The face is the front of an animal's head that features the eyes , nose and mouth , and through which animals express many of their emotions . The face is crucial for human identity , and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities may affect the psyche adversely.
127-409: A mask is an object normally worn on the face , typically for protection , disguise , performance , or entertainment , and often employed for rituals and rites. Masks have been used since antiquity for both ceremonial and practical purposes, as well as in the performing arts and for entertainment. They are usually worn on the face, although they may also be positioned for effect elsewhere on
254-571: A euhemerized Babylonian or Persian myth or festival (though which one is a subject of discussion). Other scholars find these hypotheses unlikely. Purim has more of a national than a religious character, and its status as a holiday is on a different level from those days ordained holy by the Torah . Hallel is not recited. As such, according to some authorities, business transactions and even manual labor are allowed on Purim under certain circumstances. A special prayer ( Al ha-Nissim – "For
381-668: A pre-Indo-European language. One German author claims the word "mask" is originally derived from the Spanish más que la cara (literally, "more than the face" or "added face"), which evolved to "máscara", while the Arabic "maskharat" – referring to the buffoonery which is possible only by disguising the face – would be based on these Spanish roots. Other related forms are Hebrew masecha = "mask"; Arabic maskhara مَسْخَرَ = "he ridiculed, he mocked", masakha مَسَخَ = "he transfomed" ( transitive ). The use of masks in rituals or ceremonies
508-453: A caricature form. By extension, anything which is the forward or world-facing part of a system which has internal structure is considered its "face", like the façade of a building. For example, a public relations or press officer might be called the "face" of the organization he or she represents. "Face" is also used metaphorically in a sociological context to refer to reputation or standing in society, particularly Chinese society, and
635-470: A central feature of Indian dramatic forms, many based on depicting the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana . Countries that have had strong Indian cultural influences – Cambodia , Burma , Indonesia , Thailand , and Lao – have developed the Indian forms, combined with local myths, and developed their own characteristic styles. The masks are usually highly exaggerated and formalised, and share an aesthetic with
762-494: A day of feasting and rejoicing among Jews. According to the Scroll of Esther , "they should make them days of feasting and gladness, and of sending portions one to another, and gifts to the poor". Purim is celebrated among Jews by: Other customs include wearing masks and costumes, public celebrations and parades ( Adloyada ), eating hamantashen ( transl. "Haman's ears" ), and drinking wine . According to
889-464: A face is not merely a set of facial features, but is rather something meaningful in its form. This is consistent with the Gestalt theory that an image is seen in its entirety, not by its individual parts. According to Gary L. Allen, people adapted to respond more to faces during evolution as the natural result of being a social species. Allen suggests that the purpose of recognizing faces has its roots in
1016-542: A face more easily recognized in association with a pronounced portion of the face of the individual in question—for example, a caricature of Osama bin Laden might focus on his facial hair and nose; a caricature of George W. Bush might enlarge his ears to the size of an elephant's; a caricature of Jay Leno may pronounce his head and chin; and a caricature of Mick Jagger might enlarge his lips. Exaggeration of memorable features helps people to recognize others when presented in
1143-559: A face was found that is approximately 35,000 years old, but it is not clear whether it was intended as a mask. In the Greek bacchanalia and the Dionysus cult, which involved the use of masks, the ordinary controls on behaviour were temporarily suspended, and people cavorted in merry revelry outside their ordinary rank or status. René Guénon claims that in the Roman saturnalia festivals,
1270-462: A great variety of shapes, depending on their precise function. Pueblo craftsmen produced impressive work for masked religious ritual, especially the Hopi and Zuni . The kachinas (gods and spirits) frequently take the form of highly distinctive and elaborate masks that are used in ritual dances. These are usually made of leather with appendages of fur, feathers, or leaves. Some cover the face, some
1397-558: A highly sensitive region of the human body and its expression may change when the brain is stimulated by any of the many human senses , such as touch , temperature , smell , taste , hearing , movement , hunger , or visual stimuli . The face is the feature which best distinguishes a person . Specialized regions of the human brain , such as the fusiform face area (FFA), enable facial recognition; when these are damaged , it may be impossible to recognize faces even of intimate family members. The pattern of specific organs, such as
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#17327657120361524-550: A master carver – frequently it is a tradition that has been passed down within a family through many generations. Such an artist holds a respected position in tribal society because of the work that he or she creates, embodying not only complex craft techniques but also spiritual/social and symbolic knowledge. African masks are also used in the Mas or Masquerade of the Caribbean Carnival . Djolé (also known as Jolé or Yolé)
1651-399: A narrow chin. The raised strip running from both sides of the nose to the ears represent jewellery. Dark black hairstyle, tops the mask off. The whiteness of the face represents the whiteness and beauty of the spirit world. Only men wear the masks and perform the dances with high stilts despite the fact that the masks represent women. One of the most beautiful representations of female beauty is
1778-626: A person's reactions and predict the probability of ensuing behaviors". One study used the Multimodal Emotion Recognition Test to attempt to determine how to measure emotion. This research aimed at using a measuring device to accomplish what many people do every day: read emotion in a face. The muscles of the face play a prominent role in the expression of emotion, and vary among different individuals, giving rise to additional diversity in expression and facial features. People are also relatively good at determining if
1905-485: A protective role to the members of a society who use their powers. Biologist Jeremy Griffith has suggested that ritual masks, as representations of the human face, are extremely revealing of the two fundamental aspects of the human psychological condition: firstly, the repression of a cooperative, instinctive self or soul; and secondly, the extremely angry state of the unjustly condemned conscious thinking egocentric intellect. In parts of Australia, giant totem masks cover
2032-411: A ritual context in that it was performed at religious or rites of passage such as days of naming, circumcisions, and marriages. Over time, some of these contextual ritual enactments became divorced from their religious meaning and they were performed throughout the year. Some 2500 years ago, kings and commoners alike were entertained by dance and mime accompanied by music where the dancers often wore masks,
2159-482: A smile is real or fake. A recent study looked at individuals judging forced and genuine smiles. While young and elderly participants equally could tell the difference for smiling young people, the "older adult participants outperformed young adult participants in distinguishing between posed and spontaneous smiles". This suggests that with experience and age, we become more accurate at perceiving true emotions across various age groups. Gestalt psychologists theorize that
2286-408: A theatre that is essentially visual, rather than verbal, and many of its practitioners have been visual artists. Face The front of the human head is called the face. It includes several distinct areas, of which the main features are: Facial appearance is vital for human recognition and communication . Facial muscles in humans allow expression of emotions . The face is itself
2413-494: A useful basis for categorisation. The image of juxtaposed comedy and tragedy masks are widely used to represent the performing arts, and specifically drama . In many dramatic traditions including the theatre of ancient Greece , the classical noh drama of Japan (14th century to present), the traditional lhamo drama of Tibet , talchum in Korea, and the topeng dance of Indonesia , masks were or are typically worn by all
2540-445: A version of a gene associated with lip thickness – possibly selected for due to adaption to cold climate via fat distribution – introgressed from ancient humans – Denisovans – into the modern humans Native Americans . Another study found look-alike humans ( doppelgängers ) have genetic similarities, sharing genes affecting not only the face but also some phenotypes of physique and behavior . A study identified genes controlling
2667-409: A very old and highly sophisticated and stylized theatrical tradition. Although the roots are in prehistoric myths and cults, they have developed into refined art forms. The oldest masks are the gigaku . The form no longer exists, and was probably a type of dance presentation. The bugaku developed from this – a complex dance-drama that used masks with moveable jaws. The nō or noh mask evolved from
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#17327657120362794-529: A vestige of an earlier era when such dances were enacted as religious rites. According to George Goyan , this practice evoked that of Roman funeral rites where masked actor-dancers represented the deceased with motions and gestures mimicking those of the deceased while singing the praise of their lives (see Masks in Performance above). The oldest representations of masks in Europe are animal masks, such as
2921-521: A wall since the days of Joshua. Purim is the plural of the Hebrew word pur (loan from Akkadian puru ) meaning " lot ". Its use as the name of this festival comes from Esther 3:6–7, describing the choice of date: 6: [...] having been told who Mordecai's people were, Haman plotted to do away with all the Jews, Mordecai's people, throughout the kingdom of Ahasuerus. 7: In the first month, that is,
3048-629: Is a mask-dance from Temine people in Sierra Leone. Males wear the mask, although it does depict a female. Many African masks represent animals. Some African tribes believe that the animal masks can help them communicate with the spirits who live in forests or open savannas. People of Burkina Faso known as the Bwa and Nuna call to the spirit to stop destruction. The Dogon of Mali have complex religions that also have animal masks. Their three main cults use seventy-eight different types of masks. Most of
3175-404: Is a very ancient human practice across the world, although masks can also be worn for protection, in hunting, in sports, in feasts, or in wars – or simply used as ornamentation. Some ceremonial or decorative masks were not designed to be worn. Although the religious use of masks has waned, masks are used sometimes in drama therapy or psychotherapy. One of the challenges in anthropology is finding
3302-625: Is applied to the Book of Esther. It has been also customary since the time of the early Medieval era of the Geonim to unroll the whole Megillah before reading it, to give it the appearance of an epistle. According to halakha (Jewish law), the Megillah may be read in any language intelligible to the audience. According to the Mishnah ( Megillah 30b), the story of the attack on the Jews by Amalek ,
3429-612: Is believed that the use of masks is related to the cult of the ancestors, which considered dancers the interpreters of the gods. Native Indonesian tribes such as Dayak have masked Hudoq dance that represents nature spirits. In Java and Bali , masked dance is commonly called topeng and demonstrated Hindu influences as it often feature epics such as Ramayana and Mahabharata . The native story of Panji also popular in topeng masked dance. Indonesian topeng dance styles are widely distributed, such as topeng Bali, Cirebon, Betawi, Malang, Yogyakarta, and Solo. Japanese masks are part of
3556-518: Is believed to have taught man the secrets of agriculture. Although the Dogons and Bamana people both believe the antelope symbolises agriculture, they interpret elements the masks differently. To the Bamana people, swords represent the sprouting of grain. Masks may also indicate a culture's ideal of feminine beauty. The masks of Punu of Gabon have highly arched eyebrows, almost almond-shaped eyes and
3683-468: Is celebrated on the 15th of the month of Adar on what is known as Shushan Purim , since fighting in the walled city of Shushan continued through the 14th day of Adar . Today, only in Jerusalem Purim is observed on the 15th, and in several other biblical settlements (such as Hebron and Shilo ) it is celebrated on both dates because of doubts regarding their status as cities surrounded by
3810-458: Is circa 30,000–40,000 years old. The use of masks is demonstrated graphically at some of these sites. Insofar as masks involved the use of war-paint, leather, vegetative material, or wooden material, such masks failed to be preserved, however, they are visible in paleolithic cave drawings, of which dozens have been preserved. At the neanderthal Roche-Cotard site in France, a flintstone likeness of
3937-434: Is considered a major factor in human well-being and the perception of health in humans. Genes are a major factor in the particular appearance of a person's face with the high similarity of faces of identical twins indicating that most of facial variability is determined genetically. Studies have identified genes and gene regions determining face shape and differences in various facial features. A 2021 study found that
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4064-475: Is himself dependent on charity, to give to other poor people. On Purim day, a festive meal called the Se'udat Purim is held. There is a longstanding custom of drinking wine at the feast. The Talmud (b. Megillah 7b) records that " Rava said: A person is obligated to become intoxicated on Purim, until they cannot distinguish between 'Blessed be Mordecai' and 'Cursed be Haman'". Several interpretations arose among
4191-524: Is intentionally contradicting it. Joseph Karo writes that one must "never become drunk, as this is totally forbidden and leads to terrible sins. Rather, one must drink slightly more than usual", while Moses Isserles writes that one may drink more or less, so long as the intent is pure. Yechiel Michel Epstein suggests that "until" should be read exclusively, so that one is obligated to become drunk but not so drunk that they cannot distinguish Mordecai and Haman. The Fast of Esther , observed before Purim, on
4318-635: Is normally a part of a costume that adorns the whole body and embodies a tradition important to the religious and/or social life of the community as whole or a particular group within the community. Masks are used almost universally and maintain their power and mystery both for their wearers and their audience. The continued popularity of wearing masks at carnival , and for children at parties and for festivals such as Halloween are good examples. Nowadays these are usually mass-produced plastic masks, often associated with popular films , television programmes, or cartoon characters – they are, however, reminders of
4445-404: Is of uncertain origin, perhaps from Arabic maskharah مَسْخَرَۃٌ "buffoon", from the verb sakhira "to ridicule". However, it may also come from Provençal mascarar "to black (the face)" (or the related Catalan mascarar , Old French mascurer ). This in turn is of uncertain origin – perhaps from a Germanic source akin to English "mesh", but perhaps from mask- "black", a borrowing from
4572-578: Is read out loud during the public chanting of the Megillah in the synagogue, which occurs 54 times, the congregation engages in noise-making to blot out his name. The practice can be traced back to the Tosafists (the leading French and German rabbis of the 13th century). In accordance with a passage in the Midrash , where the verse "Thou shalt blot out the remembrance of Amalek " is explained to mean "even from wood and stones." A custom developed of writing
4699-490: Is recited at night, but after the morning Megillah reading only this is recited: The rose of Jacob was cheerful and glad, when they jointly saw Mordechai robed in royal blue. You have been their eternal salvation, and their hope throughout generations. At night and in the morning: Women have an obligation to hear the Megillah because "they also were involved in that miracle." Orthodox communities, including most Modern Orthodox ones, however, generally do not allow women to lead
4826-457: Is spoken of as a resource which can be won or lost. Because of the association with individuality, the anonymous person is sometimes referred to as "faceless". Purim Purim ( / ˈ p ʊər ɪ m / ; פּוּרִים Pūrīm , lit. ' lots ' ; see Name below) is a Jewish holiday that commemorates the saving of the Jewish people from annihilation at
4953-417: Is traditionally used during the reading of the book of Lamentations . These verses are particularly sad, or they refer to Jews being in exile. When the Megillah reader jumps to the melody of the book of Lamentations for these phrases, it heightens the feeling of sadness in the listener. In some places, the Megillah is not chanted, but is read like a letter, because of the name iggeret ("epistle"), which
5080-512: The duk-duk and tubuan masks of New Guinea are used to enforce social codes by intimidation. They are conical masks, made from cane and leaves. North American indigenous cultures in the Arctic and para-Arctic regions have tended towards simple religious practice but a highly evolved and rich mythology, especially concerning hunting. In some areas, annual shamanic ceremonies involved masked dances and these strongly abstracted masks are arguably
5207-526: The Hebrew calendar , Purim is celebrated annually on the 14th day of the Hebrew month of Adar (and it is celebrated in Adar II in Hebrew leap years, which occur 7 times in every 19 years), the day following the victory of the Jews over their enemies, the 13th of Adar, a date now observed in most years with the fast of Esther . In cities that were protected by a surrounding wall at the time of Joshua , Purim
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5334-462: The Himalayas , masks functioned above all as mediators of supernatural forces. Yup'ik masks could be small 3-inch (7.6 cm) finger masks, but also 10-kilogram (22 lb) masks hung from the ceiling or carried by several people. Masks have been created with plastic surgery for mutilated soldiers. Masks in various forms – sacred, practical, or playful – have played a crucial historical role in
5461-710: The Idia 's Mask of Benin in present-day Edo State of Nigeria. It is believed to have been commissioned by a king of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies. The Senoufo people of the Ivory Coast represent tranquility by making masks with eyes half-shut and lines drawn near the mouth. The Temne of Sierra Leone use masks with small eyes and mouths to represent humility and humbleness. They represent wisdom by making bulging forehead. Other masks that have exaggerated long faces and broad foreheads symbolize
5588-565: The National Archaeological Museum in Sofia . It is considered to be the mask of a Thracian king, presumably Teres . Masks play a key part within world theatre traditions. They continue to be a vital force within contemporary theatre, and their usage takes a variety of forms and has often developed from, or continues to be part of old, highly sophisticated, stylized theatrical traditions. In many cultural traditions,
5715-489: The cave paintings of Lascaux in the Dordogne in southern France. Such masks survive in the alpine regions of Austria and Switzerland, and may be connected with hunting or shamanism . Masks are used throughout Europe in modern times, and are frequently integrated into regional folk celebrations and customs. Old masks are preserved and can be seen in museums and other collections, and much research has been undertaken into
5842-497: The exposome (such as harmful substances of the general environment, workplace and cosmetics), psychological factors, and behavior (such as smoking, sleep, physical activity and sun damage ). Mechanisms underlying these include changes related to peptides (notably collagen ), inflammation , production of various proteins (notably elastin and other ECM proteins ), the structure of subcutaneous tissue , hormones , fibers (such as elastic fibers or elasticity) and
5969-510: The fusiform gyrus , is activated by faces, and it is activated differently for shy and social people. A study confirmed that "when viewing images of strangers, shy adults exhibited significantly less activation in the fusiform gyri than did social adults". Furthermore, particular areas respond more to a face that is considered attractive, as seen in another study: "Facial beauty evokes a widely distributed neural network involving perceptual, decision-making and reward circuits. In those experiments,
6096-525: The late medieval authorities , although in general the classical sources are unanimous in rejecting intoxicated excess; only beginning with the Hasidic masters was drunkenness occasionally endorsed. Maimonides writes that one must "drink wine until drunk, and pass out from drink"; according to one view, he is interpreting the Talmud this way (a sleeping person cannot distinguish), but according to another, he
6223-577: The skin barrier . The desire of many to look young for their age and/or attractive has led to the establishment of a large cosmetics industry , which is largely concerned with make-up that is applied on top of the skin (topically) to temporarily change appearance but it or dermatology also develop anti-aging products (and related products and procedures) that in some cases affect underlying biology and are partly applied preventively. Facial traits are also used in biometrics and there have been attempts at reproducible quantifications. Skin health
6350-477: The "parent-infant attraction, a quick and low-effort means by which parents and infants form an internal representation of each other, reducing the likelihood that the parent will abandon his or her offspring because of recognition failure". Allen's work takes a psychological perspective that combines evolutionary theories with Gestalt psychology. Research has indicated that certain areas of the brain respond particularly well to faces. The fusiform face area , within
6477-581: The 127 provinces of his kingdom, concluding with a seven-day drinking feast for the inhabitants of Shushan ( Susa ), rich and poor, and a separate drinking feast for the women organized by Queen Vashti in the pavilion of the royal courtyard. At this feast, Ahasuerus becomes thoroughly drunk, and prompted by his courtiers, orders his wife Vashti to 'display her beauty' before the nobles and populace, while wearing her royal crown. Vashti's refusal embarrasses him in front of his guests and prompts him to demote her from her position as queen. Ahasuerus then orders all of
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#17327657120366604-610: The 13th of Adar, is an original part of the Purim celebration, referred to in Esther 9 :31–32. The first who mentions the Fast of Esther is Aḥai of Shabḥa (8th century CE) in She'iltot 4; the reason there given for its institution is based on an interpretation of Esther 9:18 , Esther 9:31 and Talmud Megillah 2a: "The 13th was the time of gathering", which gathering is explained to have had also
6731-564: The Book of Esther (the "Megillah") in the synagogue, a regulation which is ascribed in the Talmud (Megillah 2a) to the Sages of the Great Assembly , of which Mordecai is reported to have been a member. Originally this regulation was only supposed to be observed on the 14th of Adar; later, however, Rabbi Joshua ben Levi (3rd century CE) prescribed that the Megillah should also be read on the eve of Purim. Further, he obliged women to attend
6858-592: The Dead developed, despite efforts of the Church to stamp out the indigenous traditions. Masks remain an important feature of popular carnivals and religious dances, such as The Dance of the Moors and Christians . Mexico, in particular, retains a great deal of creativity in the production of masks, encouraged by collectors. Wrestling matches, where it is common for the participants to wear masks , are very popular, and many of
6985-482: The Hebrew alphabet, starting with "Who balked ( ... אשר הניא ) the counsel of the nations and annulled the counsel of the cunning. When a wicked man stood up against us ( ... בקום עלינו ), a wantonly evil branch of Amalek's offspring ..." and ending with "The rose of Jacob ( ששנת יעקב ) was cheerful and glad, when they jointly saw Mordechai robed in royal blue. You have been their eternal salvation ( תשועתם הייתה לנצח ), and their hope throughout generations." The second
7112-647: The Jewish peoples' enemies are killed. On the 14th, another 300 are killed in Shushan. No spoils are taken. Mordecai assumes the position of second in rank to Ahasuerus, and institutes an annual commemoration of the delivery of the Jewish people from annihilation. The primary source relating to the origin of Purim is the Book of Esther , which became the last of the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible to be canonized by
7239-533: The King is referring to Haman himself, Haman says that the honoree should be dressed in the King's royal robes and led around on the King's royal horse. To Haman's horror, the king instructs Haman to render such honors to Mordecai. Later that evening, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther's second banquet, at which she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, which includes her. Ahasuerus becomes enraged and instead orders Haman hanged on
7366-402: The King on behalf of the embattled Jews; she replies that nobody is allowed to approach the King, under penalty of death. Esther says she will fast and pray for three days and asks Mordechai to request that all Jews of Persia fast and pray for three days together with her. She will then approach the King to seek his help, despite the law against doing so, and declares, 'If I perish, I perish.' On
7493-430: The Megillah reading. Rabbinic authorities who hold that women should not read the Megillah for themselves, because of an uncertainty as to which blessing they should recite upon the reading, nonetheless agree that they have an obligation to hear it read. According to these authorities if women, or men for that matter, cannot attend the services in the synagogue, the Megillah should be read for them in private by any male over
7620-579: The Miracles") is inserted into the Amidah prayers during evening, morning and afternoon prayer services, and is also included in the Birkat Hamazon ("Grace after Meals"). The four main mitzvot (obligations) of the day are: The three latter obligations apply only during the daytime hours of Purim. The first religious ceremony which is ordained for the celebration of Purim is the reading of
7747-464: The Persian persecution of Jews and mentions Jews being forced to worship at Persian-erected shrines. The Josippon , a 10th-century CE compilation of Jewish history, includes an account of the origins of Purim in its chapter 4. It too follows the original biblical account and includes additional traditions matching those found in the Greek version and Josephus (whom the author claims as a source) with
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#17327657120367874-771: The Sages of the Great Assembly . It is dated to the 4th century BCE and according to the Talmud was a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordechai. The Tractate Megillah in the Mishnah (redacted c. 200 CE) records the laws relating to Purim. The accompanying Tosefta (redacted in the same period) and Gemara (in the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmud redacted c. 400 CE and c. 600 CE respectively) record additional contextual details such as Queen Vashti having been
8001-662: The Venetian model. During the Reformation, many of these carnival customs began to die out in Protestant regions, although they seem to have survived in Catholic areas despite the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities. So by the 19th century, the carnivals of the relatively wealthy bourgeois town communities, with elaborate masques and costumes, existed side by side with the ragged and essentially folkloric customs of
8128-539: The age of thirteen. Often in Orthodox communities there is a special public reading only for women, conducted either in a private home or in a synagogue, but the Megillah is read by a man. Some Modern Orthodox leaders have held that women can serve as public Megillah readers. Women's megillah readings have become increasingly common in more liberal Modern Orthodox Judaism , though women may only read for other women, according to Ashkenazi authorities. When Haman's name
8255-411: The amount of food that is eaten at a regular meal. It is better to spend more on charity than on the giving of mishloach manot . In the synagogue, regular collections of charity are made on the festival and the money is distributed among the needy. No distinction is made among the poor; anyone who is willing to accept charity is allowed to participate. It is obligatory for the poorest Jew, even one who
8382-606: The arts, particularly in ritual dances, courtly, and theatrical plays. The present uses are as miniature masks for tourist souvenirs, or on mobile phones , where they hang as good-luck talismans. Theatre in the Middle East, as elsewhere, was initially of a ritual nature, dramatising human relationships with nature, the deities, and other human beings. It grew out of sacred rites of myths and legends performed by priests and lay actors at fixed times and often in fixed locations. Folk theatre – mime, mask, puppetry, farce, juggling – had
8509-533: The beautiful women throughout the empire to be presented to him, so that he can choose a new queen to replace Vashti. One of these is Esther , who was orphaned at a young age and is being fostered by her first cousin Mordecai and member of the Sanhedrin . She finds favor in the King's eyes, and is made his new wife. Esther does not reveal her origins or that she is Jewish , as Mordecai told her not to. Based on
8636-620: The beginning of the new century, on 19 August 2004, the Bulgarian archaeologist Georgi Kitov discovered a 673 g gold mask in the burial mound "Svetitsata" near Shipka , Central Bulgaria . It is a very fine piece of workmanship made out of massive 23 karat gold. Unlike other masks discovered in the Balkans (of which three are in Republic of Macedonia and two in Greece), it is now kept in
8763-586: The body. There are a wide variety of masks used in Africa. In West Africa, masks are used in masquerades that form part of religious ceremonies enacted to communicate with spirits and ancestors. Examples are the masquerades of the Yoruba , Igbo , and Edo cultures, including Egungun Masquerades and Northern Edo Masquerades . The masks are usually carved with an extraordinary skill and variety by artists who will usually have received their training as an apprentice to
8890-488: The carved images of monstrous heads that dominate the facades of Hindu and Buddhist temples. These faces or Kirtimukhas , 'Visages of Glory', are intended to ward off evil and are associated with the animal world as well as the divine. During ceremonies, these visages are given active form in the great mask dramas of the South and South-eastern Asian region. In Indonesia, the mask dance predates Hindu-Buddhist influences. It
9017-651: The celebrations were demonised and viewed as mere devils , or were subjugated to the Abrahamic God . Many of the masks and characters used in European festivals belong to the contrasting categories of the 'good', or 'idealised beauty', set against the 'ugly' or 'beastly' and grotesque. This is particularly true of the Germanic and Central European festivals. Another common type is the Fool , sometimes considered to be
9144-506: The ceremonies of the Dogon culture are secret, although the antelope dance is shown to non-Dogons. The antelope masks are rough rectangular boxes with several horns coming out of the top. The Dogons are expert agriculturists and the antelope symbolizes a hard-working farmer. Another culture that has a very rich agricultural tradition is the Bamana people of Mali. The antelope (called Chiwara )
9271-406: The choice of words used in the text some rabbinic commentators state that she was actually Mordecai's wife. Shortly afterwards, Mordecai discovers a plot by two palace guards Bigthan and Teresh to kill Ahasuerus. They are apprehended and hanged , and Mordecai's service to the King is recorded in the daily record of the court. Ahasuerus appoints Haman as his viceroy . Mordecai, who sits at
9398-408: The court's daily records are read to him to help him fall asleep, he learns of the services rendered by Mordecai in the earlier plot against his life. Ahasuerus asks whether anything was done for Mordecai and is told that he received no recognition for saving the King's life. Just then, Haman appears, and King Ahasuerus asks him what should be done for the man that the King wishes to honor. Thinking that
9525-596: The daughter of Belshazzar as well as details that accord with Josephus ' such as Esther having been of royal descent. Brief mention of Esther is made in Tractate Hullin ( Bavli Hullin 139b) and idolatry relating to worship of Haman is discussed in Tractate Sanhedrin ( Sanhedrin 61b). The work Esther Rabbah is a Midrashic text divided in two parts. The first part dated to c. 500 CE provides an exegetical commentary on
9652-879: The day. Distinctive styles of masks began to emerge in pre-Hispanic America about 1200 BC, although there is evidence of far older mask forms. In the Andes , masks were used to dress the faces of the dead. These were originally made of fabric, but later burial masks were sometimes made of beaten copper or gold , and occasionally of clay . For the Aztecs , human skulls were prized as war trophies , and skull masks were not uncommon. Masks were also used as part of court entertainments, possibly combining political with religious significance. In post-colonial Latin America, pre-Columbian traditions merged with Christian rituals, and syncretic masquerades and ceremonies, such as All Souls / Day of
9779-559: The development of understandings about "what it means to be human", because they permit the imaginative experience of "what it is like" to be transformed into a different identity (or to affirm an existing social or spiritual identity). Not all cultures have known the use of masks, but most of them have. Throughout the world, masks are used for their expressive power as a feature of masked performance – both ritually and in various theatre traditions. The ritual and theatrical definitions of mask use frequently overlap and merge but still provide
9906-624: The earlier revels and had become evident by the 15th century in places such as Rome and Venice , where they developed as entertainments to enliven towns and cities. Thus the Maundy Thursday carnival in St. Marks Square in Venice, attended by the Doge and aristocracy, also involved the guilds, including a guild of maskmakers. There is evidence of ' commedia dell'arte '-inspired Venetian masks and by
10033-463: The enduring power of pretense and play and the power and appeal of masks. Ritual masks occur throughout the world, and although they tend to share many characteristics, highly distinctive forms have developed. The function of the masks may be magical or religious; they may appear in rites of passage or as a make-up for a form of theatre. Equally masks may disguise a penitent or preside over important ceremonies; they may help mediate with spirits, or offer
10160-616: The exception of the details of the letters found in the latter works. It also provides other contextual information relating to Jewish and Persian history such as the identification of Darius the Mede as the uncle and father-in-law of Cyrus. A brief Persian account of events is provided by Islamic historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari in his History of the Prophets and Kings (completed 915 CE). Basing his account on Jewish and Christian sources, al-Tabari provides additional details such as
10287-688: The eyes, or of parts of them, is used in biometric identification to uniquely identify individuals. The shape of the face is influenced by the bone-structure of the skull , and each face is unique through the anatomical variation present in the bones of the viscerocranium (and neurocranium ). The bones involved in shaping the face are mainly the maxilla , mandible , nasal bone , zygomatic bone , and frontal bone . Also important are various soft tissues , such as fat , hair and skin (of which color may vary). The face changes over time, and features common in children or babies , such as prominent buccal fat-pads disappear over time, their role in
10414-434: The family or funerals, were carried out at the shrine under the watch of the ancestral masks. At funerals, professional actors would wear these masks to perform deeds of the lives of the ancestors, thus linking the role of mask as a ritual object and in theatre. Masks are a familiar and vivid element in many folk and traditional pageants , ceremonies , rituals , and festivals , and are often of an ancient origin. The mask
10541-672: The first two chapters of the Hebrew Book of Esther and provided source material for the Targum Sheni . The second part may have been redacted as late as the 11th century CE, and contains commentary on the remaining chapters of Esther. It, too, contains the additional contextual material found in the Josippon (a chronicle of Jewish history from Adam to the age of Titus believed to have been written by Josippon or Joseph ben Gorion). The 1st-century CE historian Josephus recounts
10668-565: The following Purim festival. It is common to greet one another on Purim in Hebrew with Chag Purim Sameach ( חג פורים שמח , in Yiddish with ah freilichin Purim ( א פרייליכן פורים ) or in Ladino with Purim Allegre . The Hebrew greeting loosely translates to 'Happy Purim Holiday' and the Yiddish and Ladino translate to 'Happy Purim'. The custom of masquerading in costumes and
10795-699: The forces of darkness and winter, and open the way for the spirits of light and the coming of spring. In Sardinia existed the tradition of Mamuthones e Issohadores of Mamoiada ; Boes e Merdules of Ottana ; Thurpos of Orotelli ; S'Urtzu , Su 'Omadore and Sos Mamutzones of Samugheo . The celebration of Giubiana in Canzo ( Lombardy ) preserves a tradition of masks of anguane , wild man , bear and its hunter, and Giubiana herself, among others. Another tradition of European masks developed, more self-consciously, from court and civic events, or entertainments managed by guilds and co-fraternities. These grew out of
10922-405: The gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai. The previous decree against the Jewish people could not be nullified, so the King allows Mordecai and Esther to write another decree as they wish. They decree that Jewish people may preemptively kill those thought to pose a lethal risk. As a result, on 13 Adar, 500 attackers and 10 of Haman's sons are killed in Shushan. Throughout the empire 75,000 of
11049-401: The gigaku and bugaku and are acted entirely by men. The masks are worn throughout very long performances and are consequently very light. The nō mask is the supreme achievement of Japanese mask-making. Nō masks represent gods, men, women, madmen and devils, and each category has many sub-divisions. Kyōgen are short farces with their own masks, and accompany the tragic nō plays. Kabuki is
11176-468: The gods, while nuo dance masks protected from bad spirits. Wedding masks were used to pray for good luck and a lasting marriage, and "Swallowing Animal" masks were associated with protecting the home and symbolised the "swallowing" of disaster. Opera masks were used in a basic "common" form of opera performed without a stage or backdrops. These led to colourful facial patterns that we see in today's Peking opera . Masked characters, usually divinities, are
11303-670: The hands of an official of the Achaemenid Empire named Haman , as it is recounted in the Book of Esther (usually dated to the late-5th or 4th centuries BCE). Haman was the royal vizier to the Persian king Ahasuerus ( Xerxes I or Artaxerxes I ; Khshayarsha and Artakhsher in Old Persian , respectively). His plans were foiled by Mordecai of the tribe of Benjamin , and Esther , Mordecai's cousin and adopted daughter who had become queen of Persia after her marriage to Ahasuerus. The day of deliverance became
11430-410: The historical origins of masks. Most probably represent nature spirits , and as a result many of the associated customs are seasonal. The original significance would have survived only until the introduction of Christianity , which incorporated many of the customs into its own traditions. In that process their meanings were changed also so, for example, old gods and goddesses originally associated with
11557-739: The infant being to stabilize the cheeks during suckling . While the buccal fat-pads often diminish in size, the prominence of bones increase with age as they grow and develop. Facial shape – such as facial symmetry – is an important determinant of beauty . Visible variable features of the face other than shapes and proportions include color (paleness, sun tan and genetic default pigmentation ), hair (length, color , loss , graying ), wrinkles , facial hair (e.g. beards ), skin sagging, discolorations ( dark spots , freckles and eye circles ), pore -variabilities, skin blemishes ( pimples , scars , burn marks ). Many of these features can also vary over time due to aging , skin care , nutrition,
11684-603: The late 16th century the Venetian Carnival began to reach its peak and eventually lasted a whole 'season' from January until Lent . By the 18th century, it was already a tourist attraction, Goethe saying that he was ugly enough not to need a mask. The carnival was repressed during the Napoleonic Republic, although in the 1980s its costumes and the masks aping the 18th century heyday were revived. It appears other cities in central Europe were influenced by
11811-512: The masked performer is a central concept and is highly valued. In the western tradition, actors in Ancient Greek theatre wore masks, as they do in traditional Japanese Noh drama. In some Greek masks, the wide and open mouth of the mask contained a brass megaphone enabling the voice of the wearer to be projected into the large auditoria. In medieval Europe, masks were used in mystery and miracle plays to portray allegorical creatures, and
11938-460: The miracle ( Tosafot ). The Talmud prescribed three benedictions before the reading and one benediction after the reading. The Talmud added other provisions. For example, the reader is to pronounce the names of the ten sons of Haman in one breath, to indicate their simultaneous death. An additional custom that probably began in Medieval times is that the congregation recites aloud with the reader
12065-474: The month of Nisan, in the twelfth year of King Ahasuerus, pur—which means "the lot"—was cast before Haman concerning every day and every month, [until it fell on] the twelfth month, that is, the month of Adar. The Scroll of Esther takes place over 9 years and begins with a six-month drinking feast given by King Ahasuerus of the Persian Empire for the army and Media and the satraps and princes of
12192-551: The most striking artifacts produced in this region. Inuit groups vary widely and share neither a common mythology nor language. Not surprisingly their mask traditions are also often different, although their masks are often made out of driftwood, animal skins, bones, and feathers. In some areas Inuit women use finger masks during storytelling and dancing. Indigenous Pacific Northwest coastal cultural groups generally included highly skilled woodworkers . Their masks were often masterpieces of carving, sometimes with movable jaws, with
12319-415: The name of Haman, the offspring of Amalek, on two smooth stones, and knocking them together until the name was blotted out. Some wrote the name of Haman on the soles of their shoes, and at the mention of the name stamped with their feet as a sign of contempt. Another method was to use a noisy ratchet , called a ra'ashan (from the Hebrew ra-ash , meaning "noise") and in Yiddish a grager . Some of
12446-621: The ordinary roles were often inverted. Sometimes a slave or a criminal was temporarily granted the insignia and status of royalty, only to be killed after the festival ended. The Carnival of Venice , in which all are equal behind their masks, dates back to 1268 AD. The use of carnivalesque masks in the Jewish Purim festivities probably originated in the late 15th century, although some Jewish authors claim it has always been part of Judaic tradition. The North American Iroquois tribes used masks for healing purposes (see False Face Society ). In
12573-657: The original Persian form "Asturya" for "Esther". He places events during the rule of Ardashir Bahman ( Artaxerxes II ), but confuses him with Ardashir al-Tawil al-Ba ( Artaxerxes I ), while assuming Ahasuerus to be the name of a co-ruler. Another brief Persian account is recorded by Masudi in The Meadows of Gold (completed 947 CE). He refers to a Jewish woman who had married the Persian King Bahman (Artaxerxes II), and delivered her people, thus corroborating this identification of Ahasuerus. He also mentions
12700-530: The origins of Purim in Book 11 of his Antiquities of the Jews . He follows the Hebrew Book of Esther but shows awareness of some of the additional material found in the Greek version (the Septuagint ) in that he too identifies Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes and provides the text of the king's letter. He also provides additional information on the dating of events relative to Ezra and Nehemiah. Josephus also records
12827-503: The other observances of the day as well as to the reading of the Megillah: After the Megillah reading, each member of the congregation who has heard the reading recites the following blessing. This blessing is not recited unless a minyan was present for the Megillah reading: After the nighttime Megillah reading the following two paragraphs are recited: The first one is an acrostic poem that starts with each letter of
12954-402: The palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavor as he refuses to bow down to him. Having found out that Mordecai is Jewish, Haman plans to kill not just Mordecai but the entire Jewish minority in the empire . Obtaining Ahasuerus' permission and funds to execute this plan, he casts lots ( "purim" ) to choose the date on which to do this—the 14th of the month of Adar. When Mordecai finds out about
13081-625: The parts sometimes moved by pulling cords, or a mask within a mask to represent a magical transformation. The carving of masks was an important feature of woodcraft, along with many other features that often combined the utilitarian with the symbolic, such as shields , canoes , poles, and houses. Woodland tribes, especially in the northeastern and around the Great Lakes , cross-fertilized culturally with one another. The Iroquois made spectacular wooden ' false face ' masks, used in healing ceremonies and carved from living trees. These masks appear in
13208-504: The perceptual response across FFA and LOC remained present even when subjects were not attending explicitly to facial beauty". Cosmetic surgery can be used to alter the appearance of the facial features. Maxillofacial surgery may also be used in cases of facial trauma , injury to the face and skin diseases. Severely disfigured individuals have recently received full face transplants and partial transplants of skin and muscle tissue. Caricatures often exaggerate facial features to make
13335-545: The performer representing God frequently wore a gold or gilt mask. During the Renaissance , masques and ballet de cour developed – courtly masked entertainments that continued as part of ballet conventions until the late eighteenth century. The masked characters of the Commedia dell'arte included the ancestors of the modern clown. In contemporary western theatre, the mask is often used alongside puppetry to create
13462-435: The performers, with several different types of mask used for different types of character. In Ancient Rome, the word persona meant 'a mask'; it also referred to an individual who had full Roman citizenship . A citizen could demonstrate his or her lineage through imagines – death masks of ancestors. These were wax casts kept in a lararium (the family shrine). Rites of passage, such as initiation of young members of
13589-426: The plans, he puts on sackcloth and ashes, a sign of mourning, publicly weeping and lamenting, and many other Jews in Shushan and other parts of Ahasuerus' empire do likewise, with widespread penitence and fasting . Esther discovers what has transpired; there follows an exchange of messages between her and Mordecai, with Hatach, one of the palace servants, as the intermediary. Mordecai requests that she intercede with
13716-422: The poor". According to halakha , each adult must give at least two different foods to one person, and at least two charitable donations to two poor people. The food parcels are called mishloach manot ("sending of portions"), and in some circles the custom has evolved into a major gift-giving event. To fulfill the mitzvah of giving charity to two poor people, one can give either food or money equivalent to
13843-465: The precise derivation of human culture and early activities, the invention and use of the mask is only one area of unsolved inquiry. The use of masks dates back several millennia. It is conjectured that the first masks may have been used by primitive people to associate the wearer with some kind of unimpeachable authority, such as a deity, or to otherwise lend credence to the person's claim on a given social role. The earliest known anthropomorphic artwork
13970-420: The progenitor of Haman, is also to be read. Before the reading of the Megillah on Purim, both at night and again in the morning, the reader of the Megillah recites the following three blessings and at the end of each blessing the congregation then responds by answering "Amen" after each of the blessings. At the morning reading of the Megillah the congregation should have in mind that the third blessing applies to
14097-497: The purpose of public prayer and fasting. Some, however, used to fast three days in commemoration of the fasting of Esther; but as fasting was prohibited during the month of Nisan, the first and second Mondays and the Thursday following Purim were chosen. The fast of the 13th is still commonly observed; but when that date falls on Shabbat , the fast is pushed back to the preceding Thursday, Friday being needed to prepare for Sabbath and
14224-418: The rabbis protested against these uproarious excesses, considering them a disturbance of public worship, but the custom of using a ratchet in the synagogue on Purim is now almost universal, with the exception of Spanish and Portuguese Jews and other Sephardic Jews, who consider them an improper interruption of the reading. The Book of Esther prescribes "the sending of portions one man to another, and gifts to
14351-417: The reading of the Megillah, because women were also part of the miracle. The commentaries offer two reasons as to why women played a major role in the miracle. The first reason is that it was through a lady, Queen Esther , that the miraculous deliverance of the Jews was accomplished ( Rashbam ). The second reason is that women were also threatened by the genocidal decree and were therefore equal beneficiaries of
14478-469: The rural areas. Although these civic masquerades and their masks may have retained elements drawn from popular culture, the survival of carnival in the 19th century was often a consequence of a self-conscious 'folklore' movement that accompanied the rise of nationalism in many European countries. Nowadays, during carnival in the Netherlands masks are often replaced with face paint for more comfort. In
14605-421: The sacred. This is often accomplished by linking the mask to an ancestral presence, and thus bringing the past into the present. As a culture of scattered islands and peninsulars, Melanesian mask forms have developed in a highly diversified fashion, with a great deal of variety in their construction and aesthetic. In Papua New Guinea, six-metre-high totem masks are placed to protect the living from spirits; whereas
14732-407: The shape of the nose and chin. Biological databases may be used to aggregate and discover associations between facial phenotypes and genes. Faces are essential to expressing emotion , consciously or unconsciously. A frown denotes disapproval; a smile usually means someone is pleased. Being able to read emotion in another's face is "the fundamental basis for empathy and the ability to interpret
14859-544: The soberness of one's duty that comes with power. War masks are also popular. The Grebo of the Ivory Coast and Liberia carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose to represent unwillingness to retreat. Today, the qualities of African art are beginning to be more understood and appreciated. However, most African masks are now being produced for the tourist trade. Although they often show skilled craftsmanship, they nearly always lack
14986-451: The spiritual character of the traditional tribal masks. The variety and beauty of the masks of Melanesia are almost as highly developed as in Africa. It is a culture where ancestor worship is dominant and religious ceremonies are devoted to ancestors. Inevitably, many of the mask types relate to use in these ceremonies and are linked with the activities of secret societies. The mask is regarded as an instrument of revelation, giving form to
15113-454: The synthesis of the two contrasting types, Handsome and Ugly. Masks also tend to be associated with New Year and Carnival festivals. The debate about the meaning of these and other mask forms continues in Europe, where monsters , bears , wild men , harlequins , hobby horses , and other fanciful characters appear in carnivals throughout the continent. It is generally accepted that the masks, noise, colour, and clamour are meant to drive away
15240-447: The theatre of modern Japan, rooted in the older forms, but in this form masks are replaced by painted faces. Korean masks have a long tradition associated with shamanism and later in ritual dance. Korean masks were used in war, on both soldiers and their horses; ceremonially, for burial rites in jade and bronze and for shamanistic ceremonies to drive away evil spirits; to remember the faces of great historical figures in death masks; and in
15367-470: The third day, she seeks an audience with Ahasuerus, during which she invites him to a feast in the company of Haman. During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening. Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordecai's refusal to bow to him; egged on by his wife Zeresh and unidentified friends, he builds a gallows for Mordecai, with the intention to hang him there the very next day. That night, Ahasuerus suffers from insomnia , and when
15494-460: The verses Esther 2:5, Esther 8:15–16, and Esther 10:3, which relate the origin of Mordecai and his triumph. The Megillah is read with a cantillation (a traditional chant) which is different from that which is used in the customary reading of the Torah. Besides the traditional cantillation, there are several verses or short phrases in the Megillah that are chanted in a different chant, the chant that
15621-500: The wearer's body. In art history , especially sculpture , "mask" is the term for a face without a body that is not modelled in the round (which would make it a "head"), but for example appears in low relief . The word "mask" appeared in English in the 1530s, from Middle French masque "covering to hide or guard the face", derived in turn from Italian maschera , from Medieval Latin masca "mask, specter, nightmare". This word
15748-497: The wearing of masks probably originated among the Italian Jews at the end of the 15th century. The concept was possibly influenced by the Roman carnival and spread across Europe. The practice was only introduced into Middle Eastern countries during the 19th century. The first Jewish codifier to mention the custom was Judah Minz . Iranian Jews use traditional Persian costumes and masks. The primary reason for masquerading
15875-561: The whole head, and are often highly abstracted forms. Navajo masks appear to be inspired by the Pueblo prototypes. In modern immigrant Euro-American culture, masking is a common feature of Mardi Gras traditions, most notably in New Orleans . Costumes and masks (originally inspired by masquerade balls ) are frequently worn by " krewe "-members on Mardi Gras Day; local laws against using a mask to conceal one's identity are suspended for
16002-469: The woman's daughter, Khumay, who is not known in Jewish tradition but is well remembered in Persian folklore. Al-Tabari calls her Khumani and tells how her father (Ardashir Bahman) married her. Ferdowsi in his Shahnameh ( c. 1000 CE) also tells of King Bahman marrying Khumay. Modern Biblical scholarship generally identifies Ahasuerus with Xerxes I of Persia . Since the 1890s, several academics have suggested that Purim has its origin in
16129-587: The wrestlers can be considered folk heroes. For instance, the popular wrestler El Santo continued wearing his mask after retirement, revealed his face briefly only in old age, and was buried wearing his silver mask. In China, masks are thought to have originated in ancient religious ceremonies. Images of people wearing masks have been found in rock paintings along the Yangtze . Later mask forms brings together myths and symbols from shamanism and Buddhism . Shigong dance masks were used in shamanic rituals to thank
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