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111-658: He was born in Camden, New Jersey . Zimmermann received a B.S. degree in computer science from Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida in 1978. In the 1980s, Zimmermann worked in Boulder, Colorado as a software engineer on the Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign as a military policy analyst . From 2016 to 2021, he worked at Delft University of Technology as an Associate Professor in

222-625: A band gap of zero and thus cannot be used in transistors because of its constant conductivity, an inability to turn off. The zigzag edges of the nanoribbons introduce localized energy states in the conduction and valence bands and thus a bandgap that enables switching when fabricated as a transistor. As an example, a typical GNR of width of 10 nm has a desirable bandgap energy of 0.4 eV. ) More research will need to be performed, however, on sub-50 nm graphene layers, as its resistivity value increases and thus electron mobility decreases. In April 2005, Gordon Moore stated in an interview that

333-508: A law of physics , it is an empirical relationship . It is an experience-curve law , a type of law quantifying efficiency gains from experience in production. The observation is named after Gordon Moore , the co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor and Intel (and former CEO of the latter), who in 1965 noted that the number of components per integrated circuit had been doubling every year , and projected this rate of growth would continue for at least another decade. In 1975, looking forward to

444-501: A self-fulfilling prophecy . Advancements in digital electronics , such as the reduction in quality-adjusted microprocessor prices, the increase in memory capacity ( RAM and flash ), the improvement of sensors , and even the number and size of pixels in digital cameras , are strongly linked to Moore's law. These ongoing changes in digital electronics have been a driving force of technological and social change, productivity , and economic growth. Industry experts have not reached

555-572: A 2015 interview, Moore noted of the 1965 article: "... I just did a wild extrapolation saying it's going to continue to double every year for the next 10 years." One historian of the law cites Stigler's law of eponymy , to introduce the fact that the regular doubling of components was known to many working in the field. In 1974, Robert H. Dennard at IBM recognized the rapid MOSFET scaling technology and formulated what became known as Dennard scaling , which describes that as MOS transistors get smaller, their power density stays constant such that

666-479: A basic measure of value for a digital camera, demonstrating the historical linearity (on a log scale) of this market and the opportunity to predict the future trend of digital camera price, LCD and LED screens, and resolution. The great Moore's law compensator (TGMLC) , also known as Wirth's law – generally is referred to as software bloat and is the principle that successive generations of computer software increase in size and complexity, thereby offsetting

777-478: A consensus on exactly when Moore's law will cease to apply. Microprocessor architects report that semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide since around 2010, slightly below the pace predicted by Moore's law. In September 2022, Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang considered Moore's law dead, while Intel CEO Pat Gelsinger was of the opposite view. In 1959, Douglas Engelbart studied the projected downscaling of integrated circuit (IC) size, publishing his results in

888-459: A consequence of shrinking dimensions, Dennard scaling predicted that power consumption per unit area would remain constant. Combining these effects, David House deduced that computer chip performance would roughly double every 18 months. Also due to Dennard scaling, this increased performance would not be accompanied by increased power, i.e., the energy-efficiency of silicon -based computer chips roughly doubles every 18 months. Dennard scaling ended in

999-483: A factor of two per year". Dennard scaling – This posits that power usage would decrease in proportion to area (both voltage and current being proportional to length) of transistors. Combined with Moore's law, performance per watt would grow at roughly the same rate as transistor density, doubling every 1–2 years. According to Dennard scaling transistor dimensions would be scaled by 30% (0.7×) every technology generation, thus reducing their area by 50%. This would reduce

1110-891: A functional transistor. Below are several non-silicon substitutes in the fabrication of small nanometer transistors. One proposed material is indium gallium arsenide , or InGaAs. Compared to their silicon and germanium counterparts, InGaAs transistors are more promising for future high-speed, low-power logic applications. Because of intrinsic characteristics of III–V compound semiconductors , quantum well and tunnel effect transistors based on InGaAs have been proposed as alternatives to more traditional MOSFET designs. Biological computing research shows that biological material has superior information density and energy efficiency compared to silicon-based computing. Various forms of graphene are being studied for graphene electronics , e.g. graphene nanoribbon transistors have shown promise since its appearance in publications in 2008. (Bulk graphene has

1221-555: A fundamental limit. By then they'll be able to make bigger chips and have transistor budgets in the billions. In 2016 the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors , after using Moore's Law to drive the industry since 1998, produced its final roadmap. It no longer centered its research and development plan on Moore's law. Instead, it outlined what might be called the More than Moore strategy in which

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1332-423: A historical $ 133 million investment of a new Camden High School Project. The new school is planned to be ready for student occupancy in 2021. It would have 9th and 12th grade. Moore%27s law Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years. Moore's law is an observation and projection of a historical trend. Rather than

1443-548: A hub of music and innovation in entertainment with the presence of the Victor Talking Machine Company (later RCA Victor). It is the birth place of celebrities such as tragic star Russ Columbo ; singer and Broadway actress Lola Falana . Today, Camden is home to individuals and groups that help bulster the arts in the city. Camden has religious institutions including many churches and their associated non-profit organizations and community centers such as

1554-817: A joint Urban Enterprise Zone . The city was selected in 1983 as one of the initial group of 10 zones chosen to participate in the program. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the Zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half of the 6.625% rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants. Established in September 1988, the city's Urban Enterprise Zone status expires in December 2023. The UEZ program in Camden and four other original UEZ cities had been allowed to lapse as of January 1, 2017, after Governor Chris Christie , who called

1665-527: A long history in Camden. Puerto Rican Unity for Progress is a multi-service, community-based organization that is located in Camden and serves the Hispanic community who reside in the city. The organization was established in 1976 and opened its physical location at 437 Broadway Street in Camden in June 1978. The Arts and Entertainment have always been presence in the city. In the early 20th century, Camden became

1776-528: A major contributor of naval units during World War II, shut down in 1967 due to low demand and mismanagement. During this period there was a large amount of white flight , in which white residents moved to surrounding suburbs in search of economic opportunity. Along with this, civil unrest grew resulting in riots. Police brutality and crime were at an all-time high which further exacerbated Camden's problems. Efforts to revitalize Camden began in 1980 with Mayor Randy Primas . In an attempt to generate income for

1887-507: A munition, and thus subject to arms trafficking export controls . At that time, PGP was considered to be impermissible ("high-strength") for export from the United States. The maximum strength allowed for legal export has since been raised and now allows PGP to be exported. The investigation lasted three years, but was finally dropped without filing charges after MIT Press published the source code of PGP. In 1995, Zimmermann published

1998-578: A non-planar tri-gate FinFET at 22 nm in 2012 that is faster and consumes less power than a conventional planar transistor. The rate of performance improvement for single-core microprocessors has slowed significantly. Single-core performance was improving by 52% per year in 1986–2003 and 23% per year in 2003–2011, but slowed to just seven percent per year in 2011–2018. Quality adjusted price of IT equipment – The price of information technology (IT), computers and peripheral equipment, adjusted for quality and inflation, declined 16% per year on average over

2109-422: A physical limit, some forecasters are optimistic about the continuation of technological progress in a variety of other areas, including new chip architectures, quantum computing, and AI and machine learning. Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang declared Moore's law dead in 2022; several days later, Intel CEO Pat Gelsinger countered with the opposite claim. Digital electronics have contributed to world economic growth in

2220-437: A prediction on the future of the semiconductor components industry over the next ten years. His response was a brief article entitled "Cramming more components onto integrated circuits". Within his editorial, he speculated that by 1975 it would be possible to contain as many as 65 000 components on a single quarter-square-inch (~  1.6 cm ) semiconductor. The complexity for minimum component costs has increased at

2331-491: A rate of doubling approximately every two years. He outlined several contributing factors for this exponential behavior: Shortly after 1975, Caltech professor Carver Mead popularized the term "Moore's law". Moore's law eventually came to be widely accepted as a goal for the semiconductor industry, and it was cited by competitive semiconductor manufacturers as they strove to increase processing power. Moore viewed his eponymous law as surprising and optimistic: "Moore's law

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2442-421: A rate of roughly a factor of two per year. Certainly over the short term this rate can be expected to continue, if not to increase. Over the longer term, the rate of increase is a bit more uncertain, although there is no reason to believe it will not remain nearly constant for at least 10 years. Moore posited a log–linear relationship between device complexity (higher circuit density at reduced cost) and time. In

2553-418: A result of the international spread of PGP's use. After the government dropped its case without indictment in early 1996, Zimmermann founded PGP Inc. and released an updated version of PGP and some additional related products. That company was acquired by Network Associates (NAI) in December 1997, and Zimmermann stayed on for three years as a Senior Fellow. NAI decided to drop the product line and in 2002, PGP

2664-469: A secure hardware and subscription based software security company. In October 2013, Zimmermann, along with other key employees from Silent Circle, teamed up with Lavabit founder Ladar Levison to create the Dark Mail Alliance . The goal of the organization is to work on a new protocol to replace PGP that will encrypt email metadata, among other things that PGP is not capable of. Zimmermann

2775-466: A wide range of health and social services free or reduced charge to residents. Camden City, having one of the highest rates of poverty in New Jersey, fueled residents and local organizations to develop organizations aimed to provide relief to its citizens. As of the 2000 Census, Camden's income per capita was $ 9,815. This ranking made Camden the poorest city in the state of New Jersey, as well as one of

2886-585: A year 2000 computer. Library expansion – was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to double in capacity every 16 years, if sufficient space were made available. He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized microform analog photographs, which could be duplicated on-demand for library patrons or other institutions. He did not foresee the digital technology that would follow decades later to replace analog microform with digital imaging, storage, and transmission media. Automated, potentially lossless digital technologies allowed vast increases in

2997-473: Is rowhouse , similar to those in the neighboring city of Philadelphia. Saint Josephs Carpenter Society (SJCS) is a non profit that has rehabilitated 500 homes throughout the city. Camden contains the United States' first federally funded planned community for working class residents, Yorkship Village (now called Fairview). The village was designed by Electus Darwin Litchfield , who was influenced by

3108-507: Is "a natural part of the history of Moore's law". The rate of improvement in physical dimensions known as Dennard scaling also ended in the mid-2000s. As a result, much of the semiconductor industry has shifted its focus to the needs of major computing applications rather than semiconductor scaling. Nevertheless, leading semiconductor manufacturers TSMC and Samsung Electronics have claimed to keep pace with Moore's law with 10 , 7 , and 5 nm nodes in mass production. As

3219-532: Is a city in Camden County , in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It is part of the Delaware Valley metropolitan region. The city was incorporated on February 13, 1828. Camden has been the county seat of Camden County since the county's formation on March 13, 1844. The city derives its name from Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden . Camden is made up of over 20 neighborhoods, and is part of

3330-646: Is a violation of Murphy's law . Everything gets better and better." The observation was even seen as a self-fulfilling prophecy . The doubling period is often misquoted as 18 months because of a separate prediction by Moore's colleague, Intel executive David House . In 1975, House noted that Moore's revised law of doubling transistor count every 2 years in turn implied that computer chip performance would roughly double every 18 months (with no increase in power consumption). Mathematically, Moore's law predicted that transistor count would double every 2 years due to shrinking transistor dimensions and other improvements. As

3441-566: Is active today. Redevelopment is an idea has loomed over the city since the 1980s, when Mayor Primas started looking for projects to be able to revitalize with the loss of several foundational industries in the preciding decades. In 2013 the New Jersey Economic Development Authority introduced incentives for companies to relocate to Camden. Other projects include the redevelopment of the Waterfront,

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3552-400: Is another version, called Butters' Law of Photonics, a formulation that deliberately parallels Moore's law. Butters' law says that the amount of data coming out of an optical fiber is doubling every nine months. Thus, the cost of transmitting a bit over an optical network decreases by half every nine months. The availability of wavelength-division multiplexing (sometimes called WDM) increased

3663-554: Is the home of Rutgers University–Camden , which was founded as the South Jersey Law School in 1926, and Cooper Medical School of Rowan University , which opened in 2012. Camden also houses both Cooper University Hospital and Virtua Our Lady of Lourdes Hospital . Camden County College and Rowan University also have campuses in downtown Camden. The " eds and meds " institutions account for roughly 45% of Camden's total employment. Once known for violent crime,

3774-498: The "garden city" developments popular in England at the time. In 2013, Cherokee Investment Partners had a plan to redevelop north Camden with 5,000 new homes and a shopping center on 450 acres (1.8 km ). Cherokee dropped their plans in the face of local opposition and the slumping real estate market. They are among several companies receiving New Jersey Economic Development Authority (EDA) tax incentives to relocate jobs in

3885-572: The 22 nm feature width around 2012, and continuing at 14 nm . Pat Gelsinger, Intel CEO, stated at the end of 2023 that "we're no longer in the golden era of Moore's Law, it's much, much harder now, so we're probably doubling effectively closer to every three years now, so we've definitely seen a slowing." The physical limits to transistor scaling have been reached due to source-to-drain leakage, limited gate metals and limited options for channel material. Other approaches are being investigated, which do not rely on physical scaling. These include

3996-534: The Delaware River in Pennsylvania . Just offshore of Camden is Pettys Island , which is part of Pennsauken Township. The Cooper River (popular for boating) flows through Camden, and Newton Creek forms Camden's southern boundary with Gloucester City. Camden contains more than 20 generally recognized neighborhoods: Historically, the Waterfront has always been a foundational part and major hub of

4107-755: The Delaware River , with access to the Atlantic Ocean , the Port of Camden handles break bulk , bulk cargo , as well as some containers. Terminals fall under the auspices of the South Jersey Port Corporation as well as private operators such as Holt Logistics/ Holtec International . The port receives hundreds of ships moving international and domestic cargo annually and is one of the USA's largest shipping centers for wood products, cocoa and perishables. The most common type of home in Camden

4218-967: The Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex , American Water . Camden has two generally recognized neighborhoods located on the Delaware River waterfront, Central and South. Other attractions at the Waterfront are the Wiggins Park Riverstage and Marina, One Port Center, The Victor Lofts, the Walt Whitman House , the Walt Whitman Cultural Arts Center, the Rutgers–Camden Center for the Arts, the Camden Children's Garden, Cooper's Poynt Park (former site of Riverfront State Prison ). On

4329-645: The Restoration in 1660, previous claims were largely overwritten, the land around Camden was then controlled by different nobles serving under King Charles II that those associated with Sir Edmund Ployden. In 1664, the Duke of York had the King Charles II create the new colony for Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret . It was named the Province of New Jersey after George Carteret; in 1649, he

4440-523: The South Jersey region of the state. The initial growth of Camden industrially is often credited to the “big three” employers of Camden: RCA Victor , Campbell's Soup Company , and New York Shipbuilding Corporation . As workers went from disorganized to unionized, labor costs increased locally to a point where the "big three" felt compelled to move away from Camden in the mid-to-late-20th century as they could find cheaper workers elsewhere. Though

4551-483: The gate-all-around MOSFET ( GAAFET ) structure has even better gate control. Microprocessor architects report that semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide since around 2010, below the pace predicted by Moore's law. Brian Krzanich, the former CEO of Intel, announced, "Our cadence today is closer to two and a half years than two." Intel stated in 2015 that improvements in MOSFET devices have slowed, starting at

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4662-625: The 1930s, Camden faced economic decline in the face of the Great Depression . It was due to Camden's thriving industry that they did not go bankrupt. The United States role in World War II made the New York Shipbuilding Company the largest and most productive ship yard in the world. World War II caused African American migration in and around Camden from the south as there was a need for factory workers for

4773-468: The 2000s. Koomey later showed that a similar rate of efficiency improvement predated silicon chips and Moore's law, for technologies such as vacuum tubes. Microprocessor architects report that since around 2010, semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide below the pace predicted by Moore's law. Brian Krzanich , the former CEO of Intel, cited Moore's 1975 revision as a precedent for the current deceleration, which results from technical challenges and

4884-479: The 2012–2013 and 2013–2014 school years, respectively. March 9, 2015, marked the first year of the new Camden Charter Schools open enrollment. Mastery and Uncommon charter schools did not meet enrollment projections for their first year of operation by 15% and 21%, according to Education Law Center. In October 2016, Governor Chris Christie, Camden Mayor Dana L. Redd, Camden Public Schools Superintendent Paymon Rouhanifard, and state and local representatives announced

4995-428: The 21st century. The Black Community has been one of the city's foundations since its founding in 1828 and have contributed heavily to the city's culture. Corinne's Place is a Black-owned soul food restaurant located in Camden, New Jersey. Corinne Bradley-Powers opened the restaurant on Haddon Avenue in 1989. The Hispanic and Latino Community in the city has increased heavily in the past twenty years, but have had

5106-646: The Cybersecurity section at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics, and Computer Science. In 1991, he wrote the popular Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) program, and made it available (together with its source code) through public FTP for download, the first widely available program implementing public-key cryptography . Shortly thereafter, it became available overseas via the Internet, though Zimmermann has said he had no part in its distribution outside

5217-506: The Dutch until around 1650 or 1651 when it was decided that it was far to up the river to be of any value. The buildings and stockades were demolished, and Wouter van Twiller assigned Arent Corssen to find a place for another fort. The British first had a pressence in the area in 1634. On June 21, 1634, Sir Edmund Ployden was given a charter from King Charles I of England for all territory that lies between New England and Maryland . After

5328-586: The Earl of Camden. Throughout the Revolutionary War, there were several scrimishes and other effects of the war felt by locals. Development was impeded for the villiage due to the revolution, as Camden was held by the British along with Philadelphia across the Delaware River . In the 19th century Camden underwent significant changes, transitioning from a hub of transportation to a growing city. Camden

5439-878: The Little Rock Baptist Church in the Parkside section of Camden, First Nazarene Baptist Church, Kaighn Avenue Baptist Church, and the Parkside United Methodist Church. Other congregations that are active now are Newton Monthly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends, on Haddon Avenue and Cooper Street and the Masjid at 1231 Mechanic St, Camden, NJ 08104. The first Scientology church was incorporated in December 1953 in Camden by L. Ron Hubbard , his wife Mary Sue Hubbard , and John Galusha. Father Michael Doyle,

5550-605: The Mastery charter network. The J.G Whittier Family school has become part of the KIPP Public Charter Schools as KIPP Cooper Norcross Academy. Students were given the option to stay with the school under their transition or seek other alternatives. In the 2013–14 school year, Camden city proposed a budget of $ 72 million to allot to charter schools in the city. In previous years, Camden city charter schools have used $ 52 million and $ 66 million in

5661-713: The United States. The very first version of PGP included an encryption algorithm, BassOmatic , developed by Zimmermann. After a report from RSA Security , who were in a licensing dispute with regard to the use of the RSA algorithm in PGP, the United States Customs Service started a criminal investigation of Zimmermann, for allegedly violating the Arms Export Control Act . The United States Government had long regarded cryptographic software as

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5772-519: The area prior under the Province of New York . After Edward Byllynge suffered a bankruptcy and having issues with his creditors, William Penn , one of the creditors, was chosen to be arbitrator. They argued that he funded the purchase of Lord John Berkeley's share of the Province of New Jersey with funds that were justly due to them. It was decided that Fenwick was entitled to 10% of the share, while 90% would be controlled by trustees that are chosen for

5883-468: The article "Microelectronics, and the Art of Similitude". Engelbart presented his findings at the 1960 International Solid-State Circuits Conference , where Moore was present in the audience. In 1965, Gordon Moore, who at the time was working as the director of research and development at Fairchild Semiconductor , was asked to contribute to the thirty-fifth anniversary issue of Electronics magazine with

5994-482: The benefit of the creditors of Edward Byllynge, who were mostly Quakers themselves. The trustees were chosen to be William Penn, Gawen Laurie , and Nicholas Lucas. The goal was to have the trustees sell the territory to colonists so that the creditors of Edward Byllynge would be made whole. It was also hoped that Quaker may be motivated to emigrate to this territory. At the time, the Society of Friends were flirting with

6105-434: The book PGP Source Code and Internals as a way to bypass limitations on exporting digital code. Zimmermann's introduction says the book contains "all of the C source code to a software package called PGP" and that the unusual publication in book form of the complete source code for a computer program was a direct response to the U.S. government's criminal investigation of Zimmermann for violations of U.S. export restrictions as

6216-498: The breakdown is that at small sizes, current leakage poses greater challenges, and also causes the chip to heat up, which creates a threat of thermal runaway and therefore, further increases energy costs. The breakdown of Dennard scaling prompted a greater focus on multicore processors, but the gains offered by switching to more cores are lower than the gains that would be achieved had Dennard scaling continued. In another departure from Dennard scaling, Intel microprocessors adopted

6327-508: The capacity that could be placed on a single fiber by as much as a factor of 100. Optical networking and dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) is rapidly bringing down the cost of networking, and further progress seems assured. As a result, the wholesale price of data traffic collapsed in the dot-com bubble . Nielsen's Law says that the bandwidth available to users increases by 50% annually. Pixels per dollar – Similarly, Barry Hendy of Kodak Australia has plotted pixels per dollar as

6438-624: The care of orphans and helping runaway slaves. They were members of the Society of Friends whose members were the likes of William Penn. In 1865, the Society of Friends founded the Camden Home for Friendless Children . Since that home was segregated, the Society of Friends opened the West Jersey Colored Orphanage in 1874. Camden has a variety of non-profit Tax-Exempt Organizations aimed to assist city residents with

6549-832: The cause of the productivity acceleration to technological innovations in the production of semiconductors that sharply reduced the prices of such components and of the products that contain them (as well as expanding the capabilities of such products)." The primary negative implication of Moore's law is that obsolescence pushes society up against the Limits to Growth . As technologies continue to rapidly "improve", they render predecessor technologies obsolete. In situations in which security and survivability of hardware or data are paramount, or in which resources are limited, rapid obsolescence often poses obstacles to smooth or continued operations. Several measures of digital technology are improving at exponential rates related to Moore's law, including

6660-515: The city and surrounding area's history. It was built in 1899 as a place for those who find anything that links to one's heritage and for other educational purposes. Camden's cultural history has been greatly affected by both its economic and social position over the years. From 1950 to 1970, industry plummeted, resulting in close to 20,000 jobs being lost for Camden residents. This mass unemployment as well as social pressure from neighboring townships caused an exodus of citizens, mostly white. This gap

6771-634: The city has declined in recent decades since the decline of heavy industry in the area and whiteflight to the suburbs, the city has made efforts to revitalize itself through various infrastructure and community projects. Projects such as the redevelopment of the waterfront area brought three tourist attractions to the area: the USS New Jersey , the Freedom Mortgage Pavilion , and the Adventure Aquarium . The city

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6882-514: The city, he pursued initiatives such as the construction of a riverfront state-prison and a trash-to-steam incinerator which received substantial opposition from residents. With Milton Milan's election as Camden's next mayor, he declared the city bankrupt which resulted in $ 60 million of aid and the state's assumption of Camden's finances. Another notable revitalization effort was the establishment of non-profit organization, The Parkside Business and Community In Partnership, which occurred in 1993 and

6993-701: The city. Camden has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa in the Köppen climate classification ) with hot summers and cool to cold winters. Camden's public schools are operated by the Camden City School District . The district is one of 31 former Abbott districts statewide that were established pursuant to the decision by the New Jersey Supreme Court in Abbott v. Burke which are now referred to as "SDA Districts" based on

7104-567: The city. It was home to the New York Shipbuilding Company Shipyards until 1968. Since the 1990s, the Waterfront began a beacon of revitalization for the city. The city's waterfront, along the Delaware River is highlighted by its three main attractions, the USS New Jersey , the Freedom Mortgage Pavilion , and the Adventure Aquarium . The waterfront is also the headquarters for Catapult Learning ,

7215-708: The construction of the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex , and the Subaru of America 's headquarters. In recent years, Camden has transitioned from a manufacturing industry to an economy focused on education and healthcare. The Eds-and-Meds Industry has become the largest source of employment in Camden—with institutions such as Cooper University Hospital , Rowan University , Rutgers-Camden , Camden County College , Virtua, Our Lady of Lourdes Medical Center , and CAMcare. Camden's role as an industrial city gave rise to distinct neighborhoods and cultural groups that have affected

7326-409: The cost of computer power to the consumer falls, the cost for producers to fulfill Moore's law follows an opposite trend: R&D, manufacturing, and test costs have increased steadily with each new generation of chips. The cost of the tools, principally EUVL ( Extreme ultraviolet lithography ), used to manufacture chips doubles every 4 years. Rising manufacturing costs are an important consideration for

7437-812: The delay by 30% (0.7×) and therefore increase operating frequency by about 40% (1.4×). Finally, to keep electric field constant, voltage would be reduced by 30%, reducing energy by 65% and power (at 1.4× frequency) by 50%. Therefore, in every technology generation transistor density would double, circuit becomes 40% faster, while power consumption (with twice the number of transistors) stays the same. Dennard scaling ended in 2005–2010, due to leakage currents. The exponential processor transistor growth predicted by Moore does not always translate into exponentially greater practical CPU performance. Since around 2005–2007, Dennard scaling has ended, so even though Moore's law continued after that, it has not yielded proportional dividends in improved performance. The primary reason cited for

7548-450: The density of transistors at which the cost per transistor is the lowest. As more transistors are put on a chip, the cost to make each transistor decreases, but the chance that the chip will not work due to a defect increases. In 1965, Moore examined the density of transistors at which cost is minimized, and observed that, as transistors were made smaller through advances in photolithography , this number would increase at "a rate of roughly

7659-624: The direction of making surveillance easier", and "the ability of computers to track us doubles every eighteen months", in reference to Moore's law . Zimmermann has received numerous technical and humanitarian awards for his pioneering work in cryptography : Simon Singh 's The Code Book devotes an entire chapter to Zimmermann and PGP. In 2022 Steven Johnson covered his story and achievements in Zimmermann's profile for Hidden Heroes - The Crypto Wars: How Philip Zimmermann Fought for Our Right to Privacy. Camden, New Jersey Camden

7770-400: The disk media, thermal stability, and writability using available magnetic fields. Fiber-optic capacity – The number of bits per second that can be sent down an optical fiber increases exponentially, faster than Moore's law. Keck's law , in honor of Donald Keck . Network capacity – According to Gerald Butters, the former head of Lucent's Optical Networking Group at Bell Labs, there

7881-704: The district (with 2020–21 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics ) are Brimm Medical Arts High School (175; 9–12), Camden Big Picture Learning Academy (196; 6–12), Camden High School (347; 9–12), Creative Arts Academy (290; 6–12), Eastside High School (784; 9–12) and Pride Academy (63; 6–12). In 2012, The Urban Hope Act was signed into law, allowing renaissance schools to open in Trenton, Newark, and Camden. The renaissance schools, run by charter companies, differed from charter schools, as they enrolled students based on

7992-573: The first European settlers. Between 1623 and 1627, Captain Cornelius Jacobsen May , an officer with the Dutch West India Company and first director of New Netherland , established Fort Nassau , where the Delaware River meets Big Timber Creek, which is today known as Brooklawn . In 1633, David Pietersen De Vries , a Dutch commander, was sailing up the Delaware River when he came across Natives in control of

8103-433: The first medical system in Camden that did not use rotating primary care physicians. Since its conception, St. Luke's has grown to include Patient Education Classes as well as home medical services, aiding over seven thousand Camden residents. The city has long had a history of philantrophy and charity, dating back to it's founding. The city's founding families were quakers that were very interested in charitable causes like

8214-454: The five decades from 1959 to 2009. The pace accelerated, however, to 23% per year in 1995–1999 triggered by faster IT innovation, and later, slowed to 2% per year in 2010–2013. While quality-adjusted microprocessor price improvement continues, the rate of improvement likewise varies, and is not linear on a log scale. Microprocessor price improvement accelerated during the late 1990s, reaching 60% per year (halving every nine months) versus

8325-408: The fort. The settlers that had been left at the fort had decided to return to New Amsterdam ( Today Manhattan, New York ). Wouter van Twiller , Governor of New Netherland , restored Fort Nassau. He was accused of extravagant spending in the fort's reconstruction. The settlement subsequently sparked competition from European Settlers over control of the fur trade in the area. The fort was used by

8436-493: The growth and decline of the city over the course of the 20th century. Camden is also home to historic landmarks detailing its rich history in literature, music, social work, and industry such as the Walt Whitman House , the Walt Whitman Cultural Arts Center, the Rutgers–Camden Center for the Arts and the Camden Children's Garden . Others include the Camden County Historical Society, which document

8547-520: The growth and industrialization Camden experienced in the early 1900s, there came a drop in population and industry further into the 20th century. Having reached its peak number of manufacturing jobs in 1950, by 1982 it was a quarter of what it had been. Post World War II, Campbell's Soup Company and RCA Victor had decentralized their production efforts in Camden. This Capital Flight was an attempt to avoid an increase in labor wages which unionized workers were fighting for. The New York Shipbuilding Company,

8658-524: The hands of companies such as the Victor Talking Machine Company (later RCA Victor ), New York Shipbuilding Corporation , and Campbell Soup Company . These were major employers in Camden, at times employing tens of thousands in and outside of Camden. Its location on the Delaware River made it ideal to launch ships. Camden also experienced dramatic shifts in its population demographic. Immigration from Eastern Europe made them

8769-553: The idea of "new country", where they could practice their religious beliefs and not be shamelessly persecuted. In 1676, the Quakers decided to form a colony, spittling the previous colony in two, East Jersey and West Jersey for the Quakers. Quakers settled in the area at the end of the 17th century and the start of the 18th century, drawn by promises of religious freedom, fairer taxation, and more representation in government. The Quakers expansion, consumption of resources, along with

8880-552: The introduction of alcohol and disease, led to a decline in the Lenape population. The development of a ferry system along the Delaware River bolstered trade between Fort Nassau and Philadelphia . Through ferries, families like Coopers and the Kaighns were able to establish settlements in surrounding areas. In 1773, Jacob Cooper played a significant role in developing the area which is today known as Camden, named after Charles Pratt,

8991-444: The key economic indicator of innovation." Moore's law describes a driving force of technological and social change, productivity, and economic growth. An acceleration in the rate of semiconductor progress contributed to a surge in U.S. productivity growth, which reached 3.4% per year in 1997–2004, outpacing the 1.6% per year during both 1972–1996 and 2005–2013. As economist Richard G. Anderson notes, "Numerous studies have traced

9102-469: The key technical challenges of engineering future nanoscale transistors is the design of gates. As device dimensions shrink, controlling the current flow in the thin channel becomes more difficult. Modern nanoscale transistors typically take the form of multi-gate MOSFETs , with the FinFET being the most common nanoscale transistor. The FinFET has gate dielectric on three sides of the channel. In comparison,

9213-400: The late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. The primary driving force of economic growth is the growth of productivity , which Moore's law factors into. Moore (1995) expected that "the rate of technological progress is going to be controlled from financial realities". The reverse could and did occur around the late-1990s, however, with economists reporting that "Productivity growth is

9324-544: The leading ethnic group by 1920, whereas it had previously been German, British, and Irish immigrants. In 1926, a bridge connected New Jersey and Pennsylvania made its debut opening, which was named the Benjamin Franklin Bridge in 1956. The project cost $ 37 million, which New Jersey and Pennsylvania both paid equal parts of. The goal was to reduce ferry traffic between Philadelphia and Camden. Camden Central Airport opened in 1929 (closed in 1957). During

9435-486: The most complex chips. The graph at the top of this article shows this trend holds true today. As of 2017 , the commercially available processor possessing the highest number of transistors is the 48 core Centriq with over 18 billion transistors. Density at minimum cost per transistor – This is the formulation given in Moore's 1965 paper. It is not just about the density of transistors that can be achieved, but about

9546-502: The needs of applications drive chip development, rather than a focus on semiconductor scaling. Application drivers range from smartphones to AI to data centers. IEEE began a road-mapping initiative in 2016, "Rebooting Computing", named the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS). Some forecasters, including Gordon Moore, predict that Moore's law will end by around 2025. Although Moore's Law will reach

9657-476: The next decade, he revised the forecast to doubling every two years, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 41%. Moore's empirical evidence did not directly imply that the historical trend would continue, nevertheless his prediction has held since 1975 and has since become known as a "law". Moore's prediction has been used in the semiconductor industry to guide long-term planning and to set targets for research and development , thus functioning to some extent as

9768-479: The pastor of Sacred Heart Catholic Church located in South Camden, has played a large role in Camden's spiritual and social history. In 1971, Doyle was part of the Camden 28 , a group of anti-Vietnam War activists who planned to raid a draft board office in the city. This is noted by many as the start of Doyle's activities as a radical 'Catholic Left'. Following these activities, Monsignor Doyle went on to become

9879-540: The pastor of Sacred Heart Church, remaining known for his poetry and activism. Monsignor Doyle and the Sacred Heart Church's main mission is to form a connection between the primarily white suburban surrounding areas and the inner-city of Camden. In 1982, Father Mark Aita of Holy Name of Camden founded the St. Luke's Catholic Medical Services. Aita, a medical doctor and a member of the Society of Jesus , created

9990-511: The performance gains predicted by Moore's law. In a 2008 article in InfoWorld , Randall C. Kennedy, formerly of Intel, introduces this term using successive versions of Microsoft Office between the year 2000 and 2007 as his premise. Despite the gains in computational performance during this time period according to Moore's law, Office 2007 performed the same task at half the speed on a prototypical year 2007 computer as compared to Office 2000 on

10101-514: The poorest cities in the United States. Camden also has one of the highest rates of childhood poverty in the nation. About 45% of employment in Camden is in the "eds and meds" sector, providing educational and medical institutions. In 2018, the city had an average residential property tax bill of $ 1,710, the lowest in the county, compared to an average bill of $ 6,644 in Camden County and $ 8,767 statewide. Portions of Camden are part of

10212-415: The power use remains in proportion with area. Evidence from the semiconductor industry shows that this inverse relationship between power density and areal density broke down in the mid-2000s. At the 1975 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting , Moore revised his forecast rate, predicting semiconductor complexity would continue to double annually until about 1980, after which it would decrease to

10323-627: The program an "abject failure", vetoed a compromise bill that would have extended the status for two years. In May 2018, Governor Phil Murphy signed a law that reinstated the program in these five cities and extended the expiration date in other zones. According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the city had a total area of 10.34 square miles (26.78 km ), including 8.92 square miles (23.10 km ) of land and 1.42 square miles (3.68 km ) of water (13.75%). Camden borders Collingswood , Gloucester City , Oaklyn , Pennsauken Township and Woodlynne in Camden County, as well as Philadelphia across

10434-550: The projection cannot be sustained indefinitely: "It can't continue forever. The nature of exponentials is that you push them out and eventually disaster happens." He also noted that transistors eventually would reach the limits of miniaturization at atomic levels: In terms of size [of transistors] you can see that we're approaching the size of atoms which is a fundamental barrier, but it'll be two or three generations before we get that far—but that's as far out as we've ever been able to see. We have another 10 to 20 years before we reach

10545-437: The rapid (in some cases hyperexponential) decreases in cost, and increases in performance, of a variety of technologies, including DNA sequencing, DNA synthesis, and a range of physical and computational tools used in protein expression and in determining protein structures. Eroom's law – is a pharmaceutical drug development observation that was deliberately written as Moore's Law spelled backwards in order to contrast it with

10656-506: The rapidity of information growth in an era that now sometimes is called the Information Age . Carlson curve – is a term coined by The Economist to describe the biotechnological equivalent of Moore's law, and is named after author Rob Carlson. Carlson accurately predicted that the doubling time of DNA sequencing technologies (measured by cost and performance) would be at least as fast as Moore's law. Carlson Curves illustrate

10767-500: The requirement for the state to cover all costs for school building and renovation projects in these districts under the supervision of the New Jersey Schools Development Authority . As of the 2020–21 school year, the district, comprised of 19 schools, had an enrollment of 7,553 students and 668.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.3:1. High schools in

10878-453: The restructuring of the police force in 2013 has been credited for the decrease in that number. As of January 2021, violent crime was down 46% from its high in the 1990s and at the lowest level since the 1960s. Overall crime reports in 2020 were down 74% compared to 1974, the first year of uniform crime-reporting in the city. The city traces back to local indigenous Lenape , who are believed to have inhabited this area 13–15,000 years prior to

10989-526: The semiconductor industry that on a semi-log plot approximates a straight line. I hesitate to review its origins and by doing so restrict its definition." Hard disk drive areal density – A similar prediction (sometimes called Kryder's law ) was made in 2005 for hard disk drive areal density . The prediction was later viewed as over-optimistic. Several decades of rapid progress in areal density slowed around 2010, from 30 to 100% per year to 10–15% per year, because of noise related to smaller grain size of

11100-419: The size, cost, density, and speed of components. Moore wrote only about the density of components, "a component being a transistor, resistor, diode or capacitor", at minimum cost. Transistors per integrated circuit – The most popular formulation is of the doubling of the number of transistors on ICs every two years. At the end of the 1970s, Moore's law became known as the limit for the number of transistors on

11211-461: The spin state of electron spintronics , tunnel junctions , and advanced confinement of channel materials via nano-wire geometry. Spin-based logic and memory options are being developed actively in labs. The vast majority of current transistors on ICs are composed principally of doped silicon and its alloys. As silicon is fabricated into single nanometer transistors, short-channel effects adversely change desired material properties of silicon as

11322-626: The surrounding neighborhood, similar to the city school district. This makes renaissance schools a hybrid of charter and public schools. This is the act that allowed Knowledge Is Power Program (KIPP), Uncommon Schools, and Mastery Schools to open in the city. Under the renaissance charter school proposal, the Henry L. Bonsall Family School became Uncommon Schools Camden Prep Mt. Ephraim Campus, East Camden Middle School has become part of Mastery Charter Schools, Francis X. Mc Graw Elementary School and Rafael Cordero Molina Elementary School have become part of

11433-825: The sustaining of Moore's law. This led to the formulation of Moore's second law , also called Rock's law (named after Arthur Rock ), which is that the capital cost of a semiconductor fabrication plant also increases exponentially over time. Numerous innovations by scientists and engineers have sustained Moore's law since the beginning of the IC era. Some of the key innovations are listed below, as examples of breakthroughs that have advanced integrated circuit and semiconductor device fabrication technology, allowing transistor counts to grow by more than seven orders of magnitude in less than five decades. Computer industry technology road maps predicted in 2001 that Moore's law would continue for several generations of semiconductor chips. One of

11544-489: The typical 30% improvement rate (halving every two years) during the years earlier and later. Laptop microprocessors in particular improved 25–35% per year in 2004–2010, and slowed to 15–25% per year in 2010–2013. The number of transistors per chip cannot explain quality-adjusted microprocessor prices fully. Moore's 1995 paper does not limit Moore's law to strict linearity or to transistor count, "The definition of 'Moore's Law' has come to refer to almost anything related to

11655-483: The war effort. Subsequently, Camden became ethnically and religiously segregated. On July 17, 1951, the Delaware River Port Authority , a bi-state agency, was created to promote trade and better coordinate transportation between the two cities of Camden and Phildelphia. However, by the 1950s, manufacturing came to slow causing industries to relocate and employment to dwindle. In contrast to

11766-471: Was Governor of the Isle of Jersey . Lord John Berkeley kept his share of New Jersey from 1664 until 1674, when he sold it to two Quakers , John Fenwick and Edward Byllynge . This due to political difficulties between him, Carteret, and Governor of New York Richard Nicolls , as well as financial difficulties. Governor Richard Nicolls had objected to the Province of New Jersey as he had exercised control over

11877-617: Was acquired from NAI by a new company called PGP Corporation . Zimmermann served as a special advisor and consultant to that firm until Symantec acquired PGP Corporation in 2010. Zimmermann is also a fellow at the Stanford Law School's Center for Internet and Society . He was a principal designer of the cryptographic key agreement protocol (the "association model") for the Wireless USB standard. Along with Mike Janke and Jon Callas , in 2012 he co-founded Silent Circle ,

11988-603: Was also involved in the social network Okuna , formerly Openbook, which aimed to be an ethical and privacy-friendly alternative to existing social networks, especially Facebook . He sees today's established social media platforms as a threat to democracy and privacy, because of their profit-oriented revenue models that "are all about exploiting our personal information" and "[deepen] the political divides in our culture", and hoped Okuna would help solve these problems. In 2013, an article on "Zimmermann's Law" quoted Phil Zimmermann as saying "The natural flow of technology tends to move in

12099-507: Was chartered in Camden, which connected ferry terminals from New York City to Philadelphia via rail. The railroad ended in Camden's Waterfront, where passengers would be ferried across the Delaware River to arrive in Philadelphia. Similarly to Camden's inception, transportation was a huge catalyst in its growth—the railroads opening in 1834 led to an increase in population and commerce. At the turn 20th Century, industry grew rapidly at

12210-521: Was filled by new African American and Latino citizens and led to a restructuring of Camden's communities. The number of White citizens who left to neighboring towns such as Collingswood or Cherry Hill left both new and old African American and Latino citizens to re-shape their community. To help in this process, numerous not-for-profit organizations such as Hopeworks or the Neighborhood Center were formed to facilitate Camden's movement into

12321-434: Was incorporated as a city on February 13, 1828, from portions of Newton Township , while the area was still part of Gloucester County . In 1832, Camden Township was created as a township coextensive with Camden City. The township existed until it was repealed in 1848. Camden Township was established in 1832 which was the same area as Camden City until it was reduced in 1848. In 1830, the Camden and Amboy Railroad Company

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