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122-457: Olga ( Church Slavonic : Ольга ; Old Norse : Helga ; c.  890–925 – 11 July 969) was a regent of Kievan Rus' for her son Sviatoslav from 945 until 957. Following her baptism, Olga took the name Elenа . She is known for her subjugation of the Drevlians , a tribe that had killed her husband Igor . Even though it was her grandson Vladimir who adopted Christianity and made it

244-685: A state coach in Europe or a horse used in Northern Ghana. The chiefs of the Ga ( mantsemei ) in the Greater Accra Region ( Ghana ) use also figurative palanquins which are built after a chief's family symbol or totem. But these day the figurative palanquins are very seldom used. They are related with the figurative coffins which have become very popular among the Ga in the last 50 years. Since these figurative coffins were shown 1989 in

366-419: A bed or couch, sometimes enclosed by curtains , for the passenger or passengers to lie on. These are carried by at least two porters in equal numbers in front and behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on the sides of the couch. The largest and heaviest types would be carried by draught animals. Another form, commonly called a sedan chair , consists of a chair or windowed cabin suitable for

488-691: A brief passage in the Synopsis of Histories (written c. 1070s by Byzantine historian John Skylitzes in Greek), and a long adventurous story in the Primary Chronicle (compiled in Kiev c. 1110s in Old Church Slavonic by an unknown Rus' monk). All three sources disagree on why Olga went to Constantinople, when, what happened there, and how it happened. The Book of Ceremonies

610-465: A cot or frame suspended by the four corners from a bamboo pole and borne by two bearers, is called a doli . Larger palanquins are rectangular wooden boxes eight feet long, four feet wide, and four feet high, with openings on either side screened by curtains or shutters. Interiors are furnished with bedding and pillows. Ornamentation reflects the social status of the traveller. The most ornate palanquins have lacquer paintwork and cast bronze finials at

732-528: A council, and was recorded the next year visiting "all the Russian land (i.e. Suzdalia, northeast Russia), teaching, instructing and administering," and spreading news about their canonization, including in Novgorod and Pskov. A northern Russian manuscript from the 15th century mentions that "when Vladimir unearthed the body of Olga, his grandmother [and discovered that it was] uncorrupted, [he then] placed it in

854-400: A crucial turning point for Christianity in the area. Despite the resistance of her people to Christianity, Olga built churches in Kiev, Pskov, and elsewhere. Seven Latin sources document Olga's embassy to Holy Roman Emperor Otto I in 959. The continuation of Regino of Prüm mentions that the envoys requested the emperor to appoint a bishop and priests for their nation. The chronicler accuses

976-577: A fare system was established for Scottish sedans, and the regulations covering chairmen in Bath are reminiscent of the modern Taxi Commission's rules. A trip within a city cost six pence and a day's rental was four shillings. A sedan was even used as an ambulance in Scotland's Royal Infirmary. Chairmen moved at a good clip. In Bath they had the right-of-way: pedestrians hearing "By your leave" behind them knew to flatten themselves against walls or railings as

1098-422: A fixed elaborately carved roof and doors. While the cáng has become obsolete, the kiệu is retained in certain traditional rituals a part of a temple devotional procession. In Thailand, the royalty were also carried in wooden litters called wo ("พระวอ" Phra Wo, literally, "Royal Sedan") for large ceremonies. Wos were elaborately decorated litters that were delicately carved and colored by gold leaf. Stained glass

1220-625: A funeral feast for him." When Olga and a small group of attendants arrived at Igor's tomb, she did indeed weep and hold a funeral feast. The Drevlians sat down to join them and began to drink heavily. When the Drevlians were drunk, she ordered her followers to kill them, "and went about herself egging on her retinue to the massacre of the Drevlians." According to the Primary Chronicle , five thousand Drevlians were killed on this night, but Olga returned to Kiev to prepare an army to finish off

1342-523: A goddaughter to marry her godfather. Francis Butler argues that the story of the proposal was a literary embellishment, describing an event that is highly unlikely to have ever actually occurred. In fact, at the time of her baptism, Constantine already had an empress. In addition to uncertainty over the truth of the Chronicle 's telling of events in Constantinople, there is controversy over

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1464-513: A greater or lesser extent. The Russian Orthodox Church, which contains around half of all Orthodox believers, still holds its liturgies almost entirely in Church Slavonic. However, there exist parishes which use other languages (where the main problem has been a lack of good translations). Examples include: What follows is a list of modern recensions or dialects of Church Slavonic. For a list and descriptions of extinct recensions, see

1586-555: A large military procession, with a yellow (the Javanese colour for royalty) square canopy. The ceremonial parasol ( payung ) was held above the palanquin, which was carried by a bearer behind and flanked by the most loyal bodyguards, usually about 12 men, with pikes , sabres , lances , muskets , keris and a variety of disguised blades. In contrast, the canopy of the Sumatran palanquin was oval-shaped and draped in white cloth; this

1708-673: A liturgical and literary language in all Orthodox countries north of the Mediterranean region during the Middle Ages , even in places where the local population was not Slavic (especially in Romania ). In recent centuries, however, Church Slavonic was fully replaced by local languages in the non-Slavic countries. Even in some of the Slavic Orthodox countries, the modern national language is now used for liturgical purposes to

1830-478: A local warlord. In 945, Igor set out to the Drevlian capital, Iskorosten , to force the tribe to pay tribute to Kievan Rus'. Confronted by Igor's larger army, the Drevlians backed down and paid him. As Igor and his army rode home, however, he decided the payment was not enough and returned, with only a small escort, seeking more tribute. Upon his arrival in their territory, the Drevlians murdered Igor. According to

1952-453: A part of the year in Edo (Tokyo) with their families, resulting in yearly migrations of the rich and powerful ( Sankin-kōtai ) to and from the capital along the central backbone road of Japan. Somewhat similar in appearance to kago are the portable shrines that are used to carry the "god-body" ( goshintai ), the central totemic core normally found in the most sacred area of Shinto Shrines , on

2074-567: A pole projecting fore and aft. The word is derived from the Sanskrit palyanka , meaning bed or couch. The Malay and Javanese form is palangki , in Hindi and Bengali, palki , in Telugu pallaki . The Portuguese apparently added a nasal termination to these to make palanquim . English adopted it from Portuguese as "palanquin". Palanquins vary in size and grandeur. The smallest and simplest,

2196-492: A result, the borrowings into Russian are similar to native Russian words, but with South Slavic variances, e.g. (the first word in each pair is Russian, the second Church Slavonic): золото / злато ( zoloto / zlato ), город / град ( gorod / grad ), горячий / горящий ( goryačiy / goryaščiy ), рожать / рождать ( rožat’ / roždat’ ). Since the Russian Romantic era and

2318-446: A simple wooden chair with an attached tumpline . The occupant sat in the chair, which was then affixed to the back of a single porter, with the tumpline supported by his head. The occupant thus faced backwards during travel. This style of palanquin was probably due to the steep terrain and rough or narrow roads unsuitable to European-style sedan chairs. Travellers by silla usually employed a number of porters, who would alternate carrying

2440-494: A single occupant, also carried by at least two porters, one in front and one behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on the sides of the chair. These porters were known in London as "chairmen". These have been very rare since the 19th century, but such enclosed portable litters have been used as an elite form of transport for centuries, especially in cultures where women are kept secluded. Sedan chairs, in use until

2562-522: A status symbol. During the 17–18th centuries, palanquins (see above) were very popular among European traders in Bengal , so much so that in 1758 an order was issued prohibiting their purchase by certain lower-ranking employees. A similar but simpler palanquin was used by the elite in parts of 18th- and 19th-century Latin America . Often simply called a silla (Spanish for seat or chair), it consisted of

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2684-424: A tour to and from a shrine during some religious festivals . Traditional Vietnam employed two distinct types of litters, the cáng and the kiệu . The cáng is a basic bamboo pole with the rider reclining in a hammock . More elaborate cáng had an adjustable woven bamboo shade to shelter the occupant. Dignitaries would have an entourage to carry parasols. The kiệu resemble more of the sedan chair, enclosed with

2806-896: A wooden coffin in the Church of the Tithe". In 1547, nearly 600 years after her 969 death, the Russian Orthodox Church officially named Olga a saint, equal-to-the-apostles . Because of her proselytizing influence, the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church , and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church call Olga by the honorific Isapóstolos, "Equal to the Apostles". Olga's feast day

2928-474: Is July 11, the date of her death. The Orthodox Church of Ukraine celebrates her memory on 24 July. In keeping with her own biography, she is the patron of widows and converts. The honorific title "Equal to the Apostles" was first given to her on the initiative of Archimandrite Innokenty (Prosvirnin) in the 1980s. Olga is venerated as saint in East Slavic-speaking countries where churches uses

3050-408: Is actually a set of at least four different dialects (recensions or redactions; Russian : извод , izvod), with essential distinctions between them in dictionary, spelling (even in writing systems), phonetics, and other aspects. The most widespread recension, Russian, has several local sub-dialects in turn, with slightly different pronunciations. These various Church Slavonic recensions were used as

3172-604: Is also St. Olga Street in the city of Hamilton ( Canada ). [REDACTED] Media related to Olga, Grand Princess of Kyiv at Wikimedia Commons Church Slavonic language Church Slavonic is the conservative Slavic liturgical language used by the Eastern Orthodox Church in Belarus , Bulgaria , North Macedonia , Montenegro , Poland , Ukraine , Russia , Serbia , the Czech Republic and Slovakia , Slovenia and Croatia . The language appears also in

3294-643: Is also used to decorate the litters. Presently, Royal Wos and carriages are only used for royal ceremonies in Thailand. They are exhibited in the Bangkok National Museum. In traditional Javanese society, the generic palanquin or joli was a wicker chair with a canopy, attached to two poles, and borne on men's shoulders, and was available for hire to any paying customer. As a status marker, gilded throne-like palanquins, or jempana , were originally reserved solely for royalty, and later co-opted by

3416-613: Is archaic and characteristic of written high style, while the other is found in common speech. In Russia, Church Slavonic is pronounced in the same way as Russian , with some exceptions: The Old Moscow recension is in use among Old Believers and Co-Believers . The same traditional Cyrillic alphabet as in Russian Synodal recension; however, there are differences in spelling because the Old Moscow recension reproduces an older state of orthography and grammar in general (before

3538-527: Is concerned with etiquette at the Byzantine imperial court, describing all the formalities during ceremonies such as embassies, receptions and dinners, and uses various practical examples to illustrate established protocol. Olga's visit is used as an example of how to receive a Rus' prince(ss), portraying her in a positive manner. Olga's entourage consisted of various representatives of other Rus' princes, as wel as 43 merchants, and one priest named Gregory. There

3660-629: Is illustrated by licensing records which show twenty-seven sedan chairs in 1800, eighteen in 1817, and ten in 1828. During that same period the number of registered hackney carriages in Glasgow rose to one hundred and fifty. The wealthy are recorded to have used sedan chairs in the cities of colonial America and the early period of the United States. In 1787, Benjamin Franklin , at the time 81 years old, gouty , and in generally declining health,

3782-469: Is known about her life before her marriage to Prince Igor I of Kiev and the birth of their son, Sviatoslav. According to Alexey Karpov , a specialist in the history of ancient Russia, Olga was no more than 15 years old at the time of her marriage. Igor was the son and heir of Rurik , founder of the Rurik dynasty . After his father's death, Igor was under the guardianship of Oleg , who had consolidated power in

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3904-652: Is no mention of baptism, nor of her taking on the Christian name 'Helena', in the Book of Ceremonies . John Skylitzes recorded only a very brief passage in chapter 11, section 6 of his Synopsis of Histories : Olga 'came to Constantinople after her husband died. She was baptized and she demonstrated fervent devotion, then she went back home.' Unlike the Book of Ceremonies , Olga is said to have been baptised in Constantinople and being devout, but not doing anything else. Once in Constantinople, Olga converted to Christianity with

4026-521: Is noted to have travelled to meetings of the United States Constitutional Convention in a sedan chair carried by four prisoners. In various colonies, litters of various types were maintained under native traditions, but often adopted by the colonials as a new ruling and/or socio-economic elite, either for practical reasons (often comfortable modern transport was unavailable, e.g. for lack of decent roads) and/or as

4148-454: Is pleasing to me, indeed, my husband cannot rise again from the dead. But I desire to honor you tomorrow in the presence of my people. Return now to your boat, and remain there with an aspect of arrogance. I shall send for you on the morrow, and you shall say, "We will not ride on horses nor go on foot, carry us in our boat." And you shall be carried in your boat. When the Drevlians returned the next day, they waited outside Olga's court to receive

4270-542: Is the centre of my realm, where all riches are concentrated; gold, silks, wine, and various fruits from Greece, silver and horses from Hungary and Bohemia, and from Rus' furs, wax, honey, and slaves." But Olga made reply, "You behold me in my weakness. Why do you desire to depart from me?" For she was already in precarious health. She thus remonstrated with him and begged him first to bury her and then to go wheresoever he would. Three days later Olga died. Her son wept for her with great mourning, as did likewise her grandsons and all

4392-590: Is the use of Ґ in the Rusyn variant. Г is pronounced as h and Ґ is pronounced as G. For example, Blagosloveno is Blahosloveno in Rusyn variants. Typographically, Serbian and Ukrainian editions (when printed in traditional Cyrillic) are almost identical to the Russian ones. Certain visible distinctions may include: The variant differences are limited to the lack of certain sounds in Serbian phonetics (there are no sounds corresponding to letters ы and щ, and in certain cases

4514-416: Is written that Olga bent down to watch them as they were buried and "inquired whether they found the honor to their taste." Olga then sent a message to the Drevlians that they should send "their distinguished men to her in Kiev, so that she might go to their Prince with due honor." The Drevlians, unaware of the fate of the first diplomatic party, gathered another party of men to send "the best men who governed

4636-750: The Ramayana ( c.  250   BC ). Indian women of rank always travelled by palanquin. The conveyance proved popular with European residents in India, and was used extensively by them. Pietro Della Valle , a 17th-century Italian traveller, wrote: Going in Palanchino in the Territories of the Portugals in India is prohibited to men, because indeed 'tis a thing too effeminate, nevertheless, as

4758-582: The Ark of the Covenant in the Book of Exodus resembles a litter. In Ancient Rome , a litter called lectica or sella often carried members of the imperial family, as well as other dignitaries and other members of the rich elite, when not mounted on horseback. The habit must have proven quite persistent, for the Third Council of Braga in 675 AD saw the need to order that bishops, when carrying

4880-584: The Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon , Igor's death was caused by a gruesome act of torture in which he was "captured by them, tied to tree trunks, and torn in two." D. Sullivan has suggested that Leo may have invented this sensationalist version of Igor's death, taking inspiration from Diodorus Siculus ' account of a similar killing method used by the robber Sinis , who lived near the Isthmus of Corinth and

5002-818: The Co-Believers also use Church Slavonic. Church Slavonic is also used by Greek Catholic Churches in Slavic countries , for example the Croatian , Slovak and Ruthenian Greek Catholics, as well as by the Roman Catholic Church (Croatian and Czech recensions). In the past, Church Slavonic was also used by the Orthodox Churches in the Romanian lands until the late 17th and early 18th centuries, as well as by Roman Catholic Croats in

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5124-519: The Early Middle Ages . Church Slavonic represents a later stage of Old Church Slavonic , and is the continuation of the liturgical tradition introduced by two Thessalonian brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius , in the late 9th century in Nitra , a principal town and religious and scholarly center of Great Moravia (located in present-day Slovakia ). There the first Slavic translations of

5246-609: The Latin alphabet (a method used in Austro-Hungary and Czechoslovakia) just contain the letter "i" for yat. Other distinctions reflect differences between palatalization rules of Ukrainian and Russian (for example, ⟨ч⟩ is always "soft" (palatalized) in Russian pronunciation and "hard" in the Ukrainian one), different pronunciation of letters ⟨г⟩ and ⟨щ⟩ , etc. Another major difference

5368-677: The Ostrog Bible of Ivan Fedorov (1580/1581) and as въ началѣ бѣ слово in the Elizabethan Bible of 1751, still in use in the Russian Orthodox Church. Palanquin A simple litter consists of a sling attached along its length to poles or stretched inside a frame. The poles or frame are carried by porters in front and behind. Such simple litters are common on battlefields and emergency situations, where terrain prohibits wheeled vehicles from carrying away

5490-591: The Pechenegs' siege of the city. When Sviatoslav announced plans to move his throne to the Danube region, the ailing Olga convinced him to stay with her during her final days. Only three days later, she died and her family and larger parts of Kievan Rus' mourned: Sviatoslav announced to his mother and his boyars, "I do not care to remain in Kiev, but should prefer to live in Peryaslavets on the Danube , since that

5612-522: The Portugals are very little observers of their own Laws, they began at first to be tolerated upon occasion of the Rain, and for favours, or presents, and afterwards became so common that they are us'd almost by everybody throughout the whole year. Some translations of the Hebrew Bible refer to a wooden palanquin which King Solomon is said to have made for himself. Being transported by palanquin

5734-783: The Scripture and liturgy from Koine Greek were made. After the Christianization of Bulgaria in 864, Saint Clement of Ohrid and Saint Naum of Preslav were of great importance to the Eastern Orthodox faith and the Old Church Slavonic liturgy in the First Bulgarian Empire . The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of the East Slavs . A major event

5856-403: The seggioli of Naples and Genoa , which were chairs for public hire slung from poles and carried on the shoulders of two porters. From the mid-17th century, visitors taking the waters at Bath would be conveyed in a chair enclosed in baize curtains, especially if they had taken a heated bath and were going straight to bed to sweat. The curtains kept off a possibly fatal draft. These were not

5978-436: The 1650s). The most easily observable peculiarities of books in this recension are: A main difference between Russian and Ukrainian recension of Church Slavonic as well as the Russian " Civil Script " lies in the pronunciation of the letter yat (ѣ). The Russian pronunciation is the same as е [je] ~ [ʲe] whereas the Ukrainian is the same as и [i] . Greek Catholic variants of Church Slavonic books printed in variants of

6100-649: The 1760s, Lomonosov argued that Church Slavonic was the so-called "high style" of Russian, during the nineteenth century within Russia, this point of view declined. Elements of Church Slavonic style may have survived longest in speech among the Old Believers after the late-seventeenth century schism in the Russian Orthodox Church. Russian has borrowed many words from Church Slavonic. While both Russian and Church Slavonic are Slavic languages, some early Slavic sound combinations evolved differently in each branch. As

6222-475: The 19th century, were accompanied at night by link-boys who carried torches. Where possible, the link boys escorted the fares to the chairmen, the passengers then being delivered to the door of their lodgings. Several houses in Bath, Somerset , England still have the link extinguishers on the exteriors, shaped like outsized candle snuffers. In the 1970s, entrepreneur and Bathwick resident, John Cuningham, revived

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6344-543: The Byzantine Rite: Eastern Orthodox Church (especially in Russian Orthodox Church ), Greek Catholic Church (especially in the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church ), in churches with Byzantine Rite Lutheranism , and among Western Catholics in Russia. Scholarship has traditionally focused on Olga's role in the spread of Christianity to Eastern Europe and Russia as well as her role in advising her son against persecution of Christians in

6466-443: The Drevlians, only her killing of their first envoy is plausible, since Iskorosten was just two days' ride from Kiev, making it difficult to conceal the first public murder. In 1981 a new ballet based on Olga's life was composed to commemorate the 1500th anniversary of the city of Kiev . In most cities of Ukraine there is Knyagini Olga Street. There is Olhynska Street in the city of Kiev. Cleveland has Saint Olga Ave. There

6588-448: The Drevlians. She sent them a message: "Why do you persist in holding out? All your cities have surrendered to me and submitted to tribute, so that the inhabitants now cultivate their fields and their lands in peace. But you had rather die of hunger, without submitting to tribute." (line 6454). The Drevlians responded that they would submit to tribute, but that they were afraid she was still intent on avenging her husband. Olga answered that

6710-465: The Dutch, as a status marker: the more elaborate the palanquin, the higher the status of the owner. The joli was transported either by hired help, by nobles' peasants, or by slaves. Historically, the palanquin of a Javanese king ( raja ), prince ( pangeran ), lord ( raden mas ) or other noble ( bangsawan ) was known as a jempana ; a more throne-like version was called a pangkem . It was always part of

6832-509: The Great ), Jonathan Shepard argues that Olga's baptismal name comes from the contemporary emperor's wife, Helena. The observation that Olga was "worthy to reign with him in his city" suggests that the emperor was interested in marrying her. While the Chronicle explains Constantine's desire to take Olga as his wife as stemming from the fact that she was "fair of countenance and wise as well," marrying Olga could certainly have helped him gain power over Rus'. The Chronicle recounts that Olga asked

6954-488: The Kievan Rus'. Modern publications, on the other hand, reflect a broader interest in Olga beyond her role in expanding Christendom . Detailing her story, a 2018 article claimed she showed her countrymen how "a woman could rule with strength and decision." The Russian Primary Chronicle's claim that Olga was of Viking descent also received attention for its possible contribution to her "warrior spirit". Russian historian Boris Akunin argues though she certainly reconquered

7076-400: The Kievan people. According to archeologist Sergei Beletsky, Knyaginya Olga, like all the other rulers before Vladimir the Great , was also using the bident as her personal symbol . After Igor's death at the hands of the Drevlians, Olga assumed the throne because her three-year-old son Sviatoslav was too young to rule. The Drevlians, emboldened by their success in ambushing and killing

7198-422: The Russian recension). Many, but not all, occurrences of the imperfect tense have been replaced with the perfect. Miscellaneous other modernisations of classical formulae have taken place from time to time. For example, the opening of the Gospel of John , by tradition the first words written down by Saints Cyril and Methodius , (искони бѣаше слово) "In the beginning was the Word", were set as "искони бѣ слово" in

7320-507: The St. Elias Church in Kiev for the Rus'–Byzantine Treaty in 945—but she was the most powerful Rus' individual to undergo baptism during her life. The Primary Chronicle reports that Olga received the Patriarch's blessing for her journey home, and that once she arrived, she unsuccessfully attempted to convert her son to Christianity: Now Olga dwelt with her son Sviatoslav, and she urged him to be baptized, but he would not listen to her suggestion, though when any man wished to be baptized, he

7442-407: The addition of letter ⟨ě⟩ for yat ) or in Glagolitic script. Sample editions include: Church Slavonic is in very limited use among Czech Catholics. The recension was developed by Vojtěch Tkadlčík in his editions of the Roman missal: Although the various recensions of Church Slavonic differ in some points, they share the tendency of approximating the original Old Church Slavonic to

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7564-464: The article on the Old Church Slavonic language. The Russian recension of New Church Slavonic is the language of books since the second half of the 17th century. It generally uses traditional Cyrillic script ( poluustav ); however, certain texts (mostly prayers) are printed in modern alphabets with the spelling adapted to rules of local languages (for example, in Russian/Ukrainian/Bulgarian/Serbian Cyrillic or in Hungarian/Slovak/Polish Latin). Before

7686-430: The assistance of the Emperor and the Patriarch Polyeuctus . While the Primary Chronicle does not divulge Olga's motivation for her visit or conversion, it does go into great detail on the conversion process, in which she was baptized and instructed in the ways of Christianity. While the Primary Chronicle notes that Olga was christened with the name "Helena" after the ancient Saint Helena (the mother of Constantine

7808-422: The castle of Vyshgorod with her grandsons. In the 950s, Olga traveled to Constantinople , the capital of the Byzantine Empire, to visit Emperor Constantine VII . There are three primary sources about this event: a prescriptive account of formalities and etiquette in De Ceremoniis or Book of Ceremonies ( c. 950s, written or commissioned by Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos in Greek ),

7930-403: The chairmen hustled through. There were often disastrous accidents, upset chairs, and broken glass-paned windows. In Great Britain, in the early 19th century, the public sedan chair began to fall out of use, perhaps because streets were better paved or perhaps because of the rise of the more comfortable, companionable and affordable hackney carriage . In Glasgow , the decline of the sedan chair

8052-401: The corpus of work of the great Russian authors (from Gogol to Chekhov , Tolstoy , and Dostoevsky ), the relationship between words in these pairs has become traditional. Where the abstract meaning has not commandeered the Church Slavonic word completely, the two words are often synonyms related to one another, much as Latin and native English words were related in the nineteenth century: one

8174-445: The dead and wounded. Litters can also be created quickly by the lashing of poles to a chair . Such litters, consisting of a simple cane chair with maybe an umbrella to ward off the elements and two stout bamboo poles, may still be found in Chinese mountain resorts such as the Huangshan Mountains to carry tourists along scenic paths and to viewing positions inaccessible by other means of transport. A more luxurious version consists of

8296-399: The departed. In pre-colonial Philippines, litters were a way of transportation for the elite ( maginoo , ginu , tumao ); Rajahs , Lakans , Datus , sovereign princes ( Rajamuda ) and their wives use a Sankayan or Sakayan , a wooden or bamboo throne with elaborate and intricate carvings carried by their servants. Also among their retinue were payong (umbrella)-bearers, to shade

8418-490: The details of her conversion to Christianity. According to Church Slavonic sources, she was baptized in Constantinople in 957. Byzantine sources, however, indicate that she was a Christian prior to her 957 visit. It seems likely that she was baptized in Kiev around 955 and, following a second christening in Constantinople, took the Christian name Helen. Olga was not the first person from Rus' to convert from her pagan ways—there were Christians in Igor's court who had taken oaths at

8540-475: The difficulties posed by the mountainous terrain of the Korean peninsula and the lack of paved roads, gama s were preferred over wheeled vehicles. In traditional weddings, the bride and groom are carried to the ceremony in separate gama s, this custom goes back to the times of Joseon Dynasty , when the gamas were also used for celebrations of passing government exams and funerals. As the population of Japan increased and less and less land remained available for

8662-450: The eighteenth century, Church Slavonic was in wide use as a general literary language in Russia . Although it was never spoken per se outside church services, members of the priesthood, poets, and the educated tended to slip its expressions into their speech. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it was gradually replaced by the Russian language in secular literature and was retained for use only in church. Although as late as

8784-606: The elite travelled in light bamboo seats supported on a carrier's back like a backpack. In the Northern Wei dynasty and the Northern and Southern Song dynasty , wooden carriages on poles appear in painted landscape scrolls. A commoner used a wooden or bamboo civil litter ( Chinese : 民轎 ; pinyin : min2 jiao4 ), while the mandarin class used an official litter (Chinese: 官轎 ; pinyin: guan1 jiao4 ) enclosed in silk curtains. The chair with perhaps

8906-432: The emperor to baptize her knowing that his baptismal sponsorship, by the rules of spiritual kinship, would make marriage between them a kind of spiritual incest. Though her desire to become Christian may have been genuine, this request was also a way for her to maintain political independence. After the baptism, when Constantine repeated his marriage proposal, Olga answered that she could not marry him since church law forbade

9028-515: The empire. Olga's work helped to centralize state rule with these trade centers, called pogosti , which served as administrative centers in addition to their mercantile roles. Olga's network of pogosti would prove important in the ethnic and cultural unification of the Rus' people, and her border posts began the establishment of national boundaries for the kingdom. During her son's prolonged military campaigns, she remained in charge of Kiev, residing in

9150-443: The ends of the poles. Designs include foliage, animals, and geometric patterns. Ibn Batutta describes them as being "carried by eight men in two lots of four, who rest and carry in turn. In the town there are always a number of these men standing in the bazaars and at the sultan's gate and at the gates of other persons for hire." Those for "women are covered with silk curtains." Palanquins are mentioned in literature as early as

9272-490: The envoys of lies, commenting that their trick was not exposed until later. Thietmar of Merseburg says that the first archbishop of Magdeburg , Adalbert of Magdeburg , before being promoted to this high rank, was sent by Emperor Otto to the country of the Rus' ( Rusciae ) as a simple bishop but was expelled by pagan allies of Sviatoslav I . The same data is repeated in the annals of Quedlinburg and Hildesheim . In 2018, Russian historian and writer Boris Akunin pointed out

9394-636: The exhibition "Les magicians de la terre" in the Centre Pompidou in Paris they were shown in many art museums around the world. From at least the 15th century until the 19th century, litters of varying types known as tipoye were used in the Kingdom of Kongo as a mode of transportation for the elites. Seat-style litters with a single pole along the back of the chair carried by two men (usually slaves) were topped with an umbrella. Lounge-style litters in

9516-492: The fall of the yers is fully reflected, more or less to the Russian pattern, although the terminal ъ continues to be written. The yuses are often replaced or altered in usage to the sixteenth- or seventeenth-century Russian pattern. The yat continues to be applied with greater attention to the ancient etymology than it was in nineteenth-century Russian. The letters ksi , psi , omega , ot , and izhitsa are kept, as are

9638-582: The fear of Jehovah they have not chosen. They would none of my counsel, but despised all my reproof." This passage highlights the hostility towards Christianity in Kievan Rus' in the tenth century. In the Chronicle, Sviatoslav declares that his followers would "laugh" if he were to accept Christianity. While Olga tried to convince her son that his followers would follow his example if he converted, her efforts were in vain. However, her son agreed not to persecute those in his kingdom who did convert, which marked

9760-566: The form of a miniature hut. In Spanish-colonial Philippines, litters remained one of the options of transportation for the Spanish inhabitants and members of the native principalia class. In Southern Ghana the Akan and the Ga-Dangme carry their chiefs and kings in palanquins when they appear in their state durbars . When used in such occasions these palanquins may be seen as a substitutes of

9882-520: The gallop'. Portuguese and Spanish navigators and colonisers encountered litters of various sorts in India , Mexico , and Peru . Such novelties, imported into Spain , spread into France and then to Britain . All the European names for these devices ultimately derive from the root sed- , as in Latin sedere , "to sit", which gave rise to seda ("seat") and its diminutive sedula ("little seat"),

10004-560: The grazing of animals, restrictions were placed upon the use of horses for non-military purposes, with the result that human-powered transport grew increasingly important and eventually came to prevail. Kago ( Kanji : 駕籠, Hiragana : かご) were often used in Japan to transport the non-samurai citizen. Norimono were used by the warrior class and nobility, most famously during the Tokugawa period when regional samurai were required to spend

10126-428: The greatest importance was the bridal chair ( Chinese : 喜轎 ; pinyin : xi3 jiao4 ). A traditional bride is carried to her wedding ceremony by a "shoulder carriage" (Chinese: 肩輿 ; pinyin: jiān yú ), usually hired. These were lacquered in an auspicious shade of red, richly ornamented and gilded , and were equipped with red silk curtains to screen the bride from onlookers. Sedan chairs were once

10248-416: The honor she had promised. When they repeated the words she had told them to say, the people of Kiev rose up, carrying the Drevlians in their boat. The ambassadors believed this was a great honor as if they were being carried by palanquin . The people brought them into the court where they were dropped into a trench that had been dug the day before under Olga's orders where the ambassadors were buried alive. It

10370-473: The importance of a 2-year gap between invitation and arrival of bishops: "The failure of Olga's Byzantine trip has inflicted a severe blow to her party. The Grand Knyaginya made a second attempt to find a Christian patron, now in the West. But it seems, in the period between the sending of the embassy to Emperor Otto in 959 and the arrival of Adalbert in Kiev in 961, a bloodless coup took place. Pagan party prevailed,

10492-470: The king, sent a messenger to Olga proposing that she marry his murderer, Prince Mal . Twenty Drevlian negotiators boated to Kiev to pass along their king's message and to ensure Olga's compliance. They arrived in her court and told the queen why they were in Kiev: "to report that they had slain her husband   ... and that Olga should come and marry their Prince Mal." (line 6453). Olga responded: Your proposal

10614-469: The land of Dereva." When they arrived, Olga commanded her people to draw them a bath and invited the men to appear before her after they had bathed. When the Drevlians entered the bathhouse, Olga had it set on fire from the doors, so that all the Drevlians within burned to death. Olga sent another message to the Drevlians, this time ordering them to "prepare great quantities of mead in the city where you killed my husband, that I may weep over his grave and hold

10736-534: The latter of which was contracted to sella , the traditional Classical Latin name for a chair, including a carried chair. In Europe this mode of transportation met with instant success. Henry VIII of England (reigned 1509–1547) was carried around in a sedan chair—it took four strong chairmen to carry him towards the end of his life—but the expression "sedan chair" did not appear in print until 1615. Trevor Fawcett notes (see link) that British travellers Fynes Moryson (in 1594) and John Evelyn (in 1644–45) remarked on

10858-435: The letter-based denotation of numerical values, the use of stress accents, and the abbreviations or titla for nomina sacra . The vocabulary and syntax, whether in scripture, liturgy, or church missives, are generally somewhat modernised in an attempt to increase comprehension. In particular, some of the ancient pronouns have been eliminated from the scripture (such as етеръ /jeter/ "a certain (person, etc.)" → нѣкій in

10980-602: The local vernacular usage. These modified varieties or recensions (e.g. Serbian Church Slavonic, Russian Church Slavonic , Ukrainian Church Slavonic in Early Cyrillic script, Croatian Church Slavonic in Croatian angular Glagolitic and later in Latin script , Czech Church Slavonic, Slovak Church Slavonic in Latin script, Bulgarian Church Slavonic in Early Cyrillic and Bulgarian Glagolitic scripts, etc.) eventually stabilized and their regularized forms were used by

11102-509: The local Slavic vernacular. Inflection tends to follow the ancient patterns with few simplifications. All original six verbal tenses, seven nominal cases, and three numbers are intact in most frequently used traditional texts (but in the newly composed texts, authors avoid most archaic constructions and prefer variants that are closer to modern Russian syntax and are better understood by the Slavic-speaking people). In Russian recension,

11224-580: The mid-17th century, sedans for hire had become a common mode of transportation. London had "chairs" available for hire in 1634, each assigned a number and the chairmen licensed because the operation was a monopoly of a courtier of King Charles I . Sedan chairs could pass in streets too narrow for a carriage, helping to alleviate the crush of coaches in London streets, an early instance of traffic congestion . A similar system later operated in Scotland . In 1738

11346-406: The mid-19th century, palanquins remained popular for those who could afford them, but they fell out of favor for long journeys as steamers, railways, and roads suitable for wheeled transport were developed. By the beginning of the 20th century they were nearly "obsolete among the better class of Europeans". Rickshaws , introduced in the 1930s, supplanted them for trips around town. Modern use of

11468-476: The murder of the messengers sent to Kiev, as well as the events of the feast night, had been enough for her. She then asked them for a small request: "Give me three pigeons   ... and three sparrows from each house." The Drevlians rejoiced at the prospect of the siege ending for so small a price, and did as she asked. Olga then instructed her army to attach a piece of sulphur bound with small pieces of cloth to each bird. At nightfall, Olga told her soldiers to set

11590-570: The only public conveyance in Hong Kong, filling the role of cabs. Chair stands were found at all hotels, wharves, and major crossroads. Public chairs were licensed, and charged according to tariffs which would be displayed inside. Private chairs were an important marker of a person's status. Civil officers' status was denoted by the number of bearers attached to his chair. Before Hong Kong 's Peak Tram went into service in 1888, wealthy residents of The Peak were carried on sedan chairs by porters up

11712-514: The others as slaves to her followers. She left the remnant to pay tribute. Olga remained regent ruler of Kievan Rus' with the support of the army and her people. She changed the system of tribute gathering ( poliudie ) in the first legal reform recorded in Eastern Europe. She continued to evade proposals of marriage, defended the city during the Siege of Kiev in 968, and saved the power of

11834-430: The pagans around her during her life as well as the significance of her decision to convert to Christianity: Olga was the precursor of the Christian land, even as the day-spring precedes the sun and as the dawn precedes the day. For she shone like the moon by night, and she was radiant among the infidels like a pearl in the mire, since the people were soiled, and not yet purified of their sin by holy baptism. But she herself

11956-624: The palanquin is limited to ceremonial occasions. A doli carries the bride in a traditional wedding , and they may be used to carry religious images in Hindu processions. Many parts in Uttar Pradesh, India like Gorakhpur and around places Vishwakarma communities has been involved in making the dolis for wedding processions. The last known doli making dates back around 2000 by Sharmas(Vishwakarmas) in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. In Han China

12078-526: The palatalization is impossible to observe, e.g. ть is pronounced as т etc.). The medieval Serbian recension of Church Slavonic was gradually replaced by the Russian recension since the early 18th century. Nowadays in Serbia, Church Slavonic is generally pronounced according to the Russian model. This is in limited use among Croatian Catholics. Texts are printed in the Croatian Latin alphabet (with

12200-445: The people. They thus carried her out, and buried her in her tomb. Olga had given command not to hold a funeral feast for her, for she had a priest who performed the last rites over the sainted Princess. Although he disapproved of his mother's Christian tradition, Sviatoslav heeded Olga's request that her priest, Gregory, conduct a Christian funeral without the ritual pagan burial feast. Her tomb remained in Kiev for over two centuries, but

12322-412: The pieces aflame and release the birds. They returned to their nests within the city, which subsequently set the city ablaze. As the Primary Chronicle tells it: "There was not a house that was not consumed, and it was impossible to extinguish the flames, because all the houses caught fire at once." As the people fled the burning city, Olga ordered her soldiers to catch them, killing some of them and giving

12444-445: The proper sedan chairs "to carry the better sort of people in visits, or if sick or infirmed" ( Celia Fiennes ). In the 17th and 18th centuries, the chairs stood in the main hall of a well-appointed city residence, where a lady could enter and be carried to her destination without setting foot in a filthy street. The neoclassical sedan chair made for Queen Charlotte (Queen Consort from 1761 to 1818) remains at Buckingham Palace . By

12566-598: The region, conquering neighboring tribes and establishing a capital in Kiev. This loose tribal federation became known as Kievan Rus', a territory covering what are now parts of Russia , Ukraine , and Belarus . The Drevlians were a neighboring tribe with which the growing Kievan Rus' empire had a complex relationship. The Drevlians had joined Kievan Rus' in military campaigns against the Byzantine Empire and paid tribute to Igor's predecessors. They stopped paying tribute upon Oleg's death and instead gave money to

12688-511: The relics of martyrs in procession, must walk to the church, and not be carried in a chair, or litter, by deacons clothed in white. In the Catholic Church, Popes were carried the same way in sedia gestatoria , which was replaced later by the popemobile . A palanquin is a covered litter, usually for one passenger. It is carried by an even number of bearers (between two and eight, but most commonly four) on their shoulders, by means of

12810-558: The royalty and nobility from the intense heat. Princesses ( binibini , dayang dayang ) who were sequestered from the world were called Binukot or Binocot (“set apart”). A special type of royal, these individuals were forbidden to walk on the ground or be exposed to the general populace. When they needed to go anywhere, they were veiled and carried in a hammock or a basket-like litter similar to bird's nests carried by their slaves. Longer journeys required that they be borne inside larger, covered palanquins with silk covers, with some taking

12932-691: The scribes to produce new translations of liturgical material from Koine Greek , or Latin in the case of Croatian Church Slavonic. Attestation of Church Slavonic traditions appear in Early Cyrillic and Glagolitic script . Glagolitic has nowadays fallen out of use, though both scripts were used from the earliest attested period. The first Church Slavonic printed book was the Missale Romanum Glagolitice (1483) in angular Glagolitic, followed shortly by five Cyrillic liturgical books printed in Kraków in 1491. The Church Slavonic language

13054-500: The sedan chair service business for a brief amount of time. In traditional Catholic processions , holy statues and relics are still carried through the streets using litters. In pharaonic Egypt and many other places such as India , Rome , and China , the ruler and divinities (in the form of an idol like lord Krishna ) were often transported in a litter in public, frequently in procession, as during state ceremonial or religious festivals. The instructions for how to construct

13176-917: The services of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia , the American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese , and occasionally in the services of the Orthodox Church in America . In addition, Church Slavonic is used by some churches which consider themselves Orthodox but are not in communion with the Orthodox Church, such as the Montenegrin Orthodox Church and the Russian True Orthodox Church . The Russian Old Believers and

13298-469: The shape of a bed were used to move one to two people with a porter at each corner. Due to the tropical climate, horses were not native to the area nor could they survive very long once introduced by the Portuguese. Human portage was the only mode of transportation in the region and became highly adept with missionary accounts claiming the litter transporters could move at speeds 'as fast as post horses at

13420-458: The state religion, she was the first ruler to be baptized. Olga is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church with the epithet " Equal to the Apostles ". Her feast day is 11 July. While Olga's birthdate is unknown, it could be as early as 890 AD and as late as 925 AD. According to the Primary Chronicle , Olga was of Varangian ( Viking ) origin and was born in Pleskov . Little

13542-679: The steep paths to their residence including Sir Richard MacDonnell's (former Governor of Hong Kong ) summer home , where they could take advantage of the cooler climate. Since 1975 an annual sedan chair race has been held to benefit the Matilda International Hospital and commemorate the practice of earlier days. In Korea, royalty and aristocrats were carried in wooden litters called gama ( Korean :  가마 ). Gama s were primarily used by royalty and government officials. There were six types of gama , each assigned to different government official rankings. Because of

13664-413: The survivors. The initial conflict between the armies of the two nations went very well for the forces of Kievan Rus', who won the battle handily and drove the survivors back into their cities. Olga then led her army to Iskorosten (what is today Korosten ), the city where her husband had been slain, and laid siege to the city. The siege lasted for a year without success when Olga thought of a plan to trick

13786-562: The throne for her son. After her dramatic subjugation of the Drevlians, the Primary Chronicle recounts how Olga "passed through the land of Dereva, accompanied by her son and her retinue, establishing laws and tribute. Her trading posts and hunting-reserves are there still." As queen, Olga established trading-posts and collected tribute along the Msta and the Luga rivers. She established hunting grounds, boundary posts, towns, and trading-posts across

13908-760: The wounded from the battlefield. In the early 19th century, the most prevalent mode of long-distance transport for the affluent was by palanquin. The post office could arrange, with a few days notice, relays of bearers to convey a traveller's palanquin between stages or stations. The distance between these in the government's dak ( Hindi : "mail") system averaged about 10 miles (16 km), and could be covered in three hours. A relay's usual complement consisted of two torch-bearers, two luggage-porters, and eight palanquin-bearers who worked in gangs of four, although all eight might pitch in at steep sections. A passenger could travel straight through or break their journey at dak bungalows located at certain stations. Until

14030-533: The young Sviatoslav pushed his mother into the background, and that's why the German bishops had to return empty-handed." According to Russian historian Vladimir Petrukhin , Olga invited the Roman rite bishops because she wanted to motivate Byzantine priests to catechize the Rus' people more enthusiastically, by introducing competition. According to the Primary Chronicle , Olga died from illness in 969, soon after

14152-403: Was cleansed by this sacred purification   .... She was the first from Rus' to enter the kingdom of God, and the sons of Rus' thus praise her as their leader, for since her death she has interceded with God in their behalf. It is unclear when Olga was canonized, but John Fennell argued that this was most likely in 1284, together with Vladimir, when Metropolitan Maxim summoned the bishops to

14274-808: Was destroyed by the Mongolian-Tatar armies of Batu Khan in 1240. The sarcophagus found in 1826 during excavations of Church of the Tithes conducted by architect Nikolai Efimov was attributed as being Olga's and moved first to the Historical Museum and then to St. Sophia Cathedral. At the time of her death, it seemed that Olga's attempt to make Kievan Rus' a Christian territory had been a failure. Nonetheless, Olga's Christianizing mission would be brought to fruition by her grandson, Vladimir , who officially adopted Christianity in 988. The Primary Chronicle highlights Olga's holiness in contrast to

14396-431: Was killed by Theseus . After Igor's death in 945, Olga ruled Kievan Rus' as regent on behalf of their son Sviatoslav . She was the first woman to rule Kievan Rus'. Little is known about Olga's tenure as ruler of Kiev, but the Primary Chronicle does give an account of her accession to the throne and her bloody revenge on the Drevlians for the murder of her husband as well as some insight into her role as civil leader of

14518-558: Was not hindered, but only mocked. For to the infidels, the Christian faith is foolishness. They do not comprehend it, because they walk in darkness and do not see the glory of God. Their hearts are hardened, and they can neither hear with their ears nor see with their eyes. For Solomon has said, "The deeds of the unrighteous are far from wisdom. Inasmuch as I have called you, and ye heard me not, I sharpened my words, and ye understood not. But ye have set at nought all my counsel, and would have none of my reproach. For they have hated knowledge, and

14640-609: Was pleasant. Owning one and keeping the staff to power it was a luxury affordable even to low-paid clerks of the East India Company . Concerned that this indulgence led to neglect of business in favor of "rambling", in 1758 the Court of Directors of the company prohibited its junior clerks from purchasing and maintaining palanquins. Also in the time of the British in India, dolis served as military ambulances, used to carry

14762-464: Was reflective of greater cultural permeation by Islam. Occasionally, a weapon or heirloom, such as an important keris or tombak, was given its own palanquin. In Hindu culture in Bali today, the tradition of using palanquins for auspicious statues, weapons or heirlooms continues, for funerals especially; in more elaborate rituals, a palanquin is used to bear the body, and is subsequently cremated along with

14884-688: Was the development of the Cyrillic script in Bulgaria at the Preslav Literary School in the 9th century. The Cyrillic script and the liturgy in Old Church Slavonic, also called Old Bulgarian , were declared official in Bulgaria in 893. By the early 12th century, individual Slavic languages started to emerge, and the liturgical language was modified in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and orthography according to

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