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92-509: The Nheengatu or Nenhengatu language ( Tupi: [ɲɛʔɛ̃ŋaˈtu] , Nheengatu from Rio Negro: yẽgatu , Traditional Nheengatu: nhẽẽgatú , and Tapajoawaran Nheengatu: nheẽgatu ), or Nenhengatu , also known as Modern Tupi and Amazonic Tupi , is a Tupi–Guarani language . It is spoken throughout the Rio Negro region among the Baniwa , Baré and Warekena people, mainly in

184-679: A warlike tribe that expanded along the Tapajós river and its tributaries and were feared by neighboring tribes. In the early 19th century, the Munduruku were pacified and subjugated by the Brazilians. During the Amazon rubber boom it is estimated that diseases brought by immigrants, such as typhus and malaria , killed 40,000 native Amazonians. In the 1950s, Brazilian explorer and defender of indigenous people, Cândido Rondon , supported

276-721: A complex civilization was flourishing along the Amazon in the 1540s. The Pre-Columbian agriculture in the Amazon Basin was sufficiently advanced to support prosperous and populous societies. It is believed that civilization was later devastated by the spread of diseases from Europe, such as smallpox . This civilization was investigated by the British explorer Percy Fawcett in the early twentieth century. The results of his expeditions were inconclusive, and he disappeared mysteriously on his last trip. His name for this lost civilization

368-483: A culture from Maranhão. What few cite is the presence of the Nheengatu in northeastern Brazil properly speaking. Mainly Ceará , Piauí and Rio Grande do Norte . Affirmation that proceeds as new evidence is discovered, both old and current. Thus came the case of the municipality of Monsenhor Tabosa which made the Nheengatu language official in the municipality and planned to adopt the language in municipal schools. As

460-422: A hazard. Among the largest predatory creatures are the black caiman , jaguar , cougar , and anaconda . In the river, electric eels can produce an electric shock that can stun or kill, while piranha are known to bite and injure humans. Various species of poison dart frogs secrete lipophilic alkaloid toxins through their flesh. There are also numerous parasites and disease vectors. Vampire bats dwell in

552-798: A rating of 7 on the Gradual Intergenerational Interruption Scale (GIDS) (Simons and Fennig 2017). According to this scale, this classification suggests that "the population of children may use the language among themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children". According to the UNESCO Atlas of Endangered Languages of the World, Nheengatu is classified as "severely endangered". The language has recently regained some recognition and prominence after being suppressed for many years. In December 2002, Nheengatu gained official language status alongside Portuguese in

644-681: A textbook for teaching Nheengatu that Tupi Aqui makes available, along with other teaching materials, on a website hosted by the University of São Paulo. Yengatu developed from the extinct Tupinamba language and belongs to the Tupi–Guarani branch of the Tupi language family. The Tupi–Guarani language family is responsible for a large and diverse group of languages, including, for example, Xeta , Siriono , Arawete , Kaapor , Kamayura , Guaja and Tapirape . Many of these languages differed years before

736-545: A verb. Examples of Personal Pronouns in use: inde 2SG re-kuntai 2sgA-speak amu other.entity nheenga language inde re-kuntai amu nheenga 2SG 2sgA-speak other.entity language "You speak another language." isé Tupi%E2%80%93Guarani languages The words petunia , jaguar , piranha , ipecac , tapioca , jacaranda , anhinga , carioca , and capoeira are of Tupi–Guarani origin. Rodrigues & Cabral (2012) propose eight branches of Tupí–Guaraní: *Cabral argues that Kokama/Omagua

828-465: Is a mixed language , and so not directly classifiable, though most of its basic vocabulary is Tupi–Guarani. **Not listed in Rodrigues & Cabral (2012) Karipuna language (Amapá) may be spurious. Sound changes from Proto-Tupi-Guarani (PTG) defining each of the 8 Tupi-Guarani groups as listed by Rodrigues & Cabral (2002): Michael, et al. (2015) propose the following classification for

920-415: Is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America . This basin encompasses 7,000,000 km (2,700,000 sq mi), of which 6,000,000 km (2,300,000 sq mi) are covered by the rainforest . This region includes territory belonging to nine nations and 3,344 indigenous territories . The majority of the forest, 60%,

1012-807: Is also commonly referred to as the Língua Geral Amazônica (LGA) in Brazil. Belonging to the Tupi-Guarani linguistic family, Nheengatu emerged in the 18th century, descending from the now-extinct Amazonian Tupinambá, a regional Tupi variant that originated in the Odisseia Tupínambá. The exodus of that nation that, fleeing from Portuguese invaders on the Bahia coast, entered the Amazon and settled first in Maranhão, and from there to

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1104-811: Is believed that the drainage basin of the Amazon was split along the middle of the continent by the Purus Arch . Water on the eastern side flowed toward the Atlantic , while to the west water flowed toward the Pacific across the Amazonas Basin . As the Andes Mountains rose, however, a large basin was created that enclosed a lake; now known as the Solimões Basin . Within the last 5–10 million years, this accumulating water broke through

1196-855: Is closely related to ancient Tupi , an extinct language, and to the Guarani of Paraguay , which, far from being extinct, is the most spoken language in that country and one of its official languages. According to some sources, ancient Nheengatu and Guarani were mutually intelligible in the past. Parentheses mark marginal phonemes occurring only in few words, or with otherwise unclear status. There are eight word classes in Nheengatu: nouns , verbs , adjectives , adverbs , postpositions , pronouns , demonstratives and particles. These eight word classes are also reflected in Cruz (2011)’s Fonologia e Gramática do Nheengatú . In her books, Cruz includes 5 chapters in

1288-526: Is considerable, and areas cleared of forest are visible to the naked eye from outer space. In the 1970s, construction began on the Trans-Amazonian highway . This highway represented a major threat to the Amazon rainforest. The highway still has not been completed, limiting the environmental damage. Between 1991 and 2000, the total area of forest lost in the Amazon rose from 415,000 to 587,000 km (160,000 to 227,000 sq mi), with most of

1380-426: Is estimated at 356 ± 47 tonnes per hectare. To date, an estimated 438,000 species of plants of economic and social interest have been registered in the region with many more remaining to be discovered or catalogued. The total number of tree species in the region is estimated at 16,000. The green leaf area of plants and trees in the rainforest varies by about 25% as a result of seasonal changes. Leaves expand during

1472-507: Is in Brazil , followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and with minor amounts in Bolivia , Ecuador , French Guiana , Guyana , Suriname , and Venezuela . Four nations have " Amazonas " as the name of one of their first-level administrative regions , and France uses the name " Guiana Amazonian Park " for French Guiana's protected rainforest area. The Amazon represents over half of

1564-866: Is spoken in the Alto Rio Negro region, in the state of Amazonas , in the Brazilian Amazon and in neighboring parts of Colombia and Venezuela . As many as 19,000 Nheengatu speakers worldwide are possible, according to Ethnologue (2005), although some journalists have reported as many as 30,000. Currently, it is still spoken by around 73.31% of the 29.9 thousand inhabitants of São Gabriel da Cachoeira , in northwestern Amazonas state, Brazil ( IBGE 2000 Census), around 3000 people in Colombia and 2000 people in Venezuela, especially in Rio Negro river basin ( Uaupés and Içana rivers). Furthermore, it

1656-442: Is the native language of the rural caboclo population of the area and is also used as a common language of communication between Indigenous and non-Indigenous, or between Indigenous of different languages. It is also an instrument of ethnic affirmation of Amazonian indigenous peoples who have lost their native languages, such as Barés , Arapaços, Baniuas , Uarequenas and others. Ethnologue rates Nheengatu as "changing" with

1748-571: Is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested areas. The main sources of deforestation in the Amazon are human settlement and the development of the land. In 2022, about 20% of the Amazon rainforest has already been deforested and a further 6% was "highly degraded". Research suggests that upon reaching about 20–25% (hence 0–5% more), the tipping point to flip it into a non-forest ecosystem – degraded savannah – (in eastern, southern and central Amazonia) will be reached. This process of savanisation would take decades to take full effect. Prior to

1840-673: The Amazon ( Grão Pará and Maranhão ), but with the aim of deculturating the Amazon people, the Portuguese language was promoted, but without success. In the mid-18th century, the Amazon General Language (distinct from the São Paulo General Language , a similar variety used further south) was used throughout the colony. At this point, Tupinambá remained intact, but as a "liturgical language". The languages used in everyday life evolved drastically over

1932-910: The Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq), and funded by the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas (SSILA) and the Inter-American Foundation . In this study, Moore focused on the effects of language contact, and how Nheengatu evolved over the years with the help of a Nheengatu-speaking informant. Moore (2014) urges for the “location and documentation of modern dialects of Nheengatu”, due to their risk of becoming extinct. Anthropological research has been done on

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2024-532: The Eocene era (from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago). It appeared following a global reduction of tropical temperatures when the Atlantic Ocean had widened sufficiently to provide a warm, moist climate to the Amazon basin. The rainforest has been in existence for at least 55 million years, and most of the region remained free of savanna -type biomes at least until the current ice age when

2116-573: The Northern General Language (Amazonian) and the Southern General Language (Paulista), which at its height became the dominant language of the vast Brazilian territory. An anonymous manuscript from the 18th century is emblematically titled "Dictionary of the general language of Brazil, spoken in all the towns, places, and villages of this vast State, written in the city of Pará, year 1771" . If Nheengatu

2208-828: The Paraná River basin. Below is an internal classification of Tupi-Guarani by Jolkesky (2016), which is largely based on Michael, et al. (2015): ( † = extinct) The following is an approximation of the results of a computational phylogenetic study of the Tupí-Guaraní languages by Ferraz and Reichert (2021). Below is a list of Tupi–Guarani language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties. The following reconstructions of Proto-Tupi-Guarani are from Schleicher (1998): The following reconstructions of Proto-Tupi-Guarani are from Lemle (1971): Amazon rainforest The Amazon rainforest , also called Amazon jungle or Amazonia ,

2300-581: The Villas-Bôas brothers ' campaign, which faced strong opposition from the government and the ranchers of Mato Grosso and led to the establishment of the first Brazilian National Park for indigenous people along the Xingu River in 1961. In 1961, British explorer Richard Mason was killed by an uncontacted Amazon tribe known as the Panará . The Matsés made their first permanent contact with

2392-434: The release of the carbon contained within the vegetation, which could accelerate global warming . Amazonian evergreen forests account for about 10% of the world's terrestrial primary productivity and 10% of the carbon stores in ecosystems – of the order of 1.1 × 10 metric tonnes of carbon. Amazonian forests are estimated to have accumulated 0.62 ± 0.37 tons of carbon per hectare per year between 1975 and 1996. In 2021 it

2484-478: The 19th century, as a natural evolution of the Northern General Language (NGL) . Comparisons between Tupi, Portuguese, and Nheengatu variants: It is known that the Nheengatu originated in the Amazonian Tupinambá, a Tupi variant located more precisely in Maranhão than during Portuguese colonization, it was part of the state of Grão Pará and Maranhão . Since then, Nheengatu has also been understood as

2576-469: The 2000s. Oil companies have to set up their operations by opening new roads through the forests, which often contributes to deforestation in the region. 9.4% of the territory of the Amazon is affected by oil fields. Mining is also a major driver of deforestation. 17% of the area of the Amazon Rainforest is affected by mining. The transition to solar and wind energy, digitalization, raised

2668-461: The Amazon in 1492. By 1900, the native indigenous population had fallen to 1 million and by the early 1980s it was less than 200,000. The first European to travel the length of the Amazon River was Francisco de Orellana in 1542. The BBC's Unnatural Histories presents evidence that Orellana, rather than exaggerating his claims as previously thought, was correct in his observations that

2760-526: The Amazon rainforest are probably the result of centuries of human management, rather than naturally occurring as has previously been supposed. In the region of the Xingu tribe, remains of some of these large settlements in the middle of the Amazon forest were found in 2003 by Michael Heckenberger and colleagues of the University of Florida . Among those were evidence of roads, bridges and large plazas. In

2852-727: The Amazon rainforest comes from the Bodélé depression in Northern Chad in the Sahara desert. The dust contains phosphorus , important for plant growth. The yearly Sahara dust replaces the equivalent amount of phosphorus washed away yearly in Amazon soil from rains and floods. NASA's CALIPSO satellite has measured the amount of dust transported by wind from the Sahara to the Amazon: an average of 182 million tons of dust are windblown out of

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2944-532: The Amazon rainforest could become unsustainable under conditions of severely reduced rainfall and increased temperatures, leading to an almost complete loss of rainforest cover in the basin by 2100., and severe economic, natural capital and ecosystem services impacts of not averting the tipping point. However, simulations of Amazon basin climate change across many different models are not consistent in their estimation of any rainfall response, ranging from weak increases to strong decreases. The result indicates that

3036-460: The Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness , has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and terra preta . Terra preta is found over large areas in the Amazon forest; and is now widely accepted as a product of indigenous soil management . The development of this fertile soil allowed agriculture and silviculture in the previously hostile environment; meaning that large portions of

3128-423: The Amazon region at least 11,200 years ago. Subsequent development led to late-prehistoric settlements along the periphery of the forest by AD 1250, which induced alterations in the forest cover . For a long time, it was thought that the Amazon rainforest was never more than sparsely populated, as it was impossible to sustain a large population through agriculture given the poor soil. Archeologist Betty Meggers

3220-578: The Amazon region. In August 2019 there were a record number of fires. Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon rose more than 88% in June 2019 compared with the same month in 2018. The increased area of fire-impacted forest coincided with a relaxation of environmental regulations from the Brazilian government. Notably, before those regulations were put in place in 2008 the fire-impacted area

3312-787: The Amazonas, there has been fighting and wars between the neighboring tribes of the Jivaro . Several tribes of the Jivaroan group, including the Shuar , practised headhunting for trophies and headshrinking . The accounts of missionaries to the area in the borderlands between Brazil and Venezuela have recounted constant infighting in the Yanomami tribes. More than a third of the Yanomamo males, on average, died from warfare. The Munduruku were

3404-613: The Cabanos, and when the rebels were defeated (1860), the Brazilian government imposed a harsh persecution of the speakers of Nheengatu. Half of the male population of Grão-Pará (Amazon) was murdered and anyone who was caught speaking in Nheengatu was punished and if they were not contacted indigenous, they were baptized by priests and received their surnames on certificates, since the priests themselves were their godparents, this resulted in people of indigenous origin with Portuguese surnames without even being heirs to colonists. The imposition of

3496-538: The Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil (Brazilian Constitution) promulgated in 1988, was translated into Nheengatu for the first time. Language documentation agencies (such as SOAS , Museu do Índio , Museu Goeldi and Dobes ) are currently not engaged in any language documentation project for Nheengatu. However, research on Nheengatu by Moore (1994) was supported by Museu Goeldi and

3588-765: The Morphology section that describes lexical classes, nominal and verbal lexicogenesis, the structure of the noun phrase and grammatical structures. In the section on lexical classes, Cruz discusses personal pronominal prefixes, nouns and their subclasses (including personal, anaphoric and demonstrative pronouns as well as relative nouns), verbs and their subclasses (such as stative, transitive and intransitive verbs) and adverbial expressions. The subsequent chapter on nominal lexicogenesis discusses endocentric derivation, nominalization and nominal composition. Under verbal lexicogenesis in Chapter 7, Cruz covers valency, reduplication and

3680-509: The Northeast try to learn the language not only because they think it is beautiful, but because it has "always been" part of the native regional culture. Over the course of its evolution since its beginnings as Tupinambá, extensive research has been done on Nheengatu. There have been studies done at each phase of its evolution, but much has been focused on how aspects of Nheengatu, such as its grammar or phonology, have changed upon contact over

3772-587: The Portuguese language this time had an effect and with the advent of Portuguese schools, the population was shepherded to the new language. Also in the 20th century, due to economic and political events, such as the Amazon Rubber boom (coming from huge waves of settlers from the Northeast, encouraged by the government, to the Amazon), the presence was felt again due to these events, forcing indigenous peoples to move or be subjected to forced labor. The language

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3864-469: The Portuguese settlers in the Amazon, so much so that the Portuguese themselves adapted to the native language. "To speak or converse in the colony of Grão Pará, I had to use Nheengatu, if not, I would be talking to myself since no one used Portuguese, except in the government palace in Belém and among the Portuguese themselves." The General Language was established as the official language from 1689 to 1727 in

3956-631: The Purus Arch, joining the easterly flow toward the Atlantic. There is evidence that there have been significant changes in the Amazon rainforest vegetation over the last 21,000 years through the last glacial maximum (LGM) and subsequent deglaciation. Analyses of sediment deposits from Amazon basin paleolakes and the Amazon Fan indicate that rainfall in the basin during the LGM was lower than for

4048-597: The Sahara each year (some dust falls into the Atlantic), 15% of which of falls over the Amazon basin (22 million tons of it consisting of phosphorus). CALIPSO uses a laser range finder to scan the Earth's atmosphere for the vertical distribution of dust and other aerosols. and regularly tracks the Sahara-Amazon dust plume. CALIPSO has measured variations in the dust amounts transported – an 86 percent drop between

4140-631: The Tupinambá language. Efforts to communicate between communities resulted in the "corruption" of the Tupinambá language, hence the distinction between Tupinambá and the Amazonian general language. Nheengatu continued to evolve as it expanded into the Alto Rio Negro region. There was contact with other languages such as Marawá, Baníwa, Warekana, Tucano and Dâw (Cabalzar; Ricardo 2006 in Cruz 2015). The General Language evolved into two branches,

4232-564: The Tupi–Guarani languages. O'Hagan et al. (2014, 2019) proposes that Proto-Tupi-Guarani was spoken in the region of the lower Tocantins and Xingu Rivers , just to the south of Marajó Island in eastern Pará State, Brazil. Proto-Omagua-Kokama then expanded up the Amazon River , Proto- Tupinambá expanded south along the Atlantic coast, and the Southern branch expanded up along the Tocantins/ Araguaia River towards

4324-407: The area and so the lower the yield per hectare becomes. So despite the popular perception, there has been no economical advantage for Brazil from logging rainforest zones and converting these to pastoral fields. The needs of soy farmers have been used to justify many of the controversial transportation projects that are currently developing in the Amazon. The first two highways successfully opened up

4416-726: The bay of Guajará ( Belém ), the mouth of the Tapajós river to the Tupinambarana island ( Parintins ), between the borders of Pará and Amazonas . The language of the Tupinambás then, as it belongs to a feared and conquering people, became a lingua franca , which in contact with the conquered languages gained its own differentiation, hence why the Arawak peoples of the Parintins region came to be called Tupinambaranas, among them,

4508-399: The borrowing of loanwords from Portuguese. The following chapter then discusses the distinction between particles and clitics, including examples and properties of each grammatical structure. There are two types of pronouns in Nheengatu: personal or interrogative. Nheengatu follows the same pattern as Tupinambá, in that the same set of personal pronouns is adopted for the subject and object of

4600-469: The century due to contact with the language, with Tupinambá as the “language of rituals, and Amazonian General Language, the language of popular communication and therefore of religious instruction.” Moore (2014) notes that by the mid-18th century, the Amazon and Tupinambá General Languages were already distinct. Until then, the original Tupinambá community was facing a decline, but other speaking communities were still required by Portuguese missionaries to learn

4692-450: The changing cultural landscapes along the Amazon, as well as life of the Tupinambá people and their interactions with the Jesuits. Floyd (2007) describes how populations navigate between their “traditional” and “acculturated” spheres. Other studies have focused on the impact of urbanization on Indigenous populations in the Amazon (de Oliveira 2001). In addition to the previously mentioned general language of São Paulo , now extinct, Nheengatu

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4784-409: The climate was drier and savanna more widespread. Following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event , the extinction of the dinosaurs and the wetter climate may have allowed the tropical rainforest to spread out across the continent. From 66 to 34 Mya , the rainforest extended as far south as 45° . Climate fluctuations during the last 34 million years have allowed savanna regions to expand into

4876-418: The course of its evolution from Tupinambá (Cruz 2015). Cruz (2014) also studies reduplication in Nheengatu in detail, as well as morphological fission in bitransitive constructions. A proper textbook for the conducting of Nheengatu classes has also been written. Lima and Sirvana (2017) provides a sociolinguistic study of Nheengatu in the Pisasu Sarusawa community of the Baré people, in Manaus, Amazonas. In 2023,

4968-471: The demand for cassiterite (the main ore of tin used also for financing gold mining ), manganese and copper , which attracrted many illegal miners to the Amazon. This led to deforestation, different environmental and social problems. Hydropower also creates significant problems in the Amazon. Such activities are defined by the World Rainforest Movement as " Green extractivism ". The European Union–Mercosur free trade agreement , which would form one of

5060-421: The dry season when sunlight is at a maximum, then undergo abscission in the cloudy wet season. These changes provide a balance of carbon between photosynthesis and respiration. Each hectare of the Amazon rainforest contains around 1 billion of invertebrates . The amount of species per hectare in the Amazon rainforest can be presented in the next table: The rainforest contains several species that can pose

5152-591: The early 1960s, access to the forest's interior was highly restricted, and the forest remained basically intact. Farms established during the 1960s were based on crop cultivation and the slash and burn method. However, the colonists were unable to manage their fields and the crops because of the loss of soil fertility and weed invasion. The soils in the Amazon are productive for just a short period of time, so farmers are constantly moving to new areas and clearing more land. These farming practices led to deforestation and caused extensive environmental damage. Deforestation

5244-403: The expense of their own, as well as peoples like Hanera, better known as Baré, became a Nheengatu speaker, which led to the extinction of their own language or the Maraguá people, who even a historical speaker of Nheengatu recently sought to revitalize their own language and today they learn Maraguá along with Nheengatu in local schools. The number of speakers of other languages vastly outnumbered

5336-455: The grammar and their own orthography, although Latinized, which resulted in the northern general language, or general Amazonian language, (a name still used today), whose development took place parallel to that of São Paulo general language (extinct). Since then, Nheengatu has spread throughout the Amazon as an instrument of colonization, Portuguese domain and linguistic standardization, where many peoples started to have it as their main language at

5428-411: The highest amount of dust transported in 2007 and the lowest in 2011. This is possibly causing by rainfall variations is the Sahel , a strip of semi-arid land on the southern border of the Sahara.. Amazon phosphorus also comes as smoke due to biomass burning in Africa. Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome , and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species rich than

5520-454: The independence of Brazil in 1822, even though Grão-Pará (Amazon) is a separate Portuguese colony, its local rulers decided to integrate into the new country, which greatly displeased the inhabitants of indigenous origin who were the majority of the people in general, which later led the Amazon to an independence revolution that lasted for 10 years. The second ban on the language came right after this revolution better known as Cabanagem or War of

5612-520: The invasion of Portuguese colonizers to the territory now known as Brazil. Over time, the term "Tupinamba" was used to describe groups that were "linguistically and culturally related", even though the original people almost disappeared. Taking personal pronouns as an example, see a comparison between Brazilian Portuguese , Old Tupi , and Nheengatu: Brazilian philologist specialized in Nheengatu, Eduardo de Almeida Navarro , argues that Yengatu, with its current characteristics, would only have emerged in

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5704-554: The language's revitalization. The language name derives from the words nhẽẽga (meaning "language" or "word") and katu (meaning "good"). The related language name Ñeꞌengatú in Paraguay is similarly derived. Thus, Nheengatu is referred to by a wide variety of names in literature, including Nhengatu, Tupi Costeiro, Geral, Yeral (in Venezuela), Tupi Moderno , Nyengato, Nyengatú, Waengatu, Neegatú, Is'engatu, Língua Brasílica, Tupi Amazônico , Ñe'engatú, Nhangatu, Inhangatu, Nenhengatu, Yẽgatú, Nyenngatú, Tupi and Lingua Geral . It

5796-416: The local newspaper says: “The municipal council of Monsenhor Tabosa unanimously approved a bill that recognizes the native language Tupi-Nheengatu as the co-official language of the municipality. The legal text has already been sanctioned by Mayor Salomão de Araújo Souza, who is a descendant of indigenous peoples”. As in the municipality of Monsenhor Tabosa, the number of indigenous people and descendants from

5888-400: The lost forest becoming pasture for cattle. Seventy percent of formerly forested land in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970, have been used for livestock pasture . Currently, Brazil is the largest global producer of soybeans . New research however, conducted by Leydimere Oliveira et al., has shown that the more rainforest is logged in the Amazon, the less precipitation reaches

5980-441: The maraguazes, the çapupés, the curiatós, the Parintins and the saterés themselves. Already with the Amazon conquered by the Portuguese, a fact that occurred from 1600, and having established a colony at the beginning of the 17th century, the so-called state of Grão-Pará and Maranhão, whose capital Belém was named Cidade dos Tupinambás or Tupinãbá marií, Franciscan and Jesuit priests, aiming at catechism from that language, elaborated

6072-410: The municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira , in the state of Amazonas , Brazil . Since 2002, it has been one of the state's official languages, along with Baníwa , Yepá-masã, and Portuguese. It is also spoken in the Baixo Amazonas region (in the state of Amazonas ), among the Sateré-Mawé, Maraguá and Mura people. In the Baixo Tapajós and the state of Pará , it is being revitalized by the people of

6164-418: The municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira in accordance with local law 145/2002. Now Nheengatu is one of the four official languages of the municipality. In 1998, University of São Paulo professor Eduardo de Almeida Navarro founded the Tupi Aqui organization dedicated to promoting the teaching of historical Tupi and Nheengatu in high schools in São Paulo and elsewhere in Brazil. Professor Navarro wrote

6256-447: The outside world in 1969. Before that date, they were effectively at-war with the Peruvian government. Nine countries share the Amazon basin—most of the rainforest, 58.4%, is contained within the borders of Brazil. The other eight countries are Peru with 12.8%, Bolivia with 7.7%, Colombia with 7.1%, Venezuela with 6.1%, Guyana with 3.1%, Suriname with 2.5%, French Guiana with 1.4% and Ecuador with 1%. The rainforest likely formed during

6348-447: The part of the Portuguese government, during the administration of the Marquis of Pombal , who intended to impose the Portuguese language in the Amazon and make the names of places Portuguese. Hence, why many places have their names changed from nheengatu to names of places and cities in Portugal, thus appearing names that today make up Amazonian municipalities such as Santarém, Aveiro, Barcelos, Belém, Óbidos, Faro, Alenquer and Moz. With

6440-411: The present, and this was almost certainly associated with reduced moist tropical vegetation cover in the basin. In present day, the Amazon receives approximately 9 feet of rainfall annually. There is a debate, however, over how extensive this reduction was. Some scientists argue that the rainforest was reduced to small, isolated refugia separated by open forest and grassland; other scientists argue that

6532-438: The rainforest and can spread the rabies virus. Malaria , yellow fever and dengue fever can also be contracted in the Amazon region. The biodiversity in the Amazon is becoming increasingly threatened, primarily by habitat loss from deforestation as well as increased frequency of fires. Over 90% of Amazonian plant and vertebrate species (13,000–14,000 in total) may have been impacted to some degree by fires. Deforestation

6624-464: The rainforest and led to increased settlement and deforestation. The mean annual deforestation rate from 2000 to 2005 (22,392 km or 8,646 sq mi per year) was 18% higher than in the previous five years (19,018 km or 7,343 sq mi per year). Although deforestation declined significantly in the Brazilian Amazon between 2004 and 2014, there has been an increase to the present day. Brazil's President, Jair Bolsonaro, has supported

6716-676: The rainforest could be threatened through the 21st century by climate change in addition to deforestation. In 1989, environmentalist C.M. Peters and two colleagues stated there is economic as well as biological incentive to protecting the rainforest. One hectare in the Peruvian Amazon has been calculated to have a value of $ 6820 if intact forest is sustainably harvested for fruits, latex, and timber; $ 1000 if clear-cut for commercial timber (not sustainably harvested); or $ 148 if used as cattle pasture. As indigenous territories continue to be destroyed by deforestation and ecocide (such as in

6808-409: The rainforest remained largely intact but extended less far to the north, south, and east than is seen today. This debate has proved difficult to resolve because the practical limitations of working in the rainforest mean that data sampling is biased away from the center of the Amazon basin, and both explanations are reasonably well supported by the available data. More than 56% of the dust fertilizing

6900-452: The region was actually densely populated. The Upano Valley sites in present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies. Some 5 million people may have lived in the Amazon region in AD 1500, divided between dense coastal settlements, such as that at Marajó , and inland dwellers. Based on projections of food production, one estimate suggests over 8 million people living in

6992-860: The region, such as the Borari and the Tupinambá , and also among the riverside dwellers themselves. The language is spoken by approximately 20,060 people in three linguistic variants in Brazil: that of the Rio Negro region, called Yẽgatu, that of the Baixo Amazonas, known as traditional Nheengatú, and that of the Baixo Rio Tapajós or Nheengatu tapajoawara. Variants outside of Brazil exist, including Nheengatu from Venezuela (Ñeengatu) and Nheengatu from Colombia (Nyengatu). Technology further helps in

7084-550: The region. The name Amazon is said to arise from a war Francisco de Orellana fought with the Tapuyas and other tribes. The women of the tribe fought alongside the men, as was their custom. Orellana derived the name Amazonas from the Amazons of Greek mythology , described by Herodotus and Diodorus . Based on archaeological evidence from an excavation at Caverna da Pedra Pintada , human inhabitants first settled in

7176-593: The region. One in five of all bird species are found in the Amazon rainforest, and one in five of the fish species live in Amazonian rivers and streams. Scientists have described between 96,660 and 128,843 invertebrate species in Brazil alone. The biodiversity of plant species is the highest on Earth with one 2001 study finding a quarter square kilometer (62 acres) of Ecuadorian rainforest supports more than 1,100 tree species. A study in 1999 found one square kilometer (247 acres) of Amazon rainforest can contain about 90,790 tonnes of living plants. The average plant biomass

7268-497: The relaxation of regulations placed on agricultural land. He has used his time in office to allow for more deforestation and more exploitation of the Amazon's rich natural resources. Deforestation reached a 15 year high in 2021. Since the discovery of fossil fuel reservoirs in the Amazon rainforest, oil drilling activity has steadily increased, peaking in the Western Amazon in the 1970s and ushering another drilling boom in

7360-455: The total area of remaining rainforests on Earth , and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world, with an estimated 390 billion individual trees in about 16,000 species. More than 30 million people of 350 different ethnic groups live in the Amazon, which are subdivided into 9 different national political systems and 3,344 formally acknowledged indigenous territories . Indigenous peoples make up 9% of

7452-483: The total population, and 60 of the groups remain largely isolated. Large scale deforestation is occurring in the forest, creating different harmful effects. Economic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could be approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation. In 2023, the World Bank published a report proposing a non-deforestation based economic program in

7544-524: The tropics. During the Oligocene , for example, the rainforest spanned a relatively narrow band. It expanded again during the Middle Miocene , then retracted to a mostly inland formation at the last glacial maximum . However, the rainforest still managed to thrive during these glacial periods , allowing for the survival and evolution of a broad diversity of species. During the mid-Eocene , it

7636-667: The wet forests in Africa and Asia. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity . One in ten known species in the world lives in the Amazon rainforest. This constitutes the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world . The region is home to about 2.5 million insect species , tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals . To date, at least 40,000 plant species, 2,200 fishes , 1,294 birds, 427 mammals, 428 amphibians, and 378 reptiles have been scientifically classified in

7728-495: The world's largest free trade areas, has been denounced by environmental activists and indigenous rights campaigners. The fear is that the deal could lead to more deforestation of the Amazon rainforest as it expands market access to Brazilian beef. According to a November 2021 report by Brazil's INPE , based on satellite data , deforestation has increased by 22% over 2020 and is at its highest level since 2006. There were 72,843 fires in Brazil in 2019, with more than half within

7820-476: The years (Mello 1967, Grenand and Epaminondas 1989, Barbosa 1951). More recently, Stradelli (2014) also published a Portuguese-Nheengatu dictionary. There have also been several linguistic studies of Nheengatu more recently, such as Borges (1991)’s thesis on Nheengatu phonology and Cruz (2011)’s detailed paper on the phonology and grammar of Nheengatu. She also studied the rise of number agreement in modern Nheengatu, by analyzing how grammaticalization occurred over

7912-464: The years. (Facundes et al. 1994 and Rodrigues 1958, 1986). As mentioned earlier, the first documents that were produced were by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries, such as Arte da Grammatica da Lingoa mais usada na costa do Brasil by Father José de Anchieta (1595) and Arte da Língua Brasilíca by Luis Figueira (1621). These were detailed grammars that served their religious purposes. Multiple dictionaries have also been written over

8004-404: Was a prominent proponent of this idea, as described in her book Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise . She claimed that a population density of 0.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (0.52/sq mi) is the maximum that can be sustained in the rainforest through hunting, with agriculture needed to host a larger population. However, recent anthropological findings have suggested that

8096-525: Was again influenced by the increased presence of Portuguese speakers. Nheengatu remained mainly among the most distant inhabitants of the urban centers, in the families descended from the cabanos and among unconquered peoples. Furthermore, "tapuios" (ribeirinhos) kept their accent and part of their speech tied to their language. Until 1920 it was common for Nheengatu to be used in traditional commercial centers in Manaus, Santarém, Parintins, and Belém. Nheengatu

8188-410: Was also larger compared to the regulation period of 2009–2018. As these fire continue to move closer to the heart of the Amazon basin, their impact on biodiversity will only increase in scale, as the cumulative fire-impacted area is correlated with the number of species impacted. Environmentalists are concerned about loss of biodiversity that will result from destruction of the forest , and also about

8280-414: Was reported that the Amazon for the first time emitted more greenhouse gases than it absorbed. Though often referenced as producing more than a quarter of the Earth's oxygen, this often stated, but misused statistic actually refers to oxygen turnover. The net contribution of the ecosystem is approximately zero. One computer model of future climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions shows that

8372-451: Was the City of Z . Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land dating between AD 1–1250, furthering claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations. Ondemar Dias is accredited with first discovering the geoglyphs in 1977, and Alceu Ranzi is credited with furthering their discovery after flying over Acre . The BBC's Unnatural Histories presented evidence that

8464-399: Was the major obstacle for the cultural and linguistic domination of Portuguese in the region, the colonizers saw that it was necessary to take it away from the people and impose the Portuguese language, which at first was not successful since the general language was very well rooted both among indigenous people and in the speech of blacks and whites themselves. The language had its first ban on

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