Empire and his cult was maintained until the fifth century; he
2600-534: Was ruled by its own tribal aristocracy and chief. Many members of the Lusitanian tribal aristocracy were warriors as happened in many other pre-Roman peoples of the Iron Age . Only when an external threat occurred did the different tribes politically unite, as happened at the time of the Roman conquest of their territory when Viriathus became the single leader of the Lusitanian tribes. Punicus , Caucenus and Caesarus were other important Lusitanian chiefs before
2652-537: Was surrounded by a detachment of pursuing cavalry. The lone warrior pierced the horse of one of the riders with his spear, and with a blow of his sword cut off the Roman’s head, producing such terror among the others that they prudently retired under his arrogant and contemptuous gaze." In times of peace, they had a particular style of dancing, which required great agility and nimbleness of the legs and thighs. In times of war, they marched in time, until they were ready to charge
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#17327651132712704-419: Was the god of public health and safety. The goddess Ataegina was especially popular in the south; as the goddess of rebirth (spring), fertility, nature, and cure, she was identified with Proserpina during the Roman era. Lusitanian mythology was heavily influenced by or related to Celtic mythology . Also well attested in inscriptions are the names Bandua (one of the variants of Borvo ) often with
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