Canaan
140-583: State of Israel (1948–present) Palaestina Prima or Palaestina I was a Byzantine province that existed from the late 4th century until the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, in the region of Palestine . It was temporarily lost to the Sassanid Empire (Persian Empire) in 614, but re-conquered in 628. The province of Palaestina Prima came into existence in the late 4th century through
280-615: A sabra mentality and culture to their writing. S. Yizhar , Moshe Shamir , Hanoch Bartov and Benjamin Tammuz vacillated between individualism and commitment to society and state. In its early years Israel sought to maintain a non-aligned position between the super-powers. But in 1952 an antisemitic public trial was staged in Moscow in which a group of Jewish doctors were accused of trying to poison Stalin (the Doctors' plot ), followed by
420-681: A decisive battle against the Byzantines on 30 July. This defeat left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus, Thomas, son-in-law of Emperor Heraclius, was in charge. Having received intelligence of Khalid's march towards Damascus, he prepared for its defence, writing to Emperor Heraclius in Emesa for reinforcements. Moreover, Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of
560-817: A national holiday on 5 Iyar of every year according to the Hebrew calendar . After the Declaration, Minhelet HaAm became the Provisional government of Israel, whilst Moetzet HaAm became the Provisional State Council . Paragraph 13 of the Declaration provides that the State of Israel would be based on freedom, justice and peace as envisaged by the prophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex . However,
700-574: A national water carrier , a huge engineering project designed to transfer Israel's allocation of the Jordan river 's waters towards the south of the country in realization of Ben-Gurion's dream of mass Jewish settlement of the Negev desert. The Arabs responded by trying to divert the headwaters of the Jordan, leading to growing conflict between Israel and Syria. Until 1966 Israel's principal arms supplier
840-570: A cavalry force, caught up to the Romans using an unknown shortcut, and attacked them at the Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj , 305 kilometres (190 miles) north of Damascus. On 22 August, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from command and appoint Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander-in-chief of the Islamic army . Abu Ubaidah got
980-959: A cease fire was agreed. During 1971 violent demonstrations by the Israeli Black Panthers , made the Israeli public aware of resentment among Mizrahi Jews at ongoing discrimination and social gaps. In 1972 the US Jewish Mafia leader, Meyer Lansky , who had taken refuge in Israel, was deported to the United States. Muslim conquest of Syria Byzantine Empire Sassanid Persia Caucasus Other regions The Levant Egypt North Africa Anatolia & Constantinople Border conflicts Sicily and Southern Italy Naval warfare Byzantine reconquest The Muslim conquest of
1120-499: A ceasefire was reluctantly accepted on 7 November. At Egypt's request the UN sent an Emergency Force (UNEF), consisting of 6000 peacekeeping troops from 10 nations to supervise the ceasefire—the first ever UN peacekeeping operation. From 15 November the UN troops marked out a zone across the Sinai to separate the Israeli and Egyptian forces. Upon receiving US guarantees of Israeli access to
1260-468: A component of every Israeli coalition until 1992, usually running the Ministry of Education. Mapai was once again victorious in the 1959 elections , increasing its number of seats to 47, Labour had 7. Ben-Gurion remained prime minister. In 1959 there were renewed skirmishes along Israel's borders that continued throughout the early 1960s. The Arab League continued to widen its economic boycott and there
1400-548: A decade before being forced by the victories of Heraclius to conclude the peace of 628. Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans (or Byzantines as modern Western historians conventionally refer to Romans of this period) were still in the process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years. Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces: Syria proper stretched from Antioch and Aleppo in
1540-544: A decisive battle with the Byzantines. Abu Ubaidah agreed, and concentrated them at Jabiya . This maneuver delivered a decisive blow to Heraclius' plan, since the latter did not wish to engage his troops in open battle with the Muslim light cavalry. From Jabiya, again on Khalid's suggestion, Abu Ubaidah ordered the Muslim troops to withdraw to the Plain of the Yarmouk River, where the cavalry could be used effectively. While
SECTION 10
#17327723700711680-647: A full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history , starting with a confrontation with the Persian Empire under the general Khalid ibn al-Walid . After successful campaigns against the Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of Iraq , Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, he also confronted
1820-531: A group of Religious Zionists who created the first Jewish settlement , a town near Hebron called Kiryat Arba . There were no other religious settlements until after 1974. Ben-Gurion's Rafi party merged with the Labour-Mapai alliance. Ben-Gurion remained outside as an independent. In 1968, compulsory education was extended until the age of 16 for all citizens (it had been 14) and the government embarked on an extensive program of integration in education. In
1960-513: A major defeat for the Byzantines. This battle and subsequent clean-up engagements forever ended Byzantine domination of the Levant. Meanwhile, Umar occupied Yazdegerd III in a grand deception. Yazdegerd III lost his army at the Battle of Qadisiyyah in November, three months after Yarmouk, ending Sassanid control west of Persia . With the Byzantine army routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured
2100-580: A month-long UN truce came into effect. Following independence the Haganah became the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). The Palmach , Etzel and Lehi were required to cease independent operations and join the IDF. During the ceasefire, Etzel attempted to bring in a private arms shipment aboard a ship called " Altalena ". When they refused to hand the arms to the government, Ben-Gurion ordered that
2240-526: A move that gradually escalated into a series of open revolts. The four major Samaritan Revolts during that period caused a near extinction of the Samaritan community as well as significant Christian losses. In the late 6th century, Byzantines and their Christian Ghassanid allies took a clear upper hand in the struggle. In 602, the final war between the Byzantine Empire and its eastern rival
2380-607: A pretext for seizing the Suez Canal. Israel was to attack Egypt, and Britain and France would then call on both sides to withdraw. When, as expected, the Egyptians refused, Anglo-French forces would invade to take control of the Canal. Israeli forces, commanded by General Moshe Dayan , attacked Egypt on 29 October 1956. On 30 October Britain and France made their pre-arranged call for both sides to stop fighting and withdraw from
2520-511: A relatively larger corps, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl, Heraclius, sensing an opportunity, quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly thereafter, the Muslims, having just won the Battle of Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. In the meantime, the Byzantine army split in two, one deployed at Maraj al Rome ( Beqaa Valley ) led by Schinos;
2660-867: A result, Israel's victory in the Six-Day War, Jews could visit the Old City of Jerusalem and pray at the Western Wall (the holiest site in Judaism) for the first time since the end of the British Mandate, to which they had been denied access by the Jordanians in contravention of the 1949 Armistice agreement. The four-meter-wide public alley beside the Wall was expanded into a massive plaza and worshippers were allowed to sit, or use other furniture, for
2800-592: A semi-autonomous state with their own king under Roman vassalage. The Ghassanid Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with the Ghassanid king ruling over the Arabs in Jordan and Southern Syria from his capital at Bostra . The last of the Ghassanid kings, who ruled at the time of the Muslim invasion, was Jabalah ibn al-Aiham . The Byzantine Emperor Heraclius , after re-capturing Syria from
2940-529: A series of reforms of the Roman provincial administration which subdivided many provinces into smaller administrative units. The intent of these reforms were to circumscribe the ability of provincial governors with strong garrisons to stage revolts and to improve efficiency by reducing the area controlled by each governor. Provinces were clustered into regional groups called dioceses . Thus, the province of Syria Palaestina and neighboring regions were organized into
SECTION 20
#17327723700713080-440: A siege, sent armies to delay or, if possible, halt Khalid's march to Damascus. One of these armies was defeated at the Battle of Yaqusa in mid-August near Lake Tiberias , 145 kilometres (90 mi) from Damascus. Another was defeated in the Battle of Maraj as Saffer on 19 August. These engagements had the desired effect, delaying Khalid long enough to prepare for a siege. However, by the time Heraclius' reinforcements had reached
3220-629: A significant wine producer, as evidenced by archeological sites like Horvat Hesheq [ he ] and Horvat Bet Loya . History of Israel (1948%E2%80%93present) Canaan State of Israel (1948–present) In 1948, following the 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine , the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel sparked the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , which resulted in
3360-704: A similar trial in Czechoslovakia ( Slánský trial ). This, and the failure of Israel to be included in the Bandung Conference (of non-aligned states ), effectively ended Israel's pursuit of non-alignment. On 19 May 1950, in contravention of international law, Egypt announced that the Suez Canal would be closed to Israeli ships and commerce. In 1952 a military coup in Egypt brought Abdel Nasser to power. The United States pursued close relations with
3500-735: A successful counter-offensive. By 627/8 he was advancing into the Persian heartland . The Persians sued for peace and had to return the Roman provinces they had captured and the stolen relics. In March 629, Heraclius triumphantly returned the True Cross to Jerusalem. Heraclius had promised the Jews pardon for their revolt. However, at the prompting of the Christian leadership, Heraclius went back on his promise. The Jews were expelled from Jerusalem and thousands were massacred. Byzantine control of
3640-458: Is a matter of dispute but around 80 percent of the Arab inhabitants of what became Israel (half of the Arab total of Mandatory Palestine) left or were expelled from their homes. Later, a series of laws passed by the first Israeli government prevented Arabs who had left from returning to their homes or claiming their property. They and many of their descendants remain refugees . Except in Jordan,
3780-564: Is notable in being one of the last Jewish cities remaining (although the Cave of the Patriarchs had been converted into a Church). Written sources from the Byzantine period describe Ascalon and Gaza as important commercial hubs that exported wine to many places throughout the empire. Jerome points out that the region was home to numerous monastic settlements at the time and had a landscape dotted with vineyards . The church may have been
3920-418: Is unjust prospers or achieves victory over its enemies. When you meet the enemy turn not your back on him; for whoever turns his back, except to manoeuvre for battle or to regroup, earns the wrath of Allah. His abode shall be hell, and what a terrible place it is! And when you have won a victory over your enemies, don't kill women or children or the aged and do not slaughter beasts except for eating. And break not
4060-660: The 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight from the land that the State of Israel came to control and subsequently led to waves of Jewish immigration from other parts of the Middle East . The latter half of the 20th century saw a series of further conflicts between Israel and its neighbouring Arab nations. In 1967, the Six-Day War erupted; in its aftermath, Israel captured and occupied the Golan Heights from Syria,
4200-653: The Christian world . Since the days of Constantine the Great , Jerusalem had been the emblematic capital of Christianity and the symbolic center of the world. The Jews gained dominance over Jerusalem, but the Persians found it more expedient to side with the Christians who constituted the overwhelming majority of the population and in 617 the Persians returned the city to them. Meanwhile, the Roman emperor Heraclius began
4340-690: The Galilee , and the Golan area. Palaestina Tertia with its capital in Petra included the Negev , southern Transjordan, and parts of the Sinai Peninsula . These provinces became part of the Dioceses Orientis , a diocese grouping the near eastern provinces. Despite Christian domination, until the 4th and 5th centuries Samaritans developed some autonomy in the hill country of Samaria ,
Palaestina Prima - Misplaced Pages Continue
4480-627: The Green Line , were established. These borders were not recognized by the Arab states as international boundaries. Israel was in control of the Galilee , Jezreel Valley , West Jerusalem , the coastal plain and the Negev . The Syrians remained in control of a strip of territory along the Sea of Galilee originally allocated to the Jewish state, the Lebanese occupied a tiny area at Rosh Hanikra , and
4620-540: The Knesset maintains that the declaration is neither a law nor an ordinary legal document. The Supreme Court has ruled that the guarantees were merely guiding principles, and that the declaration is not a constitutional law making a practical ruling on the upholding or nullification of various ordinances and statutes. Immediately following the declaration of the new state, both superpower leaders, US President Harry S. Truman and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , recognized
4760-492: The Mosaic religion were still at large from the 4th until the 6th centuries, practiced by ethnoreligious communities of Samaritans and Jews . However, with the decline of the Samaritan and Jewish populations through war, emigration and conversion during the 6th and 7th century, the religion declined as well. By the late Byzantine period, fewer synagogues could be found and many were destroyed in violent events. The city of Hebron
4900-658: The Negev , Sinai , and the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula as Palaestina Salutaris , sometimes called Palaestina III or Palaestina Tertia . Part of the area was ruled by the Arab vassal state of the Ghassanids ' symmachos . During the last of the Roman-Persian Wars , beginning in 603, the Persians under Khosrau II had succeeded in occupying Syria, Palestine and Egypt for over
5040-729: The Palestinian National Authority . In 1994, the Israel–Jordan peace treaty was signed. Despite efforts to finalize the peace agreement , the conflict continues to play a major role in Israeli and international political, social, and economic life. With the British Mandate of Palestine scheduled to come to an end on 15 May 1948, the governing body of the Jewish community, the Jewish National Council (JNC), on 2 March 1948 began work on
5180-784: The Sassanians , set up new defense lines from Gaza to the south end of the Dead Sea. These lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits, and the bulk of the Byzantine defenses were concentrated in Northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. The drawback of this defense line was that it enabled the Muslims , advancing from the desert in the south, to reach as far north as Gaza before meeting regular Byzantine troops. The 7th century
5320-405: The Sinai Peninsula , the Gaza Strip , the Golan Heights , and the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the Jordan River . East Jerusalem was arguably annexed by Israel. Residents were given permanent residency status and the option of applying for Israeli citizenship. The annexation was not recognized internationally (the Jordanian annexation of 1950 was also unrecognized except for
5460-400: The Syrian Desert . It is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a predetermined water source at an oasis . Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught the Byzantines on their right flank. According to modern historians, this ingenious strategic maneuver unhinged the Byzantine defences in Syria. Ain Tamer , Quraqir, Suwa, Arak , and
5600-425: The Uzi submachine gun first entered use by the Israel Defense Forces. In 1955 the Egyptian government began recruiting former Nazi rocket scientists for a missile program. Sharett's government was brought down by the Lavon Affair , a crude plan to disrupt US–Egyptian relations, involving Israeli agents planting bombs at American sites in Egypt. The plan failed when 11 agents were arrested. Defense Minister Lavon
5740-428: The " land for peace " formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries. The resolution was accepted by both sides, though with different interpretations, and has been
Palaestina Prima - Misplaced Pages Continue
5880-450: The 120 seats after the 1969 election . Meir was the first female prime minister of Israel and the first woman to have headed a Middle Eastern state in modern times. Gahal retained its 26 seats, and was the second largest party. In early 1969 fighting broke out between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal. In retaliation for repeated Egyptian shelling of Israeli positions along the Suez Canal, Israeli planes made deep strikes into Egypt in
6020-465: The 1949 ceasefire. In January 1949, Israel held its first elections . The Socialist-Zionist parties Mapai and Mapam won the most seats (46 and 19 respectively). Mapai's leader David Ben-Gurion was appointed prime minister , and formed a coalition that did not include Mapam, who were Stalinist and loyal to the USSR (another Stalinist party, non-Zionist Maki won 4 seats). This was a significant decision because it signaled that Israel would not be in
6160-429: The 1969–1970 " War of Attrition ". In December 1969, Israeli naval commandos took five missile boats during the night from Cherbourg Harbour in France. Israel had paid for the boats but the French had refused to supply them. In July 1970 the Israelis shot down five Soviet fighters that were aiding the Egyptians in the course of the War of Attrition . Following this, the US worked to calm the situation and in August 1970
6300-414: The 5th and 6th centuries, and the subsequent suppression of their communities, took its toll on their numbers. Many also converted to Christianity. According to the 6th century hagiography Life of Barsauma , about a wandering monophysite monk, the Jews together with the pagans, constituted the majority in Palestine in the 5th century. However, some historians have questioned that claim. Depending on
6440-472: The Arab Muslim conquest and had been invaded by the Sassanid Persians on a number of occasions during the 3rd, 6th and 7th centuries; it had also been subject to raids by the Sassanids' Arab allies, the Lakhmids . During the Roman period , beginning after the fall of Jerusalem in the year 70 , the entire region ( Judea , Samaria , and the Galilee ) was renamed Palaestina , subdivided into Diocese I and II. The Romans also renamed an area of land including
6580-596: The Arab armies out and conquered some of the territory that had been included in the proposed Arab state. At the end of November, tenuous local ceasefires were arranged between the Israelis, Syrians, and Lebanese. On 1 December King Abdullah announced the union of Transjordan with Arab Palestine west of the Jordan; only Britain recognized the annexation. Israel signed armistices with Egypt (24 February), Lebanon (23 March), Jordan (3 April) and Syria (20 July). No actual peace agreements were signed. With permanent ceasefire coming into effect, Israel's new borders, later known as
6720-407: The Arabs and Byzantines on the southern Levantine borders of the Byzantine Empire had occurred during the lifetime of Muhammad , with the Battle of Muʿtah in 629 CE. However, the actual conquest did not begin until 634, two years after Muhammad's death. It was led by the first two Rashidun caliphs who succeeded Muhammad: Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab . During this time, Khalid ibn al-Walid
6860-467: The Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates, was about 100,000. Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in the third week of May 634. Because Abu Ubaida did not have experience as a commander of military forces in such major operations, especially against the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to assume command. According to early Muslim chronicles, Abu Bakr said, "By Allah, I shall destroy
7000-498: The Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march to Fahl , which is about 150 metres (500 ft) below sea level, where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of the Battle of Ajnadayn were present. The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut Muslim communications with Arabia. Moreover, with this large garrison at their rear Palestine could not be invaded. Khalid, commanding
7140-438: The Canal area, and for them to be allowed to take up positions at key points on the Canal. Egypt refused and the allies commenced air strikes on 31 October aimed at neutralizing the Egyptian air force. By 5 November the Israelis had overrun the Sinai . The Anglo-French invasion began that day. There was uproar in the UN, with the US and USSR for once in agreement in denouncing the actions of Israel, Britain, and France. A demand for
SECTION 50
#17327723700717280-411: The Egyptians retained the Gaza strip and still had some forces surrounded inside Israeli territory. Jordanian forces remained in the West Bank , where the British had stationed them before the war. Jordan annexed the areas it occupied while Egypt kept Gaza as an occupied zone . Following the ceasefire declaration, Britain released over 2,000 Jewish detainees it was still holding in Cyprus and recognized
7420-479: The Ghassanids, Arab clients of the Byzantines. Medina soon recruited tribal contingents from all over the Arabian peninsula . Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until 636, when Caliph Umar fell short of manpower for the Battle of Yarmouk and the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah . The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised
7560-443: The Haredi Agudat Israel party. A separate body was created to provide education for the remaining Palestinian-Arab population. The major political parties now competed for immigrants to join their education systems. The government banned the existing educational bodies from the transit camps and tried to mandate a unitary secular socialist education under the control of "camp managers" who also had to provide work, food and housing for
7700-404: The Israeli airforce launched pre-emptive attacks destroying first the Egyptian air force, and then later the same day destroying the air forces of Jordan and Syria. Israel then defeated (almost successively) Egypt, Jordan and Syria. By 11 June the Arab forces were routed and all parties had accepted the cease-fire called for by UN Security Council Resolutions 235 and 236. Israel gained control of
7840-802: The Israeli borders, and Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. Nasser demanded that the UNEF leave Sinai, threatening escalation to a full war. Egyptian radio broadcasts talked of a coming genocide. On 26 May Nasser declared, " The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel ". Israel considered the Straits of Tiran closure a Casus belli . Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq signed defence pacts and Iraqi troops began deploying to Jordan, Syria and Egypt. Algeria also announced that it would send troops to Egypt. Between 1963 and 1967 Egyptian troops had tested chemical weapons on Yemenite civilians as part of an Egyptian intervention in support of rebels . Israel responded by calling up its civilian reserves, bringing much of
7980-405: The Israeli economy to a halt. The Israelis set up a national unity coalition, including for the first time Menachem Begin 's party, Herut , in a coalition. During a national radio broadcast, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol stammered, causing widespread fear in Israel. To calm public concern Moshe Dayan (Chief of Staff during the Sinai war) was appointed Defence Minister. On the morning of 5 June 1967
8120-430: The Jizya. I entrust you to the care of Allah. Moving to their assigned target beyond Tabouk, Yazid's corps made contact with a small Christian Arab force that was retreating after a skirmish with the Muslim advance guard, after which Yazid made for the Valley of Arabah where it meets the southern end of the Dead Sea . As the main Byzantine defence line started from the coastal regions near Ghazahh, Yazid arrived at
8260-451: The Knesset passed the Law of Return , which granted to all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry (Jewish grandparent), and their spouses, the right to settle in Israel and gain citizenship. That year 50,000 Yemenite Jews (99%) were secretly flown to Israel. In 1951 Iraqi Jews were granted temporary permission to leave the country and 120,000 (over 90%) opted to move to Israel . Jews also fled from Lebanon, Syria and Egypt. Between 1948 and 1958
8400-448: The Levant ( Arabic : فَتْحُ الشَّام , romanized : Fatḥ al-šām ; lit. ' Conquest of Syria ' ), or Arab conquest of Syria , was a 634–638 CE invasion of Byzantine Syria by the Rashidun Caliphate . A part of the wider Arab-Byzantine Wars , as well as the larger Muslim colonial project, the Levant was brought under Arab Muslim rule and developed into the provincial region of Bilad al-Sham . Clashes between
8540-417: The Muslim armies were gathering at Yarmouk, Khalid intercepted and routed the Byzantine advance guard, ensuring a safe path of retreat. The Muslim armies reached the plain in July. A week or two later, around mid-July, the Byzantine army arrived. The Byzantine commander-in-chief, Vahan, sent Ghassanid forces, under their king, Jabala, to gauge the Muslim strength. Khalid's mobile guard defeated and routed them,
SECTION 60
#17327723700718680-406: The Nazis and sued his accuser. Kastner lost the trial and was assassinated two years later. In 1958 the Supreme Court exonerated him. In May 1960 Adolf Eichmann , one of the chief administrators of the Nazi Holocaust, was located in Argentina by the Mossad , later kidnapping him and bringing him to Israel. In 1961 he was put on trial, and after several months found guilty and sentenced to death. He
8820-468: The Palestinian refugees were settled in large refugee camps in poor, overcrowded conditions and denied citizenship by their host countries. In December 1949, the UN (in response to a British proposal) established an agency ( UNRWA ) to provide aid to the Palestinian refugees. It became the largest single UN agency and is the only UN agency that serves a single people. A 120-seat parliament, the Knesset , met first in Tel Aviv , then moved to Jerusalem after
8960-420: The Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid Ibn Al Walid." Khalid immediately set out for Syria from Al-Hirah , in Iraq , in early June, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong. There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq: one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal, and the other was through Mesopotamia, passing through Raqqa . The Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, so Khalid avoided
9100-440: The Sasanid Empire (Persian Empire) broke out. In 613 the Persians invaded the Levant and the Jews revolted against the Byzantines, hoping to secure autonomy for Jerusalem. The following year Persian-Jewish forces captured Caesarea and Jerusalem , destroying its churches, massacring its Christian population, and taking the True Cross and other relics as trophies to the Persian capital Ctesiphon . The event sent shock-waves through
9240-399: The Sinai peninsula in a few days. The Israeli political leadership learnt that Israel had a limited time frame within which to operate militarily after which international political pressure would restrict Israel's freedom of action. In 1956, two modern-orthodox (and religious-Zionist ) parties, Mizrachi and Hapoel HaMizrachi , joined to form the National Religious Party . The party was
9380-485: The Soviet bloc. The Knesset elected Chaim Weizmann as the first (largely ceremonial) president of Israel . Hebrew and Arabic were made the official languages of the new state. All governments have been coalitions—no party has ever won a majority in the Knesset. From 1948 until 1977 all governments were led by Mapai and the Alignment , predecessors of the Labour Party . In those years Labour Zionists , initially led by David Ben-Gurion , dominated Israeli politics and
9520-425: The Soviet block (except Romania) broke off relations with Israel. Antisemitic purges encouraged the remnants of Polish Jewry to move to Israel. Increased Soviet antisemitism and enthusiasm generated by the 1967 victory led to a wave of Soviet Jews applying to emigrate to Israel. Most Jews were refused exit visas and persecuted by the authorities. Some were arrested, becoming known as Prisoners of Zion . As
9660-494: The Suez Canal, freedom of access out of the Gulf of Aqaba and Egyptian action to stop Palestinian raids from Gaza, the Israelis withdrew to the Negev. In practice the Suez Canal remained closed to Israeli shipping. The conflict marked the end of West-European dominance in the Middle East. Nasser emerged as the victor in the conflict, having won the political battle, but the Israeli military learnt that it did not need British or French support to conquer Sinai and that it could conquer
9800-424: The UK, Iraq, and Pakistan). Other areas occupied remained under military rule (Israeli civil law did not apply to them) pending a final settlement. The Golan was also annexed in 1981. The result of the 29 August 1967 Arab League summit was the Khartoum Resolution , which according to Abd al Azim Ramadan, left only one option – a war with Israel. On 22 November 1967, the Security Council adopted Resolution 242 ,
9940-481: The US also agreed to provide A-4 Skyhawk tactical aircraft to Israel. In 1966 security restrictions placed on Arab-Israelis were eased and efforts made to integrate them into Israeli life. In 1966, Black and white TV broadcasts began. On 15 May 1967 the first public performance of Naomi Shemer 's classic song " Jerusalem of Gold " took place and over the next few weeks it dominated the Israeli airwaves. Two days later Syria, Egypt, and Jordan amassed troops along
10080-590: The Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reached Elat . The two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps, respectively, into Palestine, were easily defeated by them, though they did prevent the Rashidun forces from reaching their assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil, on the other hand, continued their march, and by early May 634 they reached
10220-932: The West Bank from Jordan, and the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt. In 1973, the Yom Kippur War began with an attack by Egypt on the Israeli-occupied Sinai Peninsula. In 1979 the Egypt–Israel peace treaty was signed, based on the Camp David Accords . In 1993, Israel signed the Oslo I Accord with the Palestine Liberation Organization , which was followed by the establishment of
10360-489: The advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, sallied out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; however, Khalid reached the arena with his cavalry and saved Shurhabil. The combined forces of Khalid, Shurhabil, and Abu Ubaidah then resumed the siege of Bosra , which surrendered some time in mid-July 634 CE, effectively ending the Ghassanid Dynasty. Here Khalid took over
10500-576: The advance guard, reached Fahl first and found that the Byzantines had flooded the plains by blocking the River Jordan . The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635. Next, the Muslim armies consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper into Palestine. Bet She'an surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender of Tiberias in February. Umar, after having learned of
10640-495: The army as a state department. Abu Bakr organised the army into four corps, each with its own commander and objective. Not knowing the precise position of the Byzantine army , Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could render assistance if the Byzantines were able to concentrate their army in any operational sector. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu Ubaidah
10780-792: The basis of all subsequent peace negotiations. By the late sixties, about 500,000 Jews had left Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. Over the course of twenty years, some 850,000 Jews from Arab countries (99%) relocated to Israel (680,000), France and the Americas. The land and property left behind by the Jews (much of it in Arab city centres) is still a matter of some dispute. Today there are about 9,000 Jews living in Arab states, of whom 75% live in Morocco and 15% in Tunisia. Vast assets, approximately $ 150 billion worth of goods and property (before inflation) were left behind in these countries. After 1967
10920-611: The camp, however the Israelis sustained unexpectedly high casualties and the attack was not viewed as a success. Despite heavy casualties, the Palestinians claimed victory, while Fatah and the PLO (of which it formed part) became famous across the Arab world. In early 1969 Levi Eshkol died in office of a heart attack and Golda Meir became prime minister with the largest percentage of the vote ever won by an Israeli party, winning 56 of
11060-696: The capital of the Ghassanids. He ordered other Muslim commanders to concentrate their armies, still near the Syrian-Arabian border, at Bosra. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a Ghassanid army in a quick battle, called the Battle of Marj-al-Rahit . Meanwhile, Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of the Muslim armies in Syria, had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Bosra. The latter laid siege to Bosra with his small army of 4000. The Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, realizing that this might be
11200-442: The cavalry and relied heavily on his advice during the whole campaign. Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern day Ablah , near Zahlé 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of Beirut. There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison nearby, but the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled
11340-552: The city Khalid had begun his siege, having reached Damascus on 20 August. To isolate the city from the rest of the region Khalid placed detachments south on the road to Palestine and in the north at the Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraclius' reinforcements were intercepted and routed at the Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab , 30 kilometres (20 mi) from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break
11480-544: The command of the Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, according to the instructions of the Caliph. Massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to the desert. Early Muslim sources claim the Byzantine strength to have been 90,000, although most modern historians doubt the figures, yet consider this battle to be the key to breaking Byzantine power in Syria. On Khalid's instructions, all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they won
11620-417: The conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil moved against the coastal towns of Acre and Tyre . Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports of Sidon , Arqa , Byblos and Beirut . By 635 CE , Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of Jerusalem , Caesarea and Ashkelon , were in Muslim hands. On the orders of Umar, Yazid next besieged Caesarea, which, barring a suspension around
11760-467: The conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal, as it was the longer route, and would take weeks to reach Syria. Khalid avoided the Mesopotamian route because of the presence of Roman garrisons there and in Northern Syria. To engage them at a time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a shorter route to Syria, an unconventional route passing through
11900-455: The economy was run on primarily socialist lines . From 1948 to 1951 immigration doubled the Jewish population of Israel and left an indelible imprint on Israeli society. Overall, 700,000 Jews settled in Israel during this period. Some 300,000 arrived from Asian and North African nations as part of the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries . Among them, the largest group (over 100,000)
12040-676: The establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel to serve as the homeland for the Jewish people , to be known as the State of Israel . The meeting was led by David Ben-Gurion , the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization , Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Palestine , and soon to be first Prime Minister of Israel . The event is celebrated annually in Israel as Independence Day ,
12180-517: The exhaustion of his government, could not coordinate with the Heraclian offensive, frustrating the plan. Five massive armies were launched in June to recapture Syria. Khalid, having grasped Heraclius' plan, feared that the Muslim armies would become isolated and then destroyed piecemeal. He thus suggested to Abu Ubaidah in a council of war that he consolidate all the Muslim armies at one place to force
12320-467: The first time in centuries. In Hebron , Jews gained access to the Cave of the Patriarchs (the second most holy site in Judaism) for the first time since the 14th century (previously Jews were only allowed to pray at the entrance). A third Jewish holy site, Rachel's Tomb , in Bethlehem , also became accessible. The Sinai oil fields made Israel self-sufficient in energy. In 1968 Moshe Levinger led
12460-543: The government. Israel received financial aid from private donations from outside the country (mainly the United States). The pressure on the new state's finances led Ben-Gurion to negotiate a controversial reparations agreement with West Germany . During the Knesset debate some 5,000 demonstrators gathered and riot police had to cordon the building. In 1952, Israel and West Germany signed an agreement and over
12600-621: The great Temple of Jupiter stood. In May 636, Heliopolis surrendered to the Muslims after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towards Emesa . Emesa and Chalcis offered a peace treaty for a year. Abu Ubaidah accepted the offer and, rather than invading districts of Emesa and Chalcis, he consolidated his rule in conquered land and captured Hamah , and Maarrat al-Nu'man . Having mustered sizeable armies at Antioch, Heraclius sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of Northern Syria, like Emesa and Chalcis. The Byzantine reinforcement of Emesa violated
12740-443: The head of a left-wing coalition. Between 1953 and 1956, there were intermittent clashes along all of Israel's borders as Arab terrorism and breaches of the ceasefire resulting in Israeli counter-raids . Palestinian fedayeen attacks, often organized and sponsored by the Egyptians, were made from (Egyptian) occupied Gaza . Fedayeen attacks led to a growing cycle of violence as Israel launched reprisal attacks against Gaza. In 1954
12880-417: The historical city of Tadmur were first to fall to Khalid. Sukhnah , al-Qaryatayn and Hawarin were captured after the Battle of al-Qaryatayn and the Battle of Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards Damascus through a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab Pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards Bosra ,
13020-464: The immigrants. There were attempts to force orthodox Yemenite children to adopt a secular life style by teachers, including many instances of Yemenite children having their side-curls cut by teachers. The Yemenite Children Affair led to the first Israeli public inquiry (the Fromkin Inquiry), the collapse of the coalition, and an election in 1951, with little change in the results. In 1953
13160-406: The last action before the battle started. For one month negotiations continued between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at the Byzantine camp. Meanwhile, Muslim reinforcements arrived from Umar. Abu Ubaidah, in another council of war, transferred field command of the Muslim army to Khalid. Finally, on 15 August, the Battle of Yarmouk was fought, lasting six days and ending in
13300-667: The latter's daughter (or granddaughter, according to tradition) Manyanh. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd was supposed to mount a well-coordinated counterattack on his front in Iraq , while Heraclius attacked in the Levant. However, it was not meant to be. Umar probably had intelligence of this alliance, and started peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III , apparently inviting him to join Islam . When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owing to
13440-508: The letter memorializing this during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city had been conquered. Later on, Khalid pledged his loyalty to the new Caliph and continued to serve as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said, "If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph, then we listen and obey." Abu Ubaidah moved more slowly and steadily, which had a concomitant effect on military operations in Syria. Abu Ubaidah, being an admirer of Khalid, made him commander of
13580-529: The major cities children from mainly Sephardi / Mizrahi neighbourhoods were bused to newly established middle schools in better areas. The system remained in place until after 2000. In March 1968 Israeli forces attacked the Palestinian militia, Fatah , at its base in the Jordanian town of Karameh . The attack was in response to land mines placed on Israeli roads. The Israelis retreated after destroying
13720-517: The missile program was designed to carry chemical warheads . This action was condemned by Ben-Gurion and led to the Mossad director, Isser Harel , resignation. In 1963 Ben-Gurion quit again over the Lavon affair. His attempts to make his party Mapai support him over the issue failed. Levi Eshkol became leader of Mapai and the new prime minister. Ben-Gurion quit Mapai to form the new party Rafi , he
13860-441: The natural and exact sciences. The first works of Hebrew literature in Israel were written by immigrant authors rooted in the world and traditions of European Jewry. Yosef Haim Brenner (1881–1921) and Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888–1970), are considered by many to be the fathers of modern Hebrew literature . Native-born writers who published their work in the 1940s and 1950s, often called the "War of Independence generation," brought
14000-745: The new Arab states, particularly the Nasser-led Egyptian Free Officers Movement and Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia . Israel's solution to diplomatic isolation was to establish good relations with newly independent states in Africa and with France, which was engaged in the Algerian War . In the January 1955 elections Mapai won 40 seats and the Labour Party 10, Moshe Sharett became prime minister of Israel at
14140-457: The new state. The Arab League members Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq refused to accept the UN partition plan and proclaimed the right of self-determination for the Arabs across the whole of Palestine. The Arab states marched their forces into what had, until the previous day, been the British Mandate for Palestine, starting the first Arab–Israeli War . The Arab states had heavy military equipment at their disposal and were initially on
14280-655: The next 14 years, West Germany paid Israel 3 billion marks (around US$ 714 million according to 1953-1955 conversion rates). The reparations became a decisive part of Israel's income, comprising as high as 87.5% of Israel's income in 1956. In 1950, the Israeli government launched Israel Bonds for American and Canadian Jews to buy. In 1951, the final results of the bonds program exceeded $ 52 million. In 1957, bond sales amounted to 35% of Israel's special development budget. The proceeds from these sources were invested in industrial and agricultural development projects, which allowed Israel to become economically self-sufficient. Among
14420-485: The north to the top of the Dead Sea . To the west and south of the Dead Sea lay the province of Palestine . Syria was mostly made up of Aramaic and Greek speakers with a partly Arab population, especially in its eastern and southern parts. The Arabs of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerful Ghassanid tribe from Yemen to Syria, who converted to Christianity and thereafter ruled
14560-491: The offensive (the Jewish forces were not a state before 15 May and could not buy heavy arms). On 29 May 1948, the British initiated United Nations Security Council Resolution 50 declaring an arms embargo on the region. Czechoslovakia violated the resolution , supplying the Jewish state with critical military hardware to match the (mainly British) heavy equipment and planes already owned by the invading Arab states. On 11 June
14700-593: The organization of a Jewish provisional government. On 12 April 1948 it formed the Minhelet HaAm ( Hebrew : מנהלת העם , lit. People's Administration ), all of its members being drawn from Moetzet HaAm ( People's Council ), the temporary legislative body set up at the same time. On 14 May 1948—the day the last British forces left Haifa—the People's Council gathered at the Tel Aviv Museum and proclaimed
14840-562: The other, commanded by Theodras, stationed to the west of Damascus ( Al-Sabboura region). During the night, Theodras advanced to Damascus to launch a surprise attack. Khalid's spy informed him about the move and Khalid, having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with his mobile guard . While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the Battle of Marj ar-Rum , Khalid moved to Damascus with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras there. A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towards Heliopolis , where
14980-456: The pacts which you make. You will come upon a people who live like hermits in monasteries, believing that they have given up all for God. Let them be and destroy not their monasteries. And you will meet other people who are partisans of Satan and worshippers of the Cross, who shave the centre of their heads so that you can see the scalp. Assail them with your swords until they submit to Islam or pay
15120-622: The party-affiliated education system was scrapped and replaced by a secular state education system and a state-run Modern Orthodox system. Agudat Israel were allowed to maintain their existing school system. In the early 1950s, under the administration of Yaakov Dori , who had served as the Israel Defense Forces’ first chief of staff, the Technion launched a campaign to recruit Jewish and pro-Israel scientists from abroad to establish research laboratories and teaching departments in
15260-473: The population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million. During this period, food, clothes and furniture had to be rationed in what became known as the Austerity Period ( Tkufat haTsena ). Immigrants were mostly refugees without money or possessions, and many were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot . By 1952 more than 200,000 immigrants were living in tents or prefabricated shacks built by
15400-622: The position and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to his corps commanders there and ordered Yazid to capture the Mediterranean coast. Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison and defeated them in the Second Battle of Ajnadyn. The two corps then separated, with Amr moving to capture Nablus , Amawas , Jaffa , Haifa , Gaza and Yubna in order to complete
15540-520: The position of the head of Histadrut , Israel's labour union organization. His demands were accepted and Mapai won the 1961 election (42 seats keeping Ben-Gurion as PM) with a slight reduction in its share of the seats. Menachem Begin's Herut party and the Liberals came next with 17 seats each. In 1962 the Mossad began assassinating German rocket scientists working in Egypt after one of them reported
15680-654: The projects made possible by the aid was the Hadera power plant , the Dead Sea Works , the National Water Carrier , port development in Haifa , Ashdod , and Eilat , desalination plants, and national infrastructure projects. In 1949 education was made free and compulsory for all citizens until the age of 14. The state now funded the party-affiliated Zionist education system and a new body created by
15820-407: The province was again and irreversibly lost in 636, during the Muslim conquest of Syria . The population of Palestine reached an all-time peak during the Byzantine era. Greek-speaking Byzantine Christians and Samaritans dominated the central regions of Palaestina Prima, while Christian Ghassanid Arabs and Nabataean Arabs dominated Palaestina Secunda and Tertia respectively. The Samaritan revolts in
15960-550: The provinces Palaestina Prima , Palaestina Secunda , and Palaestina Tertia or Palaestina Salutaris (First, Second, and Third Palestine). Palaestina Prima with its capital in Caesarea Maritima encompassed the central parts of Palestine , including the coastal plain, Judea , and Samaria . Palaestina Secunda had its capital in Scythopolis and included northern Transjordan , the lower Jezreel Valley ,
16100-499: The raid. After his past experiences, Heraclius now avoided pitched battle with the Muslim army. His plans were to send massive reinforcements to all the major cities, isolate the Muslim corps from each other, and then separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies. Part of his plan was to coordinate his attacks with those of Yazdgerd III , the Sassanid emperor . In 635 Yazdgerd III had sought an alliance with Heraclius, marrying
16240-469: The region between Bosra and Jabiya . The Emperor Heraclius, having received intelligence of the movements of the Muslim armies from his Arab clients, began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraclius' orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in the north started moving to gather at Ayjnadyn. From here they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of the rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of
16380-707: The region of Balqa in the Byzantine Empire . This expedition was known as the Expedition of Usama bin Zayd and its stated aim was to avenge the Muslim losses at the Battle of Mu'tah , in which Usama's father and Muhammad's former adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah , had been killed. Usama's expedition in May/June 632 was successful and his army was the first Muslim force to successfully invade and raid Byzantine territory. Muhammad died in June 632, and Abu Bakr
16520-409: The ship be sunk. Several Etzel members were killed in the fighting. Large numbers of Jewish immigrants—many of them World War II veterans and Holocaust survivors—now began arriving in the new state of Israel, and many joined the IDF. After an initial loss of territory by the Jewish state and its occupation by the Arab armies, from July the tide gradually turned in the Israelis' favour and they pushed
16660-443: The siege. Khalid finally attacked and conquered Damascus on 18 September after 30 days, although, according to some sources, the siege had in fact lasted for four or six months. Heraclius, having received the news of the fall of Damascus, left for Antioch from Emesa . The citizens were granted peace on the promise of annual tribute and the Byzantine army was given three days to go as far as they could. After three days, Khalid took
16800-404: The small Muslim detachment, but before it was completely destroyed, Khalid came to the rescue of the Muslim army. Abu Ubaidah, having received new intelligence, had sent Khalid. Khalid reached the battlefield and defeated the garrison on 15 October and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners. By capturing central Syria, the Muslims had given a decisive blow to
16940-552: The state of Israel. On 11 May 1949, Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations. Out of an Israeli population of 650,000, some 6,000 men and women were killed in the fighting, including 4,000 soldiers in the IDF (approximately 1% of the population). According to United Nations figures, 726,000 Palestinians had fled or were expelled by the Israelis between 1947 and 1949. The precise number of refugees , many of whom settled in refugee camps in neighboring states,
17080-405: The territory they had conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high commanders, including Khalid, and decided to conquer Jerusalem . The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Umar personally. Amr-bin al-Aas suggested that Khalid should be sent to impersonate the caliph , due to his very strong resemblance. However, Khalid
17220-574: The time of the Battle of Yarmouk , lasted until the port fell in 640. According to lexicographer David ben Abraham al-Fasi (died before 1026 CE), the Muslim conquest of Palestine brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on the Temple Mount . After the battle, which proved to be the key to Palestine and Jordan, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr's corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with
17360-465: The time, either a notable Roman or Persian military presence would be noted. During the Byzantine period, Palestina Prima gradually became a center of Christianity , attracting numerous monks and religious scholars from the Near East and Southern Europe, and abandoning previous Roman and Hellenistic cults. Arianism and Christianity found themselves in a hostile environment as well. Variants of
17500-668: The treaty, and Abu Ubaidah and Khalid accordingly marched there. A Byzantine army that halted Khalid's advance guard was defeated. The Muslims besieged Emesa which was finally conquered in March 636 CE after two months. After capturing Emesa, Khalid moved north to capture Northern Syria, using his cavalry as an advance guard and raiding force. At Shaizar, Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius' ambitious plan to take back Syria with an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong. Khalid immediately ended
17640-554: The village of Mu'tah , east of the Jordan River and Karak in Karak Governorate , between the forces of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the forces of the Byzantine Empire and their Arab Christian Ghassanid vassals. In Islamic historical sources, the battle is usually described as the Muslims ' attempt to take retribution against the Ghassanids after a Ghassanid official executed Muhammad's emissary who
17780-618: Was Egypt's main source of foreign currency. Egypt also blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba preventing Israeli access to the Red Sea . Israel made a secret agreement with the French at Sèvres to co-ordinate military operations against Egypt. Britain and France had already begun secret preparations for military action. It has been alleged that the French also agreed to build a nuclear plant for the Israelis. Britain and France arranged for Israel to give them
17920-493: Was France; but in 1966, following the withdrawal from Algeria , Charles de Gaulle announced France would cease supplying Israel with arms (and refused to refund money paid for 50 warplanes). On 5 February 1966, the US announced that it was taking over the former French and West German obligations, to maintain military "stabilization" in the Middle East. Included in the military hardware would be over 200 M48 tanks . In May of that year
18060-462: Was a dispute over water rights in the River Jordan basin. With Soviet backing, the Arab states, particularly Egypt, were continuing to build up their forces. Israel's main military hardware supplier was France . In 1961 a Herut no-confidence motion over the resurfaced Lavon Affair led to Ben-Gurion's resignation. Ben-Gurion declared that he would only accept office if Lavon was fired from
18200-477: Was a time of rapid military change in the Byzantine Empire. The empire was certainly not in a state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from Arabia after being exhausted by recent Roman–Persian Wars , but utterly failed to tackle the challenge effectively. Military confrontations with the Byzantine Empire began during the lifetime of Muhammad . The Battle of Mu'tah was fought in September 629 near
18340-638: Was appointed Caliph and political successor at Medina . Soon after Abu Bakr 's succession, several Arab tribes revolted against him in the Ridda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina. Whether Abu Bakr intended
18480-623: Was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire army. In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside Medina. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr, each a day's march from the other. Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words which he repeated to each of the corps commanders, were as follows: In your march be not hard on yourself or your army. Be not harsh with your men or your officers, whom you should consult in all matters. Be just and abjure evil and tyranny, for no nation which
18620-418: Was blamed despite his denial of responsibility. The Lavon affair led to Sharett's resignation and Ben-Gurion returned to the post of prime minister. In 1955 Egypt concluded a massive arms deal with Czechoslovakia , upsetting the balance of power in the Middle East. In 1956, the increasingly pro-Soviet President Nasser of Egypt, announced the nationalization of the (French and British owned) Suez Canal , which
18760-536: Was en route to Bosra . During the battle the Muslim army was routed. After three Muslim leaders were killed, the command was given to Khalid ibn al-Walid and he succeeded in saving the rest of the forces. The surviving Muslim forces retreated to Medina . After the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632, the Muhammad appointed Usama ibn Zayd as the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade
18900-527: Was from Iraq. The rest of the immigrants were from Europe, including more than 270,000 from Eastern Europe, mainly Romania and Poland (over 100,000 each). Nearly all the Jewish immigrants could be described as refugees, but only 136,000 from Central Europe had international certification because they belonged to the 250,000 Jews registered by the allies as displaced after World War II and living in displaced persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. In 1950
19040-476: Was hanged in 1962 and is the only person ever sentenced to death by an Israeli court. Testimonies by Holocaust survivors at the trial and the extensive publicity that surrounded it has led the trial to be considered a turning point in public awareness of the Holocaust. In 1963 Yigael Yadin began excavating Masada . In 1964 Egypt, Jordan, and Syria developed a unified military command. Israel completed work on
19180-469: Was joined by Shimon Peres and Moshe Dayan . Begin's Herut party joined with the Liberals to form Gahal . Mapai and Labour united for the 1965 elections , winning 45 seats and maintaining Levi Eshkol as prime minister. Ben-Gurion's Rafi party received 10 seats, Gahal gained 26 seats becoming the second largest party. Rudolph Kastner , a minor political functionary, was accused of collaborating with
19320-591: Was recognized and Umar had to come himself to accept the surrender of Jerusalem in April 637. Umar appointed his close advisor Ali to hold the lieutenancy of Medina. After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid's corps went to Damascus and then captured Beirut . Amr and Shurhabil's corps left to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, at the head of a 17,000-strong army, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards Chalcis , which
19460-529: Was strategically the most significant Byzantine fort. Through Chalcis the Byzantines would be able to guard Anatolia , Heraclius' homeland of Armenia , and the regional capital, Antioch . Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid with his mobile guard towards Chalcis. The virtually impregnable fort was guarded by Greek troops under Menas, reportedly second in prestige only to the Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics, decided to face Khalid and destroy
19600-599: Was the most important leader of the Rashidun army . It was the first time since the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, that the region was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid Empire ), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian Empire , the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire ) ruling periods. Syria had been under Roman rule for seven centuries prior to
#70929