135-726: The Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent or Indo-Muslim period is conventionally said to have started in 712, after the conquest of Sindh and Multan by the Umayyad Caliphate under the military command of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim . It began in the Indian subcontinent in the course of a gradual conquest . The perfunctory rule by the Ghaznavids in Punjab was followed by Ghurids , and Sultan Muhammad of Ghor (r. 1173–1206)
270-604: A form of proto-industrialization , like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution . After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the empire declined and reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1757 to 1760. The decline of the Mughals in the 18th century provided opportunity for the Nawabs of Oudh and Bengal as well as Nizam of Hyderabad to become independent. The empire
405-515: A harbour at the city of Patala in Sindh. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus I Nicator , when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus River and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria , while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants. Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 180 BCE,
540-531: A huge variety of animals and birds. The Kirthar National Park in the Kirthar range spreads over more than 3000 km of desert, stunted tree forests and a lake. The KNP supports Sindh ibex , wild sheep (urial) and black bear along with the rare leopard. There are also occasional sightings of The Sindhi phekari, ped lynx or Caracal cat. There is a project to introduce tigers and Asian elephants too in KNP near
675-543: A large variety of marine fish, the plumbeous dolphin, the beaked dolphin, rorqual or blue whale and skates frequent the seas along the Sindh coast. The Pallo (Sable fish), a marine fish, ascends the Indus annually from February to April to spawn. The Indus river dolphin is among the most endangered species in Pakistan and is found in the part of the Indus river in northern Sindh. Hog deer and wild bear occur, particularly in
810-580: A long history, starting with the capture of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712 CE. Over time, the majority of the population in Sindh converted to Islam, especially in rural areas. Today, Muslims make up 90% of the population, and are more dominant in urban than rural areas. Islam in Sindh has a strong Sufi ethos with numerous Muslim saints and mystics, such as the Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai , having lived in Sindh historically. One popular legend that highlights
945-642: A major part of the Sindhi partition experience, unlike in Punjab. There were very few incidents of violence on Sindh, in part due to the Sufi-influenced culture of religious tolerance and in part that Sindh was not divided and was instead made part of Pakistan in its entirety. Sindhi Hindus who left generally did so out of a fear of persecution, rather than persecution itself, because of the arrival of Muslim refugees from India. Sindhi Hindus differentiated between
1080-652: A navy off the coast of Diu . In 1509, the Portuguese empire wrested Diu from the Sultanate in the battle of Diu (1509) . The Moghul emperor Humayun attacked Gujarat in 1535 and briefly occupied it, during which Bombay, Bassein & Damaon would become a Portuguese colony, thereafter Bahadur Shah was killed by the Portuguese while making a deal in 1537. The end of the sultanate came in 1573, when Akbar annexed Sultanate of Guzerat into his empire. The kingdom
1215-552: A year, caused by the spring and summer melting of Himalayan snow and by rainfall in the monsoon season. Sindh is divided into three climatic regions: Siro (the upper region, centred on Jacobabad ), Wicholo (the middle region, centred on Hyderabad ), and Lar (the lower region, centred on Karachi ). The thermal equator passes through upper Sindh, where the air is generally very dry. Central Sindh's temperatures are generally lower than those of upper Sindh but higher than those of lower Sindh. Dry hot days and cool nights are typical during
1350-615: Is Sindh's most multiethnic city which hosts most of the province's Urdu-speaking population who form a plurality, along many other groups. Sindh is in the western corner of South Asia, bordering the Iranian plateau in the west. Geographically it is the third largest province of Pakistan, stretching about 579 kilometres (360 mi) from north to south and 442 kilometres (275 mi) (extreme) or 281 kilometres (175 mi) (average) from east to west, with an area of 140,915 square kilometres (54,408 sq mi) of Pakistani territory. Sindh
1485-579: Is a Persian derivative of the Sanskrit term Sindhu, meaning "river," a reference to the Indus River . Southworth suggests that the name Sindhu is in turn derived from Cintu , a Dravidian word for date palm , a tree commonly found in Sindh. The previous spelling Sind (from the Perso-Arabic سند ) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in the Sindh Assembly , and
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#17327653050441620-472: Is a province of Pakistan . Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province by population after Punjab . It is bordered by the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan to the west and north-west and Punjab to the north. It shares an International border with the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan to
1755-660: Is bounded by the Thar Desert to the east, the Kirthar Mountains to the west and the Arabian Sea and Rann of Kutch to the south. In the centre is a fertile plain along the Indus River . Sindh is divided into three main geographical regions: Siro ("upper country"), aka Upper Sindh, which is above Sehwan ; Vicholo ("middle country"), or Middle Sindh, from Sehwan to Hyderabad ; and Lāṟu ("sloping, descending country"), or Lower Sindh, mostly consisting of
1890-466: Is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration. A gradual drying of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east. During the Bronze Age , the territory of Sindh was known as Sindhu-Sauvīra , covering
2025-629: Is generally credited with laying the foundation of Muslim rule in Northern India. From the late 12th century onwards, Muslim empires dominated the subcontinent, most notably the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire . Various other Muslim kingdoms ruled most of South Asia from the mid-14th to late 18th centuries, including the Bahmani , Bengal , Gujarat , Malwa , Kashmir , Multan , Mysore , Carnatic and Deccan Sultanates . Though
2160-436: Is hot in the summer and mild to warm in winter. Temperatures frequently rise above 46 °C (115 °F ) between May and August, and the minimum average temperature of 2 °C (36 °F) occurs during December and January in the northern and higher elevated regions. The annual rainfall averages about seven inches, falling mainly during July and August. The southwest monsoon wind begins in mid-February and continues until
2295-467: Is received in the winters. The Provincial Assembly of Sindh is a unicameral and consists of 168 seats, of which 5% are reserved for non-Muslims and 17% for women. The provincial capital of Sindh is Karachi . The provincial government is led by Chief Minister who is directly elected by the popular and landslide votes ; the Governor serves as a ceremonial representative nominated and appointed by
2430-557: Is relatively dry and arid. The Western Ghats play an important role in determining the climate and seasons of the region. During the dry summer months of April – May, heat builds up on the land, which draws air from the sea. The air, which picks up moisture along the way and flows eastward from the Arabian Sea, is blocked by the Western Ghats. The rising air cools and brings about orographic precipitation along
2565-635: Is said to have reported victory to the Governor General with a one-word telegram, namely " Peccavi " – or "I have sinned" ( Latin ). The British had two objectives in their rule of Sindh: the consolidation of British rule and the use of Sindh as a market for British products and a source of revenue and raw materials. With the appropriate infrastructure in place, the British hoped to utilise Sindh for its economic potential. The British incorporated Sindh, some years later after annexing it, into
2700-466: Is sometimes referred to as the Bab-ul Islam ( transl. 'Gateway of Islam ' ), as it was one of the first regions of the Indian subcontinent to fall under Islamic rule . The province is well known for its distinct culture , which is strongly influenced by Sufist Islam , an important marker of Sindhi identity for both Hindus and Muslims . Sindh is prominent for its history during
2835-457: Is the most populous city in the country as well as its main financial hub. Sindh is home to a large portion of Pakistan's industrial sector and contains two of the country's busiest commercial seaports: Port Qasim and the Port of Karachi . The remainder of Sindh consists of an agriculture -based economy and produces fruits, consumer items and vegetables for other parts of the country. Sindh
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#17327653050442970-605: The Bahmani Tombs . The exterior of one of the tombs is decorated with coloured tiles. Arabic, Persian and Urdu inscriptions are inscribed inside the tombs. The Bahmani Sultanate lasted for almost two centuries, until it fragmented into five smaller states, known as the Deccan sultanates ( Bijapur , Golconda , Ahmednagar , Berar , and Bidar ) in 1527. Although the five sultanates were all ruled by Muslims, their founders were of diverse, and often originally non-Muslim origins:
3105-689: The Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali . Under the Umayyads (661–750 CE), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees. The first clash with the Hindu kings of Sindh took place in 636 (15 A.H.) under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab with the governor of Bahrain, Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas , dispatching naval expeditions against Thane and Bharuch and Debal . Al-Baladhuri states they were victorious at Debal but doesn't mention
3240-599: The Bengal Sultanate , Madurai Sultanate , Khandesh Sultanate and Bahmani Sultanate all asserting independence. Timur's invasion in 1398 only accelerated the process, and the Gujarat Sultanate and Jaunpur Sultanate broke away. Some of these kingdoms, such as Jaunpur, were again brought back under the Delhi Sultanate's control, although the rest remained independent from central rule until
3375-565: The Bombay Presidency . Distance from the provincial capital, Bombay, led to grievances that Sindh was neglected in contrast to other parts of the Presidency. The merger of Sindh into Punjab province was considered from time to time but was turned down because of British disagreement and Sindhi opposition, both from Muslims and Hindus, to being annexed to Punjab. Later, desire for a separate administrative status for Sindh grew. At
3510-615: The British at the Battle of Miani and Battle of Dubbo . The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during British rule as the princely state of Khairpur , whose ruler elected to join the new Dominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated into West Pakistan in 1955. The British conquered Sindh in 1843. General Charles Napier
3645-597: The Bronze Age under the Indus Valley civilization , and is home to two UNESCO -designated World Heritage Sites : the Makli Necropolis and Mohenjo-daro . The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BCE under the command of Alexander the Great referred to the Indus River as Indós , hence the modern Indus . The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind . The word Sind
3780-413: The Delhi Sultanate , which abruptly brought an end to independent Jaunpur and its reabsorption into the Delhi Sultanate. Nawab was a title given by the Mughals to the governors of different provinces. During disintegration of the empire in the 18th century, many Nawabs became de facto independent. In the early 18th-century, the Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad were the de facto independent ruler of
3915-549: The First Battle of Panipat . Babur , Humayun , Akbar , Jahangir , Shah Jahan , and Aurangzeb are known as the six great Mughal Emperors . Apart from the brief interruption of 16 Years by the Afghan Sur Empire between 1540 and 1556, the Mughals continued to rule in one form or other till 1857. India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750. Mughal economy has been described as
4050-699: The Ghiyasia Banjalia Madrasas . Taqi al-Din al-Fasi , a contemporary Arab scholar, was a teacher at the madrasa in Makkah. The madrasa in Madinah was built at a place called Husn al-Atiq near the Prophet's Mosque . Several other Bengali Sultans also sponsored madrasas in the Hejaz . The Karrani dynasty was the last ruling dynasty of the sultanate. The Mughals became determined to bring an end to
4185-649: The Indus Delta below Hyderabad. The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm, Acacia rupestris (kher), and Tecomella undulata ( lohirro ) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, the Acacia nilotica (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. The Azadirachta indica (neem) (nim), Zizyphys vulgaris (bir) (ber), Tamarix orientalis (jujuba lai) and Capparis aphylla (kirir) are among
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4320-533: The Islamic world or China in terms of mechanical technology. Sultan 'Ala ud-Din made an attempt to reassess, systematize, and unify land revenues and urban taxes and to institute a highly centralized system of administration over his realm, but his efforts were abortive. Although agriculture in North India improved as a result of new canal construction and irrigation methods, including what came to be known as
4455-764: The Paramaras , the Vaghelas , the Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura and Jalore , the Rawal branch of the Guhilas , and possibly the Yajvapalas ; and permanently establishing Muslim rule in the regions of central and western India. After his death, independent Islamic kingdoms emerged there. The Gujarat Sultanate was founded by Sultan Zafar Khan Muzaffar , whose ancestors were Tāṅks from southern Punjab . Earlier, he
4590-555: The Persian wheel, prolonged political instability and parasitic methods of tax collection brutalized the peasantry. Yet trade and a market economy, encouraged by the free-spending habits of the aristocracy, acquired new impetus both in India and overseas. Experts in metalwork, stonework and textile manufacture responded to the new patronage with enthusiasm. In this period Persian language and many Persian cultural aspects became dominant in
4725-648: The President of Pakistan . The administrative boss of the province who is in charge of the bureaucracy is the Chief Secretary Sindh , who is appointed by the Prime Minister of Pakistan . Most of the influential Sindhi tribes in the province are involved in Pakistan's politics . In addition, Sindh's politics leans towards the left-wing and its political culture serves as a dominant place for
4860-576: The Rajputana kingdom in Umerkot in Sindh. Mughal rule from their provincial capital of Thatta was to last in lower Sindh until the early 18th century, while upper Sindh was ruled by the indigenous Kalhora dynasty holding power, consolidating their rule from their capital of Khudabad , before shifting to Hyderabad from 1768 onwards. The Talpurs succeeded the Kalhoras and four branches of
4995-657: The Satpura Range south of the Tapti River in the north and runs approximately 1,600 km (990 mi) to Kaniyakumari . There are three gaps in the mountain range which connect the plains to the Deccan plateau: the northernmost Goa Gap , the oldest and widest Palghat Gap , and the southernmost, narrowest Shencottah Gap . The Western Ghats serves as one of the major sources of many perennial rivers in India. The major river systems originating in
5130-510: The Striped hyena (charakh), jackal , fox , porcupine , common gray mongoose and hedgehog . The Sindhi phekari, red lynx or Caracal cat, is found in some areas. Phartho (hog deer) and wild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt. There are bats, lizards and reptiles, including the cobra, lundi (viper) and the mysterious Sindh krait of the Thar region, which is supposed to suck
5265-696: The Sultan of Delhi , and was allowed to continue on as a vassal. The Sammas overthrew the Soomras soon after 1335 and established the Sindh Sultanate. The last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor of Gujarat , under the protection of Muhammad bin Tughluq , the sultan of Delhi . Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore
5400-530: The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and restored Shah Alam II ( r. 1760–1788 and 1788–1806) to the imperial throne. The Nawab of Awadh also fought the Battle of Buxar (1764) preserving the interests of the Moghul. Oudh State eventually declared itself independent from the rule of the "Great Moghul" in 1818. Oudh joined other Indian states in an upheaval against British rule in 1858 during one of
5535-644: The left-wing spectrum in the country. The province's trend towards the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and away from the Pakistan Muslim League (N) can be seen in nationwide general elections , in which Sindh is a stronghold of the PPP. The PML(N) has a limited support due to its centre-right agenda . In metropolitan cities such as Karachi and Hyderabad , the MQM (another party of
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5670-583: The 18th and 19th centuries, large parts of India were colonized by the East India Company , eventually establishing the British Raj in 1857. Regional Islamic rule would remain under princely states , such as Hyderabad State , Junagadh State , and other minor princely states until the mid of the 20th century. Today, Bangladesh , Maldives and Pakistan are the Muslim majority nations in
5805-413: The 1920s by the growing importance of Karachi and the Khilafat Movement. A number of Sindhi pirs, descendants of Sufi saints who had proselytised in Sindh, joined the Khilafat Movement, which propagated the protection of the Ottoman Caliphate, and those pirs who did not join the movement found a decline in their following. The pirs generated huge support for the Khilafat cause in Sindh. Sindh came to be at
5940-830: The 2023 census indicated a population of 5,182 Sikhs. Languages of Sindh (2023) According to the 2023 census , the most widely spoken language in the province is Sindhi , the first language of 33,462,299 60% of the population. It is followed by Urdu 12,409,745 (22%), Pashto 2,955,893 (5.3%), Punjabi 2,265,471 (4.1%), Balochi 1,208,147 (2.2%), Saraiki 913,418 (1.6%), and Hindko 830,581 (1.5), Brahui 265,769, Mewati 57,059, Kashmiri 53,249, Balti 27,193, Shina 22,273, Koshistani 14,885, 777 Kalasha and others are 1,151,650, Other minority languages include Kutchi , Gujarati , Aer , Bagri , Bhaya , Brahui , Dhatki , Ghera , Goaria , Gurgula , Jadgali , Jandavra , Jogi , Kabutra , Kachi Koli , Parkari Koli , Wadiyari Koli , Loarki , Marwari , Sansi , and Vaghri . Karachi city
6075-458: The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was of Hindu-Brahmin origins; the Berar sultanate by a Kannadiga Hindu convert; the Bidar Sultanate was founded by a Georgian slave; the Bijapur Sultanate was founded by a Georgian slave purchased by Mahmud Gawan and the Golconda Sultanate was of Turkmen origin. The rulers of the Deccan sultanates made a number of cultural contributions in the fields of literature, art, architecture, and music. An important contribution
6210-442: The Arab expansion towards the east reached the Sindh region beyond Persia . The connection between the Sindh and Islam was established by the initial Muslim invasions during the Rashidun Caliphate . Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year 649 CE, was an early partisan of Ali ibn Abu Talib . During the caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism and some even participated in
6345-408: The Bengal Sultanate's realm and protectorates stretched from Jaunpur in the west, Tripura and Arakan in the east, Kamrup and Kamata in the north and Puri in the south. Although a Sunni Muslim monarchy ruled by Turco-Persians , Bengalis , Habshis and Pashtuns , they still employed many non-Muslims in the administration and promoted a form of religious pluralism. It was known as one of
6480-437: The British. The defeat of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Oudh , and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II at the Battle of Buxar in 1764 paved the way for British expansion across India. Nawab of Awadh ruled major parts of present-day Uttar Pradesh . The Nawabs of Awadh, along with many other Nawabs , were regarded as members of the nobility of the greater Mughal Empire. They joined Ahmad Shah Durrani during
6615-434: The Deccan and South India resulted in the rise of competing for Southern dynasties: the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1518) and the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646). Zafar Khan , a former provincial governor under the Tughluqs, revolted against Delhi Sultans and proclaimed himself sultan, taking the title Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah in 1347. It was the first Muslim empire located in the Deccan region . Bahmani empire
6750-409: The Deccan sultanates. When the rulers of the five Deccan sultanates combined their forces and attacked the Vijayanagara empire in 1565, the empire crumbled at the Battle of Talikot . Nizam , a shortened version of Nizam-ul-Mulk, meaning Administrator of the Realm , was the title of the native sovereigns of Hyderabad state , India , since 1719, belonging to the Asaf Jahi dynasty. The dynasty
6885-423: The Gujarat Plains in the north, Konkan Coast and Canara in the center, and Malabar in the south. Due to the presence of Western Ghats, which blocks the rain-bearing winds, the region from the south of Gujarat experiences heavy rainfall during the monsoons . Unlike the Eastern Coastal Plains , very few rivers cut across the region due to the steeper gradient of the Indian peninsula moving from east to west and
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#17327653050447020-414: The Gulf of Kutch in the north to the Gulf of Khambhat in the south in Gujarat . The northeast of the peninsular consists of a large sandstone formation extending for 60,000 km (23,000 sq mi). The vegetation of this section is dry, with thorn forests. It is surrounded by alluvial soil supporting agricultural crops such as wheat , millet , and peanut . Isolated mangroves occur along
7155-418: The Indian mainland, bordering Pakistan . The 352 km (219 mi) long coastline stretches from the Indus River delta in the north to the Gulf of Kutch . The Rann of Kutch occupies most of the region and is semi-arid and dry. The region has a long history of human settlements dating back to the Indus valley civilization in 3000 BCE. The Kathiawar region (also called as Saurashtra), extends from
7290-406: The Indian subcontinent while India has the largest Muslim minority population in the world numbering over 204 million. Local kings who converted to Islam existed in places such as the Western Coastal Plains as early as the 7th century. Islamic rule in India prior to the advent of the Mamluk dynasty (Delhi) included those of Arab Caliphate , Ghaznavids and Ghurids . The Delhi Sultanate
7425-462: The Kathiawar peninsula. The area extends for about 33,000 km (13,000 sq mi) and has an average elevation of 24 m (79 ft). It is an extension of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and is drained by rivers such as Narmada , Tapti , Sabarmati , and Mahi . Most of the region consists of alluvium deposited by the rivers with black soil occurring to the west. The region is prone to heavy flooding during monsoons . Sparse forests occur in
7560-401: The Multan-based Langah Sultanate and the Kashmir Sultanate were established during the 14th century. Nobles in the court of the Delhi Sultanate founded other Islamic dynasties elsewhere in India including Khandesh Sultanate . The Kingdom of Rohilkhand was also a major power in northern India in the 18th century. Till the early 14th century, south India was ruled by Hindu dynasties. During
7695-447: The Muslim dynasties in India were diverse in origin, they were linked together by the Persianate culture and Islam. The height of Islamic rule was marked during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), during which the Fatawa Alamgiri was compiled, which briefly served as the legal system of Mughal Empire. Additional Islamic policies were re-introduced in South India by Mysore's de facto king Tipu Sultan . Sharia
7830-481: The Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from Delhi he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent. Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by Ibn Battuta . The Samma civilization contributed significantly to
7965-426: The Sultanate was conquered by the Mughal empire from its last ruler, Baz Bahadur . Sindh was ruled by a series of Muslim dynasties including Habbaris , Soomras , Sammas , Arghuns and Tarkhans , after the disintegration of Arab caliphate. Following decline of Mughal empire, Kalhora and Talpur Nawabs ruled Sindh. Kingdom of Mewat was also a prominent Muslim Rajput kingdom in Rajasthan . Gonds of Deogarh
8100-417: The Sultanate, who became known as the Baro-Bhuiyans . The Mughal government eventually suppressed the remnants of the Sultanate and brought all of Bengal under full Mughal control. The Jaunpur Sultanate was founded in 1394 by Khwajah-i-Jahan Malik Sarwar, a eunuch slave and former wazir of Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah IV Tughluq , amidst the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate's Tughlaq dynasty . It
8235-532: The Umayyad Caliphate . This marked the beginning of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. The Habbari dynasty ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independent emirate from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854 CE, the region became semi-independent from the Abbasid Caliphate in 861, while continuing to nominally pledge allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad . The Habbaris ruled Sindh until they were defeated by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1026, who then went on to destroy
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#17327653050448370-443: The Western Ghats are the Godavari , Kaveri , and Krishna . However, most of the rivers flow eastwards towards the Bay of Bengal owing to the steeper gradient moving from east to west. The region consists of only smaller streams, which often carry a large volume of water during the monsoon months. The largest rivers are Narmada and Tapti which flow north of the Western Ghats in the Gujarat plains. The northern region of Kutch
8505-405: The annual session of the Indian National Congress in 1913, a Sindhi Hindu put forward the demand for Sindh's separation from the Bombay Presidency on the grounds of Sindh's unique cultural character. This reflected the desire of Sindh's predominantly Hindu commercial class to free itself from competing with the more powerful Bombay's business interests. Meanwhile, Sindhi politics was characterised in
8640-425: The area covering the lower and central Indus basin (present day Sindh and the southern Punjab regions of Pakistan). Alternatively, some authors consider that Hindush may have been located in the Punjab area. These areas remained under Persian control until the invasion by Alexander . Alexander conquered parts of Sindh after Punjab for few years and appointed his general Peithon as governor. He constructed
8775-482: The argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid. The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum. The Ghurids and Ghaznavids continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus. The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centered in lower Sindh. Some of them were adherents of Isma'ilism . One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted to Iltutmish ,
8910-401: The authority of the Nawabs. In the aftermath of the siege of Calcutta in 1756, in which the Nawab's forces overran the main British base, the East India Company dispatched a fleet led by Robert Clive who defeated the last independent Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Mir Jafar was installed as the puppet Nawab. His successor Mir Qasim attempted in vain to dislodge
9045-470: The birth of Hindustani music , Qawwali . Religions such as Sikhism and Din-e-Ilahi were born out of a fusion of Hindu and Muslim religious traditions as well. In the 18th century the Islamic influence in India begin to decline following the decline of the Mughal Empire , resulting in former Mughal territory conquered rival powers such as the Maratha Confederacy . However, Islamic rule would still remain under regional Nawabs and Sultans . Throughout
9180-429: The capital. The Brahmin dynasty of Sindh succeeded the Rai dynasty . Most of the information about its existence comes from the Chach Nama , a historical account of the Chach-Brahmin dynasty. After the empire's fall in 712, though the empire had ended, its dynasty's members administered parts of Sindh under the Umayyad Caliphate's Caliphal province of Sind . After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad ,
9315-419: The centers of power, as the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate had been thoroughly Persianized since the era of the Ghaznavids. The Mughal empire was the second & last major Islamic empire to assert dominance over most of the Indian subcontinent between 1526 and 1857. The empire was founded by the Turco-Mongol leader Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi , the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate at
9450-513: The central inundation belt. Although Sindh has a semi arid climate, through its coastal and riverine forests, its huge fresh water lakes and mountains and deserts, Sindh supports a large amount of varied wildlife. Due to the semi-arid climate of Sindh the left out forests support an average population of jackals and snakes. The national parks established by the Government of Pakistan in collaboration with many organizations such as World Wide Fund for Nature and Sindh Wildlife Department support
9585-443: The city of Mumbai and smaller fertile river valleys. The region receives heavy rainfall during the monsoons , which gives rise to many seasonal rivers. Only one third of the land is cultivable with major crops including rice , pulses , and coconuts . Fishing , mining , and salt manufacturing are other major economic activities. The Canara or the Karnataka Coastal Plain extends about 225 km (140 mi) from Goa in
9720-526: The coast. Most of the region has an altitude lower than 600 ft (180 m) with the exception of Girnar Hills and Gir Range . The region hosts the Gir National Park , the only remaining abode of wild Asiatic lions anywhere in the world. The Gujarat Plains extend from the Thar desert in the north to the border with Maharashtra . It forms the central part of Gujarat and lies to the east of
9855-513: The conquests of the Mughal Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries. Both the Qur'an and sharia (Islamic law) provided the basis for enforcing Islamic administration over the independent Hindu rulers. According to Angus Maddison , between the years 1000 and 1500, India's GDP , of which the sultanates represented a significant part, grew by nearly 80%, to $ 60.5 billion; however, this growth
9990-599: The dynasty were established. One ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad , another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of Khairpur , a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas , and a fourth was based in Tando Muhammad Khan . They were ethnically Baloch , and for most of their rule, they were subordinate to the Durrani Empire and were forced to pay tribute to them. They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by
10125-448: The east; it is also bounded by the Arabian Sea to the south. Sindh's landscape consists mostly of alluvial plains flanking the Indus River , the Thar Desert of Sindh in the eastern portion of the province along the international border with India , and the Kirthar Mountains in the western portion of the province. The economy of Sindh is the second largest in Pakistan after the province of Punjab ; its provincial capital Karachi
10260-522: The end of September, whereas the cool northerly wind blows during the winter months from October to January. Sindh lies between the two monsoons —the southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean and the northeast or retreating monsoon, deflected towards it by the Himalayan mountains —and escapes the influence of both. The region's scarcity of rainfall is compensated by the inundation of the Indus twice
10395-482: The equator receive lower annual rainfall and have rain spells lasting several months in a year. The plains are broadly divided into six subdivisions– Kutch and Kathiawar along with the Gujarat Plains in the north, Konkan Coast and Canara in the center, and Malabar in the south. The Kutch Peninsula occupies an area of 45,612 km (17,611 sq mi) and forms the western most part of
10530-734: The evolution of the Indo-Islamic architectural style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the Makli Hill . It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including the Makli Necropolis of its royals in Thatta. They were later overthrown by the Turkic Arghuns in the late 15th century. In the late 16th century, Sindh was brought into the Mughal Empire by Akbar , himself born in
10665-415: The field of education, construction of major public buildings across the kingdom, setting up of Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway(NSGR) , donations to Universities, temples and donating 14,000 acres (5,700 ha) of land from his personal estate to Vinobha Bhave's Bhoodan movement . Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan held power and were de facto rulers of the proto-industrialised Mysore Sultanate during
10800-475: The forefront of the Khilafat Movement . Although Sindh had a cleaner record of communal harmony than other parts of India, the province's Muslim elite and emerging Muslim middle class demanded separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency as a safeguard for their own interests. In this campaign, local Sindhi Muslims identified 'Hindu' with Bombay instead of Sindh. Sindhi Hindus were seen as representing
10935-610: The government restored the mosque to Muslims. The separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah. Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist G. M. Syed left the All India Muslim League in
11070-480: The huge Hub Dam Lake. Between July and November when the monsoon winds blow onshore from the ocean, giant olive ridley turtles lay their eggs along the seaward side. The turtles are protected species. After the mothers lay and leave them buried under the sands the SWD and WWF officials take the eggs and protect them until they are hatched to keep them from predators. Sindh lies in a tropical to subtropical region; it
11205-463: The independent kingdom. Mughal rule formally began with the Battle of Rajmahal in 1576, when the last Sultan Daud Khan Karrani was defeated by the forces of Emperor Akbar , and the establishment of the Bengal Subah . The eastern deltaic Bhati region remained outside of Mughal control until being absorbed in the early 17th century. The delta was controlled by a confederation of aristocrats of
11340-492: The interests of Bombay instead of the majority of Sindhi Muslims. Sindhi Hindus, for the most part, opposed the separation of Sindh from Bombay. Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong Sufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook, both the Muslim landed elite, waderas , and the Hindu commercial elements, banias , collaborated in oppressing
11475-633: The kingdom was abolished. Other southern states include the Arakkal Kingdom (of modern-day Kerala) who were a subordinate of their masters the Kolathiris and the short-lived Madurai Sultanate which was centered in and around Madurai and existed for barely 40 years. Sindh Europe North America Oceania Sindh ( / ˈ s ɪ n d / SIND ; Sindhi : سِنْڌ ; Urdu : سِنْدھ , pronounced [sɪndʱə] ; abbr. SD , historically romanized as Sind )
11610-423: The last census conducted prior to the partition of India, the total population of Sindh was 4,840,795 out of which 3,462,015 (71.5%) were Muslims, 1,279,530 (26.4%) were Hindus and the remaining were Tribals, Sikhs, Christians, Parsis, Jains, Jews, and Buddhists. Sindh also has Pakistan's highest percentage of Hindus overall, accounting for 8.8% of the population, roughly around 4.9 million people, and 13.3% of
11745-537: The last series of actions in the Indian rebellion of 1857 . In the course of this uprising detachments of the British Indian Army from the Bombay Presidency overcame the disunited collection of Indian states in a single rapid campaign. Determined rebels continued to wage sporadic guerrilla clashes until the spring of 1859. This rebellion is also historically known as the Oudh campaign . In northern India,
11880-590: The latter part of the 18th century. They made alliances with France and fought the Anglo-Mysore Wars predominantly against the British. The Carnatic Sultanate was a kingdom in South India between about 1690 and 1855, and was under the legal purview of the Nizam of Hyderabad , until their demise. The Nawabs of Carnatic eventually ceded tax rights to the British in 1801 following Carnatic wars , and
12015-626: The left with the support of Muhajirs ) has a considerable vote bank and support. Minor leftist parties such as the People's Movement also found support in rural areas of the province. In 2008, after the public elections, the new government decided to restore the structure of Divisions of all provinces. In Sindh after the lapse of the Local Governments Bodies term in 2010 the Divisional Commissioners system
12150-414: The local Sindhi Muslims and the migrant Muslims from India. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval and Okha. Sindh has the second highest Human Development Index out of all of Pakistan's provinces at 0.628. The 2023 Census of Pakistan indicated a population of 55.7 million. Religion in Sindh according to 2023 census Islam in Sindh has
12285-512: The lower Indus Valley, with its southern border being the Indian Ocean and its northern border being the Pañjāb around Multān . The capital of Sindhu-Sauvīra was named Roruka and Vītabhaya or Vītībhaya, and corresponds to the mediaeval Arohṛ and the modern-day Rohṛī . The Achaemenids conquered the region and established the satrapy of Hindush . The territory may have corresponded to
12420-508: The lower Sindh region. Among the wild animals, the Sindh ibex (sareh), blackbuck , wild sheep ( Urial or gadh) and wild bear are found in the western rocky range. The leopard is now rare and the Asiatic cheetah extinct. The Pirrang (large tiger cat or fishing cat) of the eastern desert region is also disappearing. Deer occur in the lower rocky plains and in the eastern region, as do
12555-453: The major rivers include Narmada and Tapti . The Western Coastal Plains is a stretch of coastal land lying between the western edge of the Deccan plateau and the Arabian Sea in the west. The plains stretch from the Rann of Kutch region to Kaniyakumari at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula . The average width of the plains vary between 50–100 km (31–62 mi). It traverses
12690-595: The major trading nations of the medieval world, attracting immigrants and traders from different parts of the world. Bengali ships and merchants traded across the region, including in Malacca, China, Africa, Europe and the Maldives through maritime links and overland trade routes. Contemporary European and Chinese visitors described Bengal as the "richest country to trade with" due to the abundance of goods in Bengal. In 1500,
12825-507: The mid-1940s and his relationship with Jinnah never improved, the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance. Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors. The Muslim League's rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sindh was in large part linked to its winning over of
12960-428: The more common trees. Mango, date palms and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange and chiku are the typical fruit-bearing trees. The coastal strip and the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants and the inshore Indus delta islands have forests of Avicennia tomentosa (timmer) and Ceriops candolleana (chaunir) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lake and ponds, particularly in
13095-505: The name is now spelt Sindh . Sindh and surrounding areas contain the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization . There are remnants of thousand-year-old cities and structures, with a notable example in Sindh being that of Mohenjo Daro . Built around 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus civilization, with features such as standardized bricks, street grids, and covered sewerage systems. It
13230-585: The north of Maharashtra to the Terekhol River along the border with the Goa in the south. The narrow region stretches between 28–47 mi (45–76 km) in width and forms the northern part of the linear coast between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea . The region consists of uneven topography formed by the erosion of rivers with alternating bays. Most of the population is concentrated around
13365-456: The north to Mangalore in the south. The region has an average width of 30–50 km (19–31 mi), and is widest at 70 km (43 mi) near Mangalore. The region is composed of numerous spurs and projections from the Western Ghats , which narrows the coastal region to almost 5 km (3.1 mi) in certain areas. These spurs rise to about 600 m (2,000 ft) and give rise to numerous streams, which form various waterfalls across
13500-476: The old Habbari capital of Mansura, and annex the region to the Ghaznavid Empire , thereby ending Arab rule of Sindh. The Soomra dynasty was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between early 11th century and the 14th century. Later chroniclers like Ali ibn al-Athir (c. late 12th c.) and Ibn Khaldun (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to
13635-493: The predominantly Muslim peasantry of Sindh who were economically exploited. Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus. In Sindh's first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics informed by religious and cultural issues. Due to British policies, much land in Sindh
13770-510: The province's rural population as per 2023 Pakistani census report. These numbers also include the scheduled caste population, which stands at 1.7% of the total in Sindh (or 3.1% in rural areas), and is believed to have been under-reported, with some community members instead counted under the main Hindu category. Although, Pakistan Hindu Council claimed that there are 6,842,526 Hindus living in Sindh Province covering around 14.29% of
13905-408: The region are the wettest monsoon period in the southern part of the mountain range. Annual rainfall in this region averages 100 cm (39 in) to 900 cm (350 in), with an average rainfall of 250 cm (98 in). The total amount of rain does not depend on the spread of the area; areas in northern Maharashtra receive heavy rainfall followed by long dry spells, while regions closer to
14040-586: The region came under the Indo-Greeks , followed by the Indo Scythians , who ruled with their capital at Minnagara . Later on, Sasanian rulers from the reign of Shapur I claimed control of the Sindh area in their inscriptions, known as Hind . The local Rai dynasty emerged from Sindh and reigned for a period of 144 years, concurrent with the Huna invasions of North India. Aror was noted to be
14175-482: The region with hardwood trees like acacia , and teak . Agriculture is the major contributor to the economy with crops grown including cereals , peanuts, oil seeds , and tobacco . Dairy farming and cotton farming are other major industries. The region which encompassed the city of Ahmedabad , is also heavily industrialised. The Konkan Coast (also called Aparanta) extends the Daman Ganga River in
14310-622: The region's population. Umerkot district in the Thar Desert is Pakistan's only Hindu-majority district. The Shri Ramapir Temple in Tandoallahyar whose annual festival is the second largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan is in Sindh. Sindh is also the only province in Pakistan to have a separate law for governing Hindu marriages . 2020 community estimates indicated the Sikh population in Sindh stood at approximately 10,000 persons, while
14445-450: The region. The Jog Falls on Sharavati River is the second highest plunge waterfall in India at 271 m (889 ft) high. The Malabar Coast forms the southern end of the plains stretching about 480 km (300 mi) across the entire coast of Kerala till Kanniyakumari . The width varies between 19–97 km (12–60 mi) and is narrower in the north. The region covers an area of 28,000 km (11,000 sq mi) and
14580-713: The reign of Sultan Alauddin Khalji (r.1296–1316), his slave-general Malik Kafur led multiple campaigns to the south of the Vindhyas , obtaining a considerable amount of wealth from Devagiri (1308), Warangal (1310) and Dwarasamudra (1311). These victories forced the Yadava king Ramachandra , the Kakatiya king Prataparudra , and the Hoysala king Ballala III to become Alauddin's tributaries . In 1321, Muhammad bin Tughluq
14715-726: The reign of general Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji was established. Shamsuddīn Iltutmish (1211–1236), established the Delhi Sultanate on a firm basis, which enabled future sultans to push in every direction. Within the next 100 years, the Delhi Sultanate extended its way east to Bengal and south to the Deccan . The sultanate was in constant flux as five dynasties rose and fell: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–90), Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413), Sayyid dynasty (1414–51), and Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). Power in Delhi
14850-427: The religious pir families. Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sindh, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats, the Muslim League's cultivation of support from local pirs in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province, it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan. In 1947, violence did not constitute
14985-512: The results of other two raids. However, the Chach Nama states that the raid of Debal was defeated and its governor killed the leader of the raids. These raids were thought to be triggered by a later pirate attack on Umayyad ships. Baladhuri adds that this stopped any more incursions until the reign of Uthman . In 712, Mohammed Bin Qasim defeated the Brahmin dynasty and annexed it to
15120-627: The royal capital of Gaur was the fifth-most populous city in the world with 200,000 residents. Persian was used as a diplomatic and commercial language. Arabic was the liturgical language of the clergy, and the Bengali language became a court language. The patronage of the sultans raised Bengali from the language of the masses. Sultan Ghiyathuddin Azam Shah sponsored the construction of madrasas in Makkah and Madinah . The schools became known as
15255-474: The states of Gujarat , Gujarat , Maharashtra , Goa , Karnataka , Kerala and the union territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu , and Puducherry ( Mahe ). It is narrower than the Eastern Coastal Plains and both the coastal plains meet at Kaniyakumari. The mountain range of Western Ghats forms a rough eastern boundary of the plains. The Western Ghats extend from
15390-415: The strong Sufi presence in Sindh is that 125,000 Sufi saints and mystics are buried on Makli Hill near Thatta . The development of Sufism in Sindh was similar to the development of Sufism in other parts of the Muslim world. In the 16th century two Sufi tareeqat (orders) – Qadria and Naqshbandia – were introduced in Sindh. Sufism continues to play an important role in the daily lives of Sindhis. In 1941,
15525-595: The summer. Central Sindh's maximum temperature typically reaches 43–44 °C (109–111 °F). Lower Sindh has a damper and humid maritime climate affected by the southwestern winds in summer and northeastern winds in winter, with lower rainfall than Central Sindh. Lower Sindh's maximum temperature reaches about 35–38 °C (95–100 °F). In the Kirthar range at 1,800 m (5,900 ft) and higher at Gorakh Hill and other peaks in Dadu District , temperatures near freezing have been recorded and brief snowfall
15660-422: The three regions of Bengal , Bihar , and Orissa which constitute the modern-day sovereign country of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal , Bihar and Orissa . The Nawabs of Bengal oversaw a period of proto-industrialization . The region was a major production center for cotton muslin cloth, silk cloth, shipbuilding, gunpowder, saltpetre, and metalworks. The British company eventually challenged
15795-458: The victim's breath in his sleep. Some unusual sightings of Asian cheetah occurred in 2003 near the Balochistan border in Kirthar Mountains . The rare Houbara bustard finds Sindh's warm climate suitable to rest and mate. Unfortunately, it is hunted by locals and foreigners. Crocodiles are rare and inhabit only the backwaters of the Indus, eastern Nara channel and Karachi backwater. Besides
15930-585: The western coast. This signifies the onset of the monsoon season in June. By the time the air rises above the mountains, it becomes dry, having brought heavy rainfall to the coast. The region experiences a warm and humid tropical climate throughout the year. Mean temperatures range from 20 °C (68 °F) in the south to 24 °C (75 °F) in the north. Subtropical or temperate climates, and occasional near-zero temperatures during winter are experienced in regions with higher elevations. The coldest period in
16065-694: Was also a Gond/tribal Islamic kingdom located in Nagpur , Maharashtra . In 1339, the Bengal region became independent from the Delhi Sultanate and consisted of numerous Islamic city-states. The Bengal Sultanate was formed in 1352 after Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah , ruler of Satgaon , defeated Alauddin Ali Shah of Lakhnauti and Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah of Sonargaon ; ultimately unifying Bengal into one single independent Sultanate. At its greatest extent,
16200-495: Was caused in large measure by the competition and hatred between Deccani (domiciled Muslim immigrants and local converts) and paradesi (foreigners or officials in temporary service). The Bahmani Sultanate initiated a process of cultural synthesis visible in Hyderabad where cultural flowering is still expressed in vigorous schools of Deccani architecture and painting. The later rulers are buried in an elaborate tomb complex, known as
16335-616: Was centred in Jaunpur , and the Sultanate extended authority over Awadh and a large part of the Ganges - Yamuna Doab between 1394 and 1479. It reached its greatest height under the rule of Sultan Ibrahim Shah, who also vastly contributed to the development of Islamic education in the Sultanate. In 1479, Sultan Hussain Khan was defeated by the forces of Bahlul Lodi , Sultan of the Lodi dynasty of
16470-507: Was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Sultan Alauddin Khalji (r.1296–1316) carried out extensive conquests in the western India. He invaded the kingdoms of Gujarat (raided in 1299 and annexed in 1304), Jaisalmer (1299), Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa (1305), Siwana (1308), and Jalore (1311). These victories ended several Rajput and other Hindu dynasties, including
16605-667: Was founded by Mir Qamar-ud-Din Siddiqi , a viceroy of the Deccan under the Mughal emperors from 1713 to 1721 who intermittently ruled under the title "Asaf Jah" in 1924. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal Empire crumbled, and the viceroy in Hyderabad, the young Asaf Jah, declared..himself independent. The dynasty ruled for 7 generations, with the last Nizam – Mir Osman Ali Khan showing an enormous contributions on
16740-433: Was known for its perpetual wars with its rival Vijayanagara , which would outlast the Sultanate. The Bahmani Sultans were patrons of the Persian language , culture and literature , and some members of the dynasty became well-versed in that language and composed its literature in that language. The Bahmani Sultanate adopted the patterns established by the Delhi overlords in tax collection and administration, but its downfall
16875-419: Was lower than India’s GDP growth during the prior 1,000 years. Additionally, Maddison estimates that India’s population grew by nearly 50% during the same period. The Delhi Sultanate period coincided with a greater use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent. While India previously already had sophisticated agriculture, food crops, textiles, medicine, minerals, and metals, it was not as sophisticated as
17010-452: Was often gained by violence—nineteen of the thirty-five sultans were assassinated—and was legitimized by reward for tribal loyalty. Factional rivalries and court intrigues were as numerous as they were treacherous; territories controlled by the sultan expanded and shrank depending on his personality and fortunes. The Delhi sultanate peaked under Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1335. However, it came under gradual decline afterwards, with kingdoms like
17145-523: Was one of the world's earliest major cities , contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia , Minoan Crete , and Caral-Supe . Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The site
17280-469: Was primarily based in the present-day state of Gujarat, India . The Malwa Sultanate was another Muslim kingdom in the Malwa region , covering the present day Indian states of Madhya Pradesh and south-eastern Rajasthan from 1392 to 1562. It was founded by Dilawar Khan , who following Timur 's invasion and the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, in 1401/2, made Malwa an independent realm. In 1561,
17415-664: Was sent by his father to the Deccan Plateau to fight a military campaign against the Kakatiya dynasty . In 1323, the future sultan successfully laid siege upon the Kakatiya capital in Warangal . This victory over King Prataparudra ended the Kakatiya dynasty . Although the control of Delhi sultanate was weakened after 1335 in the south, its successor Muslim states continued to rule Deccan plateau for next several centuries. The Muhammad bin Tughlaq's failure to hold securely
17550-597: Was the development of the Dakhani language, which, having started development under the Bahamani rulers, developed into an independent spoken and literary language during this period by continuously borrowing from Arabic-Persian, Marathi, Kannada, and Telugu. Dakhani later became known as Dakhani Urdu to distinguish it from North Indian Urdu . Deccani miniature painting—which flourished in the courts of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda—is another major cultural contribution of
17685-609: Was the first of the two major Islamic empires which was based in mainland India between 1206 and 1526. It emerged after the disintegration of the Ghurid empire in 1206. During the last quarter of the 12th century, Muhammad of Ghor invaded the Indo-Gangetic plain , conquering in succession Ghazni , Multan , Lahore , and Delhi . Qutb-ud-din Aybak , one of his generals proclaimed himself Sultan of Delhi . In Bengal and Bihar ,
17820-535: Was the governor of Gujarat appointed by the Tughlaq Sultans of Delhi. However, in the aftermath of the destruction of Delhi by Emir Timur, he declared independence in 1407. The next sultan, his grandson Ahmad Shah I moved the capital to Ahmedabad in 1411. His successor Muhammad Shah II subdued most Rajput chieftains. The prosperity of the sultanate reached its zenith during the rule of Mahmud Begada . He also subdued most Gujarati Rajput chieftains and built
17955-654: Was to be restored. Western Coastal Plains The Western Coastal Plains is a narrow stretch of landmass lying between the western part of the Deccan plateau and the Arabian sea in India. The plains stretch from the Kutch region to Kaniyakumari at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula with the Western Ghats forming its eastern boundary. It traverses the states of Gujarat , Maharashtra , Goa , Karnataka , and Kerala . The plains are broadly divided into six subdivisions– Kutch and Kathiawar along with
18090-491: Was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades. Religious tensions rose in Sindh over the Sukkur Manzilgah issue where Muslims and Hindus disputed over an abandoned mosque in proximity to an area sacred to Hindus. The Sindh Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for the return of the mosque to Muslims. Consequentially, a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic
18225-790: Was used as the primary basis for the legal system in the Delhi Sultanate, most notably during the rule of Firuz Shah Tughlaq and Alauddin Khilji , who repelled the Mongol invasions of India . On the other hand, rulers such as Akbar adopted a secular legal system and enforced religious neutrality. Muslim rule in India saw a major shift in the cultural, linguistic, and religious makeup of the subcontinent. Persian and Arabic vocabulary began to enter local languages, giving way to modern Punjabi, Bengali, and Gujarati, while creating new languages including Hindustani and its dialect, Deccani , used as official languages under Muslim dynasties. This period also saw
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