God
173-781: Schools Relations with: Catholic Mariology is the systematic study of the person of Mary, mother of Jesus , and of her place in the Economy of Salvation in Catholic theology . According to the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception taught by the Catholic Church, Mary was conceived and born without sin , hence she is seen as having a singular dignity above the saints, receiving a higher level of veneration than all angelic spirits and blessed souls in heaven. Catholic Mariology thus studies not only her life but also
346-504: A Baden Concordat which continued until the spring and summer of 1932. Papal fiat appointed a supporter of Pacelli and his concordat policy, Conrad Gröber , the new Archbishop of Freiburg , and the treaty was signed in August 1932. Others followed: Austria (1933), Germany (1933), Yugoslavia (1935) and Portugal (1940). The Lateran treaties with Italy (1929) were concluded before Pacelli became Secretary of State. Catholicism had become
519-655: A curate at Chiesa Nuova . In 1901, he entered the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs , a sub-office of the Vatican Secretariat of State . Pietro Gasparri , the recently appointed undersecretary at the Department of Extraordinary Affairs, had underscored his proposal to Pacelli to work in the "Vatican's equivalent of the Foreign office" by highlighting the "necessity of defending
692-680: A manger as a cradle. It is not told how old Mary was at the time of the Nativity, but attempts have been made to infer it from the age of a typical Jewish mother of that time. Mary Joan Winn Leith represents the view that Jewish girls typically married soon after the onset of puberty, while according to Amram Tropper, Jewish females generally married later in Palestine and the Western Diaspora than in Babylonia. Some scholars hold
865-549: A wedding at Cana by turning water into wine. Subsequently, there are events when Mary is mentioned along with the Jesus' brothers . According to Epiphanius , Origen and Eusebius , these "brothers" would be sons of Joseph from a previous marriage. This view is still the official position of the Eastern Orthodox churches. Following Jerome , those would be actually Jesus' cousins, children of Mary's sister. This remains
1038-707: A crown of twelve stars in Revelation . Many popes have given tribute to Mary in this regard, for example: Mary is the Queen of Heaven and Earth, (Pius IX), Queen and Ruler of the Universe (Leo XIII) and Queen of the World (Pius XII) The theological and logical foundation of these titles rests in the dogma of Mary as the Mother of God. As mother of God, she participates in his salvation plan. The Catholic faith teaches that Mary,
1211-716: A doctoral degree awarded on the basis of a short dissertation and an oral examination in Latin . While all other candidates from the Rome diocese were ordained in the Basilica of Saint John Lateran , Pacelli was ordained a priest on Easter Sunday , 2 April 1899, alone in the private chapel of a family friend the Vicegerent of Rome, Francesco di Paola Cassetta . Shortly after ordination he began postgraduate studies in canon law at Sant'Apollinaire. He received his first assignment as
1384-493: A few months, on 7 February 1930, Pius XI appointed him Cardinal Secretary of State , responsible for foreign policy and state relations throughout the world. In 1935, Pacelli was named Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church . As Cardinal Secretary of State, Pacelli signed concordats with a number of countries and states. Immediately on becoming Cardinal Secretary of State, Pacelli and Ludwig Kaas took up negotiations on
1557-433: A message asking for him ... And looking at those who sat in a circle around him, Jesus said, 'These are my mother and my brothers. Whoever does the will of God is my brother, and sister, and mother'." Mary is also depicted as being present in a group of women at the crucifixion standing near the disciple whom Jesus loved along with Mary of Clopas and Mary Magdalene , to which list Matthew 27:56 adds "the mother of
1730-599: A more profound understanding of the mystery of Christ, of the Church and of the vocation of man." Referring to this, Cardinal Raymond Leo Burke stated that the promotion of a fuller knowledge of the Virgin Mary is the "constant work of the Church". Early Christians focused their piety at first more upon the martyrs; but following that, they saw in Mary a bridge between the old and the new. The earliest recorded prayer to Mary,
1903-405: A number of contexts, and in his address to the 2012 Mariological congress, Pope Benedict XVI stated that this study must be "understood and deeply examined from different and complementary viewpoints". Benedict also emphasized that the study of Mary cannot be performed in isolation from other disciplines and that Mariology is inherently related to the study of Christ and of the church, and expresses
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#17327826481012076-785: A personal envoy—who did not require Senate confirmation—to the Holy See in December 1939, re-establishing a diplomatic tradition that had been broken since 1870 when the Pope lost temporal power . Pacelli presided as Papal Legate over the International Eucharistic Congress in Buenos Aires , Argentina on 10–14 October 1934, and in Budapest on 25–30 May 1938. At this time, anti-semitic laws were in
2249-571: A pleasing and acceptable sacrifice. This way, the church re-establishes the unity between the Creator and His creatures. The Sacrifice of the Altar, being Christ's own actions, conveys and dispenses divine grace from Christ to the members of the Mystical Body. Bishop Carlos Duarte Costa , a long-time critic of Pius XII's policies during World War II and an opponent of clerical celibacy and
2422-503: A seasoned Vatican diplomat, had reestablished diplomatic relations with Switzerland and was for twelve years nuncio in Paris . Yet, Maglione did not exercise the influence of his predecessor Pacelli, who as Pope continued his close relation with Giovanni Battista Montini (later Pope Paul VI ) and Domenico Tardini . After the death of Maglione in 1944, Pius left the position open and named Tardini head of its foreign section and Montini head of
2595-513: A share, though in a limited and analogous way, in His royal dignity. For from her union with Christ she attains a radiant eminence transcending that of any other creature; from her union with Christ she receives the royal right to dispose of the treasures of the Divine Redeemer's Kingdom; from her union with Christ finally is derived the inexhaustible efficacy of her maternal intercession before
2768-415: A title used exclusively by Italian Popes . He was quoted as saying "I call myself Pius; my whole life was under Popes with this name, but especially as a sign of gratitude towards Pius XI ." On 15 December 1937, during his last consistory, Pius XI strongly hinted to the cardinals that he expected Pacelli to be his successor, saying "He is in your midst." He had previously been quoted as saying: "When today
2941-687: A woman, born under the law" (Galatians 4:4). Mary is mentioned several times in the canonical Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles: In the Book of Revelation , also part of the New Testament , the " woman clothed with the sun " (Revelation 12:1, 12:5–6) is sometimes identified as Mary. The New Testament tells little of Mary's early history. The Gospel of Matthew does give a genealogy for Jesus by his father's paternal line, only identifying Mary as
3114-665: A worrying impression of anti-Semitism is discernible in the "catalogue of epithets describing their physical and moral repulsiveness" and Pacelli's "constant harping on the Jewishness of this party of power usurpers" chimed with the "growing and widespread belief among Germans that the Jews were the instigators of the Bolshevik revolution , their principal aim being the destruction of Christian civilization". Also according to Cornwell, Pacelli informed Gasparri that "the capital of Bavaria,
3287-611: Is Life of the Virgin , attributed to the 7th-century saint Maximus the Confessor , which portrays her as a key element of the early Christian Church after the death of Jesus. Christian Marian perspectives include a great deal of diversity. While some Christians such as Catholics and Eastern Orthodox have well established Marian traditions, Protestants at large pay scant attention to Mariological themes. Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutherans venerate
3460-416: Is a difference between the usage of the term "blessed" as pertaining to Mary and its usage as pertaining to a beatified person. "Blessed" as a Marian title refers to her exalted state as being the greatest among the saints; for a person who has been declared beatified, on the other hand, "blessed" simply indicates that they may be venerated despite not being canonized . Catholic teachings make clear that Mary
3633-421: Is a field in which deeply felt pious beliefs of the faithful and hagiography may conflict with theological and critical historical reviews of beliefs and practices. This conflict was recognized as early as the year 1300 by William of Ware who described the tendency of some believers to attribute almost everything to Mary. Bonaventura warned against Marian maximalism: "One has to be careful as to not to minimize
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#17327826481013806-419: Is different from virginity of conception. Virginity after birth This means that Mary remained a virgin after giving birth (de fide). This belief of the church was questioned in its early years. The scriptures say little about this, mentioning the brothers of Jesus , but never "sons of Mary", suggesting to the patristic writers a broader family relationship. Apart from the four Marian dogmas listed above,
3979-583: Is in fact the genealogy of Mary, while the genealogy from Solomon given in Matthew 1 is that of Joseph. (Aaron's wife Elisheba was of the tribe of Judah, so all their descendants are from both Levi and Judah.) Mary resided in "her own house" in Nazareth in Galilee , possibly with her parents, and during her betrothal—the first stage of a Jewish marriage . Jewish girls were considered marriageable at
4152-571: Is in parallel to "Sayyiduna" ("Our Lord"), used for the prophets. A related term of endearment is "Siddiqah" , meaning "she who confirms the truth" and "she who believes sincerely completely". Another title for Mary is "Qānitah" , which signifies both constant submission to God and absorption in prayer and invocation in Islam. She is also called "Tahira" , meaning "one who has been purified" and representing her status as one of two humans in creation to not be touched by Satan at any point,
4325-717: Is not accounted in the Bible , Roman Catholic , Eastern Orthodox , and some Protestant traditions believe that her body was raised into heaven at the end of her earthly life, which is known in Western Christianity as the Assumption of Mary and in Eastern Christianity as the Dormition of the Mother of God . Mary has been venerated since early Christianity , and is often considered to be
4498-802: Is not considered divine and prayers to her are not answered by her, but rather by God through her intercession. The four Catholic dogmas regarding Mary are: her status as Theotokos , or Mother of God; her perpetual virginity; the Immaculate Conception; and her bodily Assumption into Heaven. The Blessed Virgin Mary , the mother of Jesus has a more central role in Roman Catholic teachings and beliefs than in any other major Christian group. Not only do Roman Catholics have more theological doctrines and teachings that relate to Mary, but they have more feasts, prayers, devotional and venerative practices than any other group. The Catechism of
4671-423: Is ongoing and since the beginnings it has continued to be shaped by theological analyses, writings of saints , and papal statements , e.g. while two of the dogmas are ancient, the other two were defined in the 19th and 20th centuries; and papal teachings on Mary have continued to appear in recent times. In parallel to the traditional views, since the late 19th century, as Marian devotion became more pronounced in
4844-685: Is suffering under a harsh Jewish-Russian revolutionary tyranny". According to Sister Pascalina Lehnert, the Nuncio was repeatedly threatened by emissaries of the Bavarian Soviet Republic . Once, in a violation of international law, the Bavarian Revolutionary Government attempted to confiscate the Nunciature's car at gunpoint. Despite their demands, however, Pacelli refused to leave his post. After
5017-628: Is the Mother of God . The Church of the East historically regarded her as Christotokos , a term still used in Assyrian Church of the East liturgy. Other Protestant views on Mary vary, with some holding her to have lesser status. She has the highest position in Islam among all women and is mentioned numerous times in the Quran , including in a chapter named after her . She is also revered in
5190-544: The Magnificat from her first word in the Latin version. After about three months, Mary returned to her own house. According to the gospel of Luke , a decree of the Roman Emperor Augustus required that Joseph return to his hometown of Bethlehem to register for a Roman census . While he was there with Mary, she gave birth to Jesus; but because there was no place for them in the inn, she used
5363-530: The Magnificat . Mary's participation in the processes of salvation and redemption has also been emphasized in the Catholic tradition, but they are not doctrines. Pope John Paul II 's 1987 encyclical Redemptoris Mater began with the sentence: "The Mother of the Redeemer has a precise place in the plan of salvation." In the 20th century, both popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI emphasized
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5536-649: The Reichskonkordat treaty with the German Reich . While the Vatican was officially neutral during World War II , the Reichskonkordat and his leadership of the Catholic Church during the war remain the subject of controversy—including allegations of public silence and inaction concerning the fate of the Jews. Pius employed diplomacy to aid the victims of the Nazis during the war and, through directing
5709-562: The Sub tuum praesidium , is dated to around the year 250. In Egypt the veneration of Mary had started in the 3rd century and the term Theotokos was used by Church Father Origen . The Renaissance period witnessed a dramatic growth in Marian art . Masterpieces by Botticelli , Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael were produced in this period. In the 16th century, the Council of Trent confirmed
5882-562: The Sub tuum praesidium , which dates to around 250 AD: "Under thy protection we seek refuge, Holy Mother of God". This was the first specifically Marian doctrine to be formally defined by the church, formally affirmed at the Third Ecumenical Council held at Ephesus in 431. This refuted the objection raised by Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople. Scriptural basis for the dogma is found in John 1:14 which states "And
6055-550: The Acts of the Apostles are the primary sources of historical information about Mary. They are almost contemporary sources, as the synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles are generally considered dating from around AD 66–90, while the gospel of John would date from AD 90–110. They provide limited information about Mary, as they primarily focus on the teaching of Jesus and on his apostles . The historical reliability of
6228-733: The Baháʼí Faith and the Druze Faith . The synoptic Gospels name Mary as the mother of Jesus. The gospels of Matthew and Luke describe Mary as a virgin who was chosen by God to conceive Jesus through the Holy Spirit . After giving birth to Jesus in Bethlehem , she raised him in the city of Nazareth in Galilee , and was in Jerusalem at his crucifixion and with the apostles after his ascension . Although her later life
6401-757: The Bishop of Passau , in Bavaria: "The history of the Reichskonkordat shows, that the other side lacked the most basic prerequisites to accept minimal freedoms and rights of the Church, without which the Church simply cannot live and operate, formal agreements notwithstanding". Cardinal Pacelli gave a lecture entitled "La Presse et L'Apostolat" at the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum on 17 April 1936. Pope Pius XI died on 10 February 1939. Several historians have interpreted
6574-522: The Church Fathers "did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God". Some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title "Queen Mother" has been given to Mary, as she was the mother of Jesus, sometimes referred to as the "King of Kings" due to his ancestral descent from King David . This is also based on the Hebrew tradition of the "Queen-Mother",
6747-591: The Decree against Communism , declaring that Catholics who profess the atheistic and materialist doctrines of communism are to be excommunicated as apostates from the Christian faith. The church experienced severe persecution and mass deportations of Catholic clergy in the Eastern Bloc . Despite all this, Stalin himself was still open to coordinating with Pius XII on the struggle against persecution of
6920-913: The Ennio Quirino Visconti Liceo Ginnasio , a state school situated in what had been the Collegio Romano , the premier Jesuit university in Rome. In 1894, aged 18, Pacelli began his theology studies at Rome's oldest seminary, the Almo Collegio Capranica , and in November of the same year, registered to take a philosophy course at the Jesuit Pontifical Gregorian University and theology at the Pontifical Roman Athenaeum S. Apollinare . He
7093-431: The Gebirah or "Great Lady". Other titles have arisen from reported miracles , special appeals, or occasions for calling on Mary. In Islam , Mary is known as Maryam ( Arabic : مريم , romanized : Maryam ), mother of Isa ( عيسى بن مريم , ʿĪsā ibn Maryām , lit. ' Jesus, son of Mary ' ). She is often referred to by the honorific title "Sayyidatuna" , meaning "Our Lady"; this title
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7266-416: The Holy Spirit impregnated her, thereby conceiving her first-born son Jesus miraculously , without sexual relations with her betrothed Joseph, "until her son [Jesus] was born". The word "until" has inspired considerable analysis on whether Joseph and Mary produced siblings after the birth of Jesus or not. Among her many other names and titles are the Blessed Virgin Mary (often abbreviated to "BVM" after
7439-544: The Immaculate Heart of Mary , a concept which was embraced by Pope John Paul II in the 20th century as the Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary . The two Marian dogmas of Immaculate Conception and Assumption were established by popes in the 19th and 20th century. Pope Pius XII issued the Dogma of the Assumption and the Second Vatican Council declared Mary to be the Mother of the Church . In his 2002 Apostolic Letter Rosarium Virginis Mariae , Pope John Paul II emphasized Louis de Montfort 's approach of viewing
7612-606: The Latin Beata Maria Virgo ), Saint Mary (occasionally), the Mother of God (primarily in Western Christianity ), the Theotokos (primarily in Eastern Christianity ), Our Lady (Medieval Italian : Madonna ), and Queen of Heaven ( Regina caeli ; see also here ). The title " queen of heaven " had previously been used as an epithet for a number of goddesses, such as Isis , or Ishtar . Titles in use vary among Anglicans , Lutherans and other Protestants , as well as Mormons , Catholics , Orthodox and other Christians . The three main titles for Mary used by
7785-411: The Middle East and increased the number of Cardinals from the Americas, proportionally lessening the Italian influence. In his second consistory on 12 January 1953, it was expected that his closest co-workers, Msgrs. Domenico Tardini and Giovanni Montini would be elevated and Pius XII informed the assembled cardinals that both of them were originally on the top of his list, but they had turned down
7958-429: The Old Catholic Churches , the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Oriental Orthodox Church , the Assyrian Church of the East , the Ancient Church of the East , the Independent Sacramental Movement , Anglo-Catholicism , and other High church Protestants continue to revere Mary as the greatest saint . The study of Mary and her place in the Catholic Church has been undertaken from a number of perspectives and within
8131-571: The Sistine Chapel on 13 May 1917, the same day as the first apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Fatima, Portugal . After his consecration, Eugenio Pacelli left for Bavaria . As there was no nuncio to Prussia or Germany at the time, Pacelli was, for all practical purposes, the nuncio to all of the German Empire . Once in Munich , he conveyed the papal initiative to end the war to German authorities. He met with King Ludwig III on 29 May, and later with Kaiser Wilhelm II and Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg , who replied positively to
8304-471: The Temple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:22), so the priest could make atonement for her. They also presented Jesus – "As it is written in the law of the Lord, Every male that openeth the womb shall be called holy to the Lord" (Luke 2:23; Exodus 13:2; 23:12–15; 22:29; 34:19–20; Numbers 3:13; 18:15). After the prophecies of Simeon and the prophetess Anna in Luke 2:25–38, the family "returned into Galilee, to their own city Nazareth". According to
8477-420: The gospel of Matthew , magi coming from Eastern regions arrived at Bethlehem where Jesus and his family were living, and worshiped him. Joseph was then warned in a dream that King Herod wanted to murder the infant, and the family fled by night to Egypt and stayed there for some time. After Herod's death in 4 BC, they returned to Nazareth in Galilee, rather than Bethlehem, because Herod's son Archelaus
8650-535: The nunciature in Belgrade , Gerald P. O'Hara as nuncio to Romania , and Aloisius Joseph Muench as nuncio to Germany. For the first time, numerous young Europeans, Asians and "Americans were trained in various congregations and secretariats within the Vatican for eventual service throughout the world". Only twice in his pontificate did Pius XII hold a consistory to create new cardinals , in contrast to Pius XI, who had done so 17 times in as many years. Pius XII chose not to name new cardinals during World War II, and
8823-736: The use of Latin as language of the liturgy , was excommunicated by Pius XII on 2 July 1945. He later established a schismatic group called the " Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church ". Decentralized authority and increased independence of the Uniate Churches were aimed at in the Canon Law /Codex Iuris Canonici (CIC) reform. In its new constitutions, Eastern Patriarchs were made almost independent from Rome (CIC Orientalis, 1957) Eastern marriage law (CIC Orientalis, 1949), civil law (CIC Orientalis, 1950), laws governing religious associations (CIC Orientalis, 1952) property law (CIC Orientalis, 1952) and other laws. These reforms and writings of Pius XII were intended to establish Eastern Orientals as equal parts of
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#17327826481018996-433: The virgin birth of Jesus ; for this dogma refers to the conception of Mary by her mother, Saint Anne , and not the conception of Jesus. The feast of the Immaculate Conception , celebrated on December 8, was established in 1476 by Pope Sixtus IV , but the dogmatic definition came from Pope Pius IX in his constitution Ineffabilis Deus , on December 8, 1854. The dogma states that Mary possessed sanctifying grace from
9169-407: The 17th century alone. Popes have fostered the veneration of the Blessed Virgin through the promotion of Marian devotions, feast days , prayers , initiatives, the acceptance and support of Marian congregations, and, the formal recognition of Marian apparitions such as in Lourdes and Fátima . Popes Alexander VII and Clement X both promulgated the veneration of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and
9342-405: The 5th century, and by the 8th century Andrew of Crete and John of Damascus had declared belief in it. The Book of Revelation (12:1) has been interpreted as referring to it; with her coronation implying her previous bodily assumption to heaven. Before declaring the Assumption a dogma in Munificentissimus Deus in 1950, in the encyclical Deiparae Virginis Mariae (1946) Pope Pius XII obtained
9515-458: The Assumption) also teaches the predestination of Mary, in that she was preserved from sin due to the role reserved for her in the economy of salvation. This predetermination of Mary's role in salvation was referred to in Lumen gentium (item 61) which stated that she was "Predestined from eternity by that decree of divine providence which determined the incarnation of the Word to be the Mother of God." The definition in Ineffabilis Deus confirms
9688-468: The Bavarian Soviet Republic was defeated and toppled by Freikorps and Reichswehr troops, the Nuncio focused on, according to Lehnert, "alleviating the distress of the postwar period, consoling, supporting all in word and deed". Pacelli was appointed Apostolic Nuncio to Germany on 23 June 1920, and – after the completion of a Bavarian Concordat (1924) – his nunciature was moved to Berlin in August 1925. Many of Pacelli's Munich staff stayed with him for
9861-412: The Bavarian concordat. However, Pacelli obtained less favorable conditions for the church in the Prussian Concordat of 1929, which excluded educational issues. A concordat with the German state of Baden was completed by Pacelli in 1932, after he had moved to Rome. There he also negotiated a concordat with Austria in 1933. A total of 16 concordats and treaties with European states had been concluded in
10034-465: The Cabinet were regular guests. In post-war Germany, in the absence of a nuncio in Moscow, Pacelli worked also on diplomatic arrangements between the Vatican and the Soviet Union . He negotiated food shipments for Russia, where the Catholic Church was persecuted. He met with Soviet representatives including Foreign Minister Georgi Chicherin , who rejected any kind of religious education, the ordination of priests and bishops, but offered agreements without
10207-401: The Cardinal Secretary of State officiated at the baptism of the Infante Juan Carlos ( King of Spain from 1975 to 2014), in a ceremony held at the Palazzo Malta in Rome . The Reichskonkordat was an integral part of four concordats Pacelli concluded on behalf of the Vatican with German States. The state concordats were necessary because the German federalist Weimar constitution gave
10380-446: The Catholic Centre Party , a party he led following Wilhelm Marx 's resignation in October 1928. While in Germany, he travelled to all regions, attended Katholikentag (national gatherings of the faithful), and delivered some 50 sermons and speeches to the German people. In Berlin he lived in the Tiergarten quarter and threw parties for the official and diplomatic elite. Paul von Hindenburg , Gustav Stresemann , and other members of
10553-439: The Catholic Church states: "The Church's devotion to the Blessed Virgin is intrinsic to Christian worship." For centuries, Catholics have performed acts of consecration and entrustment to Mary at personal, societal and regional levels. These acts may be directed to the Virgin herself, to the Immaculate Heart of Mary and to the Immaculate Conception . In Catholic teachings, consecration to Mary does not diminish or substitute
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#173278264810110726-486: The Catholic Church teaches that "Mary is truly 'Mother of God' since she is the mother of the eternal Son of God made man, who is God himself." According to Catholic teaching, sourced in the John 1:1-14 , Mary did not create the divine person of Jesus, who existed with the Father from all eternity. This dogma states that Mary was assumed into heaven with body and soul. The Catechism (item 966) states: The Immaculate Virgin, preserved free from all stain of original sin, when
10899-423: The Catholic Church holds a number of other doctrines about the Virgin Mary which have been developed by references to Sacred Scripture, theological reasoning and church tradition. The doctrine that the Virgin Mary has been crowned Queen of Heaven goes back to certain early patristic writers of the church such as Gregory Nazianzen 's "the Mother of the King of the universe", and the "Virgin Mother who brought forth
11072-528: The Catholic Church to organize youth groups, make ecclesiastical appointments, run schools, hospitals, and charities, or even conduct religious services. They also ensured that canon law would be recognized within some spheres (e.g., church decrees of nullity in the area of marriage). As the decade began Pacelli wanted the Centre Party in Germany to turn away from the socialists. In the summer of 1931 he clashed with Catholic Chancellor Heinrich Brüning , who frankly told Pacelli he believed that he "misunderstood
11245-404: The Catholic Church, a number of other perspectives have been presented as a challenge to Catholic Mariology. Other Christian views see Catholic Mariology as unbiblical and a denial of the uniqueness of Christ as redeemer and mediator, and modern psychological interpretations see Mary as similar to mythical goddesses ranging from Diana to Guan Yin . Nonetheless, Christians in the Catholic Church ,
11418-452: The Catholic church. He explicitly invoked ex cathedra papal infallibility with the dogma of the Assumption of Mary in his Apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus . His forty-one encyclicals include Mystici Corporis Christi , on the Church as the Mystical Body of Christ ; Mediator Dei on liturgy reform ; and Humani generis , in which he instructed theologians to adhere to episcopal teaching and allowed that
11591-516: The Catholic tradition of paintings and artworks in churches, resulting in a great development of Marian art and Mariology during the Baroque Period . During the Reformation , the Catholic Church defended its Mariology against Protestant views. With the victory at Battle of Lepanto (1571) accredited to her, it "signified the beginning of a strong resurgence of Marian devotions." The baroque literature on Mary experienced unforeseen growth. More than 500 pages of Mariological writings were published during
11764-445: The Church from the onslaughts of secularism and liberalism throughout Europe". Pacelli became an apprendista , an apprentice, in Gasparri's department. In January 1901 he was also chosen, by Pope Leo XIII himself, according to an official account, to deliver condolences on behalf of the Vatican to King Edward VII of the United Kingdom after the death of Queen Victoria . By 1904 Pacelli received his doctorate. The theme of his thesis
11937-407: The Church' and 'truth about man. ' " There is significant diversity in the Marian doctrines attributed to her primarily by the Catholic Church. The key Marian doctrines held primarily in Catholicism can be briefly outlined as follows: The acceptance of these Marian doctrines by Roman Catholics and other Christians can be summarized as follows: The title "Mother of God" ( Theotokos ) for Mary
12110-520: The Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. According to John Cornwell "the text, together with the Anti-Modernist Oath , became the means by which the Holy See was to establish and sustain the new, unequal, and unprecedented power relationship that had arisen between the papacy and the Church". In 1908, Pacelli served as a Vatican representative on the International Eucharistic Congress , accompanying Rafael Merry del Val to London, where he met Winston Churchill . In 1911, he represented
12283-423: The Father". He aids us likewise through His Church, where He is present indefectibly as the ages run their course: through the Church which He constituted "the pillar of truth" and dispenser of grace, and which by His sacrifice on the cross, He founded, consecrated and confirmed forever. The church has, therefore, according to Pius XII, a common aim with Christ himself, teaching all men the truth, and offering to God
12456-533: The German bishops in their anti-Nazi stand'. This was matched with the discovery of Pacelli's anti-Nazi report, written the following year for President Roosevelt and filed with Ambassador Joseph Kennedy , which declared that the church regarded compromise with the Third Reich as 'out of the question'." Historian Walter Bussmann argued that Pacelli, as Cardinal Secretary of State, dissuaded Pope Pius XI – who
12629-496: The German states authority in the area of education and culture and thus diminished the authority of the churches in these areas; this diminution of church authority was a primary concern of the Vatican. As Bavarian nuncio, Pacelli negotiated successfully with the Bavarian authorities in 1924 . He expected the concordat with Catholic Bavaria to be the model for the rest of Germany. Prussia showed interest in negotiations only after
12802-547: The Gospels and historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles are subject to debate, as it was common practice in early Christian writings to mix historical facts with legendary stories. The earliest New Testament account of Mary is in the epistle to the Galatians , which was written before the gospels . She is referred to as "a woman" and is not named: "But when the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son, born of
12975-589: The Gospels of Matthew and Luke consider Jesus' conception not the result of intercourse, and assert that Mary had "no relations with man" before Jesus' birth. This alludes to the belief that Mary conceived Jesus through the action of God the Holy Spirit, and not through intercourse with Joseph or anyone else. The doctrines of the Assumption or Dormition of Mary relate to her death and bodily assumption to heaven. Roman Catholic Church has dogmatically defined
13148-621: The Hearts of Jesus and Mary ). Major Marian devotions include: Seven Sorrows of Mary , Rosary and scapular , Miraculous Medal and Reparations to Mary . The months of May and October are traditionally "Marian months" for Roman Catholics; the daily rosary is encouraged in October and in May Marian devotions take place in many regions. Popes have issued a number of Marian encyclicals and Apostolic Letters to encourage devotions to and
13321-635: The Holy See at the coronation of George V and Mary . Pacelli became the under-secretary in 1911, adjunct-secretary in 1912 (a position he received under Pope Pius X and retained under Pope Benedict XV ), and secretary of the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs in February 1914. On 24 June 1914, just four days before Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated in Sarajevo , Pacelli, together with Cardinal Merry del Val, represented
13494-463: The Holy Spirit, and, after initially expressing incredulity at the announcement, she responded, "I am the handmaid of the Lord. Let it be done unto me according to your word." Joseph planned to quietly divorce her, but was told her conception was by the Holy Spirit in a dream by "an angel of the Lord"; the angel told him to not hesitate to take her as his wife, which Joseph did, thereby formally completing
13667-578: The Italian monopoly on the Roman Curia ; he employed German and Dutch Jesuit advisors, Robert Leiber, Augustin Bea , and Sebastian Tromp . He also supported the elevation of Americans such as Cardinal Francis Spellman from a minor to a major role in the church. After World War II, Pius XII appointed more non-Italians than any Pope before him. American appointees included Joseph P. Hurley as regent of
13840-477: The King of the whole world", Prudentius 's the Mother marvels "that she has brought forth God as man, and even as Supreme King." and, Ephrem's , "Let Heaven sustain me in its embrace, because I am honored above it. For heaven was not Thy mother, but Thou hast made it Thy throne. How much more honorable and venerable than the throne of a king is her mother." The Catholic Church often sees Mary as queen in heaven, bearing
14013-654: The Magisterium among a large number of other dogmas and doctrines about the Virgin Mary – for example, the Annunciation of Mary is dogma because it is in the scriptures, but it has not been formally defined by the Magisterium. These four Marian dogmas include: Mary's motherhood of God ( Deipara in Latin) is a dogma of the Catholic Church. The term "Mother of God" appears within the oldest known prayer to Mary,
14186-454: The Marian focus of the Catholic Church. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) suggested a redirection of the whole church towards the program of Pope John Paul II in order to ensure an authentic approach to Christology via a return to the "whole truth about Mary," writing: "It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to return to that 'truth about Jesus Christ,' 'truth about
14359-523: The Mother of God. "The Virgin Mary, who at the message of the angel received the Word of God in her heart and in her body and gave Life to the world, is acknowledged and honored as being truly the Mother of God and Mother of the Redeemer." This dogma is inherently related to the Christological dogma of the hypostatic union which relates the divine and human natures of Jesus Christ. The Catechism of
14532-620: The Nuncio was deeply sorry that the chance had been missed to save what there was to save, it occurs to me over and over again how clearly he foresaw what was to come. Once as he traced the course of the Rhine with his finger on a map, he said sadly, 'No doubt this will be lost as well'. I did not want to believe it, but here, too, he was to be proved right." For the remainder of the Great War, Pacelli concentrated on Benedict's humanitarian efforts especially among Allied POWs in German custody. In
14705-532: The Orthodox are Theotokos ( Θεοτόκος or "God-bearer"), Aeiparthenos ( ἀειπαρθένος ) which means ever-virgin, as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, and Panagia ( Παναγία ) meaning "all-holy". Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. The title Theotokos , which means "God-bearer",
14878-603: The Papal Ministry of Finances and then Secretary of the Interior under Pope Pius IX from 1851 to 1870 and helped found the Vatican's newspaper, L'Osservatore Romano in 1861. His cousin, Ernesto Pacelli , was a key financial advisor to Pope Leo XIII ; his father, Filippo Pacelli, a Franciscan tertiary , was the dean of the Roman Rota ; and his brother, Francesco Pacelli , became a lay canon lawyer and
15051-612: The Papal initiative. However, Bethmann Hollweg was forced to resign and the German High Command , hoping for a military victory, delayed the German reply until 20 September. Sister Pascalina Lehnert later recalled that the Nuncio was heartbroken that the Kaiser turned a "deaf ear to all his proposals". She later wrote, "Thinking back today on that time, when we Germans still all believed that our weapons would be victorious and
15224-400: The Pope dies, you'll get another one tomorrow, because the Church continues. It would be a much bigger tragedy, if Cardinal Pacelli dies, because there is only one. I pray every day, God may send another one into one of our seminaries, but as of today, there is only one in this world." After his election, he made Luigi Maglione his successor as Cardinal Secretary of State. Cardinal Maglione,
15397-547: The Secretariat of State, making him undersecretary. During World War I, Pacelli maintained the Vatican's registry of prisoners of war and worked to implement papal relief initiatives. In 1915, he travelled to Vienna to assist Raffaele Scapinelli , nuncio to Vienna, in his negotiations with Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria regarding Italy. Pope Benedict XV appointed Pacelli as nuncio to Bavaria on 23 April 1917, consecrating him as titular Archbishop of Sardis in
15570-551: The Son and His Father. Mary, mother of Jesus Mary was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth , the wife of Joseph and the mother of Jesus . She is an important figure of Christianity , venerated under various titles such as virgin or queen , many of them mentioned in the Litany of Loreto . The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox , Catholic , Anglican , and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus,
15743-630: The Vatican when the Serbian Concordat was signed. Serbia 's success in the First Balkan War against Turkey in 1912 had increased the number of Catholics within greater Serbia. At this time Serbia, encouraged by Russia , was challenging Austria-Hungary 's sphere of influence throughout the Balkans . Pius X died on 20 August 1914. His successor Benedict XV named Gasparri as secretary of state and Gasparri took Pacelli with him into
15916-525: The Virgin Mary. This veneration especially takes the form of prayer for intercession with her Son, Jesus Christ. Additionally, it includes composing poems and songs in Mary's honor, painting icons or carving statues of her, and conferring titles on Mary that reflect her position among the saints. In the Catholic Church, Mary is accorded the title "Blessed" ( beata , μακάρια , makaria ) in recognition of her assumption to Heaven and her capacity to intercede on behalf of those who pray to her. There
16089-544: The Virgin Mother of God, reigns with a mother's solicitude over the entire world, just as she is crowned in heavenly blessedness with the glory of a Queen, as Pius XII wrote: Certainly, in the full and strict meaning of the term, only Jesus Christ, the God-Man, is King; but Mary, too, as Mother of the divine Christ, as His associate in the redemption, in his struggle with His enemies and His final victory over them, has
16262-540: The Word became flesh, and dwelt among us" and in Galatians 4:4 which states "God sent forth his Son, born of a woman, born under the law". Luke 1:35 further affirms divine maternity by stating: "The holy Spirit will come upon you. ... Therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of God." The dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium at the Second Vatican Council affirmed Mary as
16435-408: The act of giving birth to the Son of God made Man." Thus, by the teaching of this dogma , the faithful believe that Mary was ever-Virgin (Greek ἀειπάρθενος ) for the whole of her life, making Jesus her only biological son, whose conception and birth are held to be miraculous. The doctrine of perpetual virginity is distinct from the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary, which relates to
16608-417: The age of twelve years and six months, though the actual age of the bride varied with circumstances. The marriage was preceded by the betrothal, after which the bride legally belonged to the bridegroom, though she did not live with him till about a year later, when the marriage was celebrated. The angel Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the mother of the promised Messiah by conceiving him through
16781-536: The appointment of a papal administrator for Danzig and aided the reintegration of German priests expelled from Poland . A Prussian Concordat was signed on 14 June 1929. Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , the beginnings of a world economic slump appeared, and the days of the Weimar Republic were numbered. Pacelli was summoned back to Rome at this time—the call coming by telegram when he
16954-532: The aspect of the Petrine office in a dual sense. This perspective on the duality of the roles of Mary and Peter highlights the subjective holiness of the heart and the holiness of the structure of the church. In this duality, the Petrine office logically examines the charisms for their theological soundness, while the Marian dual provides a balance in the spiritual and emotional sense via the service of love that
17127-408: The biblical accounts, although it is held by Catholics that she is again portrayed as the heavenly woman in the Book of Revelation . Her death is not recorded in the scriptures, but Orthodox tradition, tolerated also by Catholics, has her first dying a natural death, known as the Dormition of Mary , and then, soon after, her body itself also being assumed (taken bodily) into Heaven . Belief in
17300-499: The celebration of several Marian feast days in liturgy , the veneration of images and relics , the construction of churches dedicated to her and pilgrimages to Marian shrines . Many Marian apparitions and miracles attributed to her intercession have been reported by believers over the centuries. She has been a traditional subject in arts , notably in Byzantine art , medieval art and Renaissance art . Mary's name in
17473-642: The church and the Catholic Centre Party . He sent his vice chancellor Franz von Papen , a Catholic nobleman, to Rome to offer negotiations about a Reichskonkordat. On behalf of Pacelli, Prelate Ludwig Kaas , the outgoing chairman of the Centre Party, negotiated first drafts of the terms with von Papen. The concordat was finally signed, by Pacelli for the Vatican and von Papen for Germany, on 20 July and ratified on 10 September 1933. Bishop Konrad von Preysing cautioned against compromise with
17646-502: The church to be infallible , and reflect the role of Mary in the economy of salvation. De Fide Definita or De Fide Credenda doctrines have the highest degree of dogmatic certainty. These doctrines come in several forms, namely the sacred scriptures and apostolic tradition and teachings which have been specifically defined as revealed by an extraordinary definition by a pope or ecumenical council (extraordinary universal Magisterium ), or those teachings infallibly taught to be revealed by
17819-591: The church to provide discreet aid to Jews and others, saved thousands of lives. Pius maintained links to the German resistance , and shared intelligence with the Allies. His strongest public condemnation of genocide was considered inadequate by the Allied Powers , while the Nazis viewed him as an Allied sympathizer who had dishonoured his policy of Vatican neutrality. During his papacy, the Catholic Church issued
17992-601: The circulation of Deiparae Virginis Mariae , a large number of Catholic bishops pointed to the Book of Genesis ( 3:15 ) as a scriptural basis. In Munificentissimus Deus (item 39) Pius XII referred to the "struggle against the infernal foe" as in Genesis 3:15 and to "complete victory over the sin and death" as in the Letters of Paul as a scriptural basis for the dogmatic definition, Mary being assumed into heaven also seems to verify 1 Corinthians 15:54 : "Then shall come to pass
18165-421: The conception of the Virgin Mary herself without any stain ( macula in Latin ) of original sin . Virginity before birth This means that Mary conceived by the Holy Spirit without participation of any man (de fide). The Greek term Aeiparthenos (i.e. "Ever Virgin") is attested to from the early 4th century. The Catechism of the Catholic Church (item 499) includes the term Aeiparthenos and referring to
18338-409: The conclave to choose his successor as facing a choice between a diplomatic or a spiritual candidate, and they view Pacelli's diplomatic experience, especially with Germany, as one of the deciding factors in his election on 2 March 1939, his 63rd birthday, after only one day of deliberation and three ballots. He was the first cardinal Secretary of State to be elected pope since Clement IX in 1667. He
18511-596: The convent of the French Sisters of Divine Providence in the Piazza Fiammetta. The family worshipped at Chiesa Nuova . Eugenio and the other children made their First Communion at this church and Eugenio served there as an altar boy from 1886. In 1886, he also was sent to the private school of Professor Giuseppe Marchi, close to the Piazza Venezia . In 1891 Pacelli's father sent Eugenio to
18684-724: The corporeal assumption of Mary is a dogma of the Catholic Church , in the Latin and Eastern Catholic Churches alike, and is believed as well by the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Oriental Orthodox Church , and parts of the Anglican Communion and Continuing Anglican movement . According to the apocryphal Gospel of James , Mary was the daughter of Joachim and Anne . Before Mary's conception, Anne had been barren and
18857-584: The course of her earthly life was finished, was taken up body and soul into heavenly glory, and exalted by the Lord as Queen over all things. Pope Pius XII discussed the Assumption in Deiparae Virginis Mariae (1946) and declared it a dogma in Munificentissimus Deus (1950). Although the Assumption was only recently defined as dogma , accounts of the bodily assumption of Mary into heaven have circulated since at least
19030-845: The doctrine of the Assumption, which was done in 1950 by Pope Pius XII in Munificentissimus Deus . Whether Mary died or not is not defined dogmatically, however, although a reference to the death of Mary is made in Munificentissimus Deus . In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is believed, and celebrated with her Dormition , where they believe she died. Pope Pius XII Pope Pius XII (born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli , Italian pronunciation: [euˈdʒɛːnjo maˈriːa dʒuˈzɛppe dʒoˈvanni paˈtʃɛlli] ; 2 March 1876 – 9 October 1958)
19203-429: The dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium (item 57) states: "Christ's birth did not diminish his mother's virginal integrity but sanctified it." Virginity during birth This means that Mary gave birth without losing her corporal virginity (de fide) and her corporal integrity was not affected by giving birth. The Catholic Church does not teach how this occurred physically, but insists that virginity during child birth
19376-621: The existence of the draft only after the death of Pius XI and did not promulgate it as Pope. He did use parts of it in his inaugural encyclical Summi Pontificatus , which he titled "On the Unity of Human Society". His various positions on church and policy issues during his tenure as Cardinal Secretary of State were made public by the Holy See in 1939. Most noteworthy among the 50 speeches is his review of Church-State issues in Budapest in 1938. A year before his papal election, on 26 January 1938,
19549-506: The first instant of her existence and by a special and unique gift of God was free from the lack of grace caused by the original sin from the beginning of human history. In Fulgens corona (item 10) Pope Pius XII reaffirmed the concept by stating: "Who will dare to doubt that she, who was purer than the angels and at all times pure, was at any moment, even for the briefest instant, not free from every stain of sin?" Ineffabilis Deus (as well as Pope Pius XII's Munificentissimus Deus on
19722-473: The first official denunciation of Nazism made by any major organization and resulted in persecution of the church by the infuriated Nazis who closed all the participating presses and "took numerous vindictive measures against the Church, including staging a long series of immorality trials of the Catholic clergy". On 10 June 1941, the Pope commented on the problems of the Reichskonkordat in a letter to
19895-401: The highest level". When he returned to Munich, following Eisner's assassination by Bavarian nationalist Count Anton von Arco auf Valley , he informed Gasparri-using Schioppa's eye-witness testimony of the chaotic scene at the former royal palace as the trio of Max Levien , Eugen Levine , and Tobias Akselrod sought power: "the scene was indescribable [-] the confusion totally chaotic [-] in
20068-576: The holiest and greatest saint . There is a certain diversity in the Mariology and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas , namely her Immaculate Conception and her bodily Assumption into heaven. Many Protestants hold less exalted views of Mary's role, often based on a perceived lack of biblical support for many traditional Christian dogmas pertaining to her. The multiple forms of Marian devotions include various prayers and hymns ,
20241-402: The honour of our Lord, Jesus Christ." Both minimalist and maximalist have always seen in Mary a sign of the Catholic Church and viewed her as a model for all Catholics. In the 20th century, Pope Pius XII , "the most Marian pope in Church history", warned against both exuberant exaggerations and timid minimalism in the presentation of Mary. The Vatican II dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium
20414-561: The human body might have evolved from earlier forms. He eliminated the Italian majority in the College of Cardinals in 1946. After he died in 1958, Pope Pius XII was succeeded by John XXIII . In the process toward sainthood, his cause for canonization was opened on 18 November 1965 by Paul VI during the final session of the Second Vatican Council . He was made a Servant of God by John Paul II in 1990 and Benedict XVI declared Pius XII Venerable on 19 December 2009. Pacelli remains
20587-404: The inner coherence of these disciplines. Pope Benedict XVI has stated that Marian studies have three separate characteristics: first personalizing the church so it is not seen just as a structure but as a person, secondly the incarnational aspect and the relation to God, and third Marian piety which involves the heart and the emotional component. Mary's position in the church can be compared to
20760-581: The inner link between Marian doctrines and a fuller understanding of Christological themes. Given the Catholic perspective that the Church lives in its relation to Christ, being the Body of Christ, it also has a relation to his mother, whose study is the subject of Catholic Mariology. Pope Pius X in Ad diem illum stated: "there is no more direct road than by Mary for uniting all mankind in Christ." In Catholic theology
20933-462: The internal section. Tardini and Montini continued serving there until 1953, when Pius XII decided to appoint them cardinals, an honor which both turned down. They were then later appointed to be Pro-Secretary with the privilege to wear Episcopal Insignia. Tardini continued to be a close co-worker of the Pope until the death of Pius XII, while Montini became archbishop of Milan , after the death of Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster . Pius XII slowly eroded
21106-539: The last pope to take the regnal name of Pius to the present day. Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli was born on the second day of Lent, 2 March 1876, in Rome into an upper class family of intense Catholic piety with a history of ties to the papacy (the " Black Nobility "). His parents were Filippo Pacelli [ it ] (1837–1916) and Virginia (née Graziosi) Pacelli (1844–1920). His grandfather Marcantonio Pacelli [ it ] had been Under-Secretary in
21279-597: The legal advisor to Pope Pius XI , in which role he negotiated the Lateran Treaty in 1929 with Benito Mussolini , bringing an end to the Roman Question . Together with his brother Francesco (1872–1935) and his two sisters, Giuseppina (1874–1955) and Elisabetta (1880–1970), he grew up in the Parione district in the centre of Rome. Soon after the family had moved to Via Vetrina in 1880, he began school at
21452-454: The legal position of the church. Pacelli, who knew German conditions well, emphasized in particular protection for Catholic associations (§31), freedom for education and Catholic schools, and freedom for publications. As nuncio during the 1920s, he had made unsuccessful attempts to obtain German agreement for such a treaty, and between 1930 and 1933 he attempted to initiate negotiations with representatives of successive German governments, but
21625-469: The love of God, but enhances it, for all consecration is ultimately made to God. Following the growth of Marian devotions in the 16th century, Catholic saints wrote books such as Glories of Mary and True Devotion to Mary that emphasized Marian veneration and taught that "the path to Jesus is through Mary". Marian devotions are at times linked to Christocentric devotions (such as the Alliance of
21798-433: The midst of all this, a gang of young women, of dubious appearance, Jews like the rest of them hanging around [-] the boss of this female rabble was Levien's mistress, a young Russian woman, a Jew and a divorcée [-] and it was to her that the nunciature was obliged to pay homage in order to proceed [-] Levien is a young man, also Russian and a Jew. Pale, dirty, with drugged eyes, vulgar, repulsive ..." John Cornwell alleges that
21971-621: The mystery of Christ. Pope John Paul II discussed the "precise place of Mary" in the plan of salvation in the encyclical Redemptoris Mater and stated: "Following the line of the Second Vatican Council, I wish to emphasize the special presence of the Mother of God in the mystery of Christ and his Church. For this is a fundamental dimension emerging from the Mariology of the Council". Catholic theologians have also explored
22144-511: The necessary connection of Mariology with Christology. According to John Henry Newman : "Mariology is always christocentric". Pope Benedict XVI characterized the relationship by stating that "Christology and Mariology are inseparably interwoven" from their very beginnings. In his view, Mariology underscores the nexus of the mysteries of Christology and ecclesiology , and reflects they are intrinsically interwoven. Early Christians and numerous saints focused on this connection and popes highlighted
22317-451: The new regime, against those who saw the Nazi persecution of the church as an aberration that Hitler would correct. Between 1933 and 1939, Pacelli issued 55 protests of violations of the Reichskonkordat . Most notably, early in 1937, Pacelli asked several German cardinals, including Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber , to help him write a protest of Nazi violations of the Reichskonkordat ; this
22490-505: The number of cardinals shrank to 38, with Dennis Joseph Dougherty of Philadelphia being the only living U.S. cardinal. The first occasion on 18 February 1946 yielded the elevation of a record 32 new cardinals, almost half of the College of Cardinals and reaching the canonical limit of 70 cardinals. In the 1946 consistory, Pius XII, while maintaining the maximum size of the College of Cardinals at 70, named cardinals from China , India ,
22663-399: The offer, and were rewarded instead with other promotions. Both Montini and Tardini would become Cardinals shortly after Pius' death; Montini later became Pope Paul VI . The two consistories of 1946 and 1953 brought an end to over five hundred years of Italians constituting a majority of the College of Cardinals . With few exceptions, Italian prelates accepted the changes positively; there
22836-549: The office can never encompass. Mariology and the doctrine of office are thus not "side chapels" in Catholic teachings, but are central and integrating elements of it. As referenced in Pope Pius XII 's 1943 the encyclical Mystici Corporis Christi , her fiat gave consent for a spiritual marriage between the Son of God and human nature, thus giving humanity the means to salvation. Mary's rights (wedding feast at Cana), and Mary's love (fiat) are essential to salvation. Mariology
23009-615: The official Roman Catholic position. For Helvidius , those would be full siblings of Jesus, born to Mary and Joseph after the firstborn Jesus. This has been the most common Protestant position. The hagiography of Mary and the Holy Family can be contrasted with other material in the Gospels. These references include an incident which can be interpreted as Jesus rejecting his family in the New Testament: "And his mother and his brothers arrived, and standing outside, they sent in
23182-416: The opinion of Catholic bishops, and based on their overwhelming support (1210 among the 1232 bishops) proceeded with the dogmatic definition. The consensus of Magisterial teaching and liturgy affirms that Mary suffered death before her assumption, but this is not always accepted as settled doctrine. What is most clear is that her body was not left on earth to corrupt. When responding to Pope Pius XII following
23355-516: The opposition of Protestant and Socialist parties, the instability of national governments and the care of the individual states to guard their autonomy thwarted this aim. In particular, the questions of denominational schools and pastoral work in the armed forces prevented any agreement on the national level, despite talks in the winter of 1932. Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor on 30 January 1933 and sought to gain international respectability and to remove internal opposition by representatives of
23528-518: The ordinary universal Magisterium. As in the case of the Immaculate Conception or the Assumption , these doctrines were held by the church prior to the date of official definition, but open for discussion. From the date of definition, they must be accepted by all members of the Catholic Church as contained specifically in the Deposit of Faith and owed supernatural faith in itself ( de fide credenda ). There are four Marian dogmas specifically defined by
23701-516: The original manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name מרים , transliterated as Maryam or Mariam . The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία , a shortened form of the name Μαριάμ . Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament. In Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that
23874-590: The other being Jesus. In the Quran , she is described both as "the daughter of Imran" and "the sister of Aaron", alluding to Miriam from the Hebrew Bible . However, the title of "the sister of Aaron" is confirmed to be metaphorical (which is a common figure of speech in Arabic ) as per a Hadith from the Islamic prophet Muhammad explaining Mary was indeed named after Miriam. The canonical Gospels and
24047-452: The points vital to the Vatican. Despite Vatican pessimism and a lack of visible progress, Pacelli continued the secret negotiations, until Pius XI ordered them to be discontinued in 1927. Pacelli supported German diplomatic activity aimed at rejection of punitive measures from victorious former enemies. He blocked French attempts for an ecclesiastical separation of the Saar region , supported
24220-759: The political situation in Germany and the real character of the Nazis". Following Brüning's resignation in May 1932 Pacelli, like the new Catholic chancellor Franz von Papen , wondered if the Centre Party should look to the Right for a coalition, "that would correspond to their principles". He made many diplomatic visits throughout Europe and the Americas, including an extensive visit to the United States in 1936 where he met President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who appointed
24393-465: The pride of Lucifer". and as "bearers of a new faith and a new Evangile" who were attempting to create "a mendacious antimony between faithfulness to the Church and the Fatherland". Two years later at Notre Dame de Paris he named Germany as "that noble and powerful nation whom bad shepherds would lead astray into an ideology of race". Pacelli was made a Cardinal-Priest of Santi Giovanni e Paolo al Celio on 16 December 1929 by Pope Pius XI, and within
24566-559: The process of being formulated in Hungary . Pacelli made reference to the Jews "whose lips curse [Christ] and whose hearts reject him even today". This traditional adversarial relationship with Judaism would be reversed in Nostra aetate issued during the Second Vatican Council . According to Joseph Bottum , Pacelli in 1937 "warned A. W. Klieforth, that Hitler was 'an untrustworthy scoundrel and fundamentally wicked person', to quote Klieforth, who also wrote that Pacelli 'did not believe Hitler capable of moderation, and ... fully supported
24739-409: The rest of his life, including his advisor Robert Leiber and Sister Pascalina Lehnert—housekeeper, cook, friend, and adviser for 41 years. In Berlin, Pacelli was Dean of the Diplomatic Corps and active in diplomatic and many social activities. He was aided by the German priest Ludwig Kaas , who was known for his expertise in Church-state relations and was a full-time politician, politically active in
24912-428: The saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory". This dogma states that Mary was conceived without original sin . This means that from the first moment of her existence she was preserved by God from the lack of sanctifying grace , and that she was instead filled with divine grace . The dogma of the Immaculate Conception is distinct from and should not be confused with the perpetual virginity of Mary or
25085-465: The sole recognized religion; the powerful democratic Catholic Popular Party , in many ways similar to the Centre Party in Germany, had been disbanded, and in place of political Catholicism the Holy See encouraged Catholic Action . It was permitted only so long as it developed "its activity outside every political party and in direct dependence upon the Church hierarchy for the dissemination and implementation of Catholic principles". Such concordats allowed
25258-431: The sons of Zebedee", presumably the Salome mentioned in Mark 15:40. In Acts 1:12–26, especially verse 14, Mary is the only one other than the eleven apostles to be mentioned by name who abode in the upper room , when they returned from Mount Olivet . Her presence with the apostles during the Pentecost is not explicit, although it has been held as a fact by Christian tradition. From this time, she disappears from
25431-423: The study of Mary as a path to gaining a better understanding of the mystery of Christ. This is consistent with the emphasis of the bishops at the Second Vatican Council in not having a separate decree on Mary but rather describing her place in salvation history in Lumen gentium , the Constitution on the Church. Marian Catholic dogmas present church teachings about Mary and her relation to Jesus Christ, held by
25604-409: The study of Mary, while contributing to the study of Christ, is also a separate discipline in its own right, with an understanding of the figure of Mary contributing to a fuller understanding of who Christ is and what he did. The Congregation for Catholic Education has characterized the situation as follows: "The history of theology shows that an understanding of the mystery of the Virgin contributes to
25777-484: The ten-year period 1922–1932. The Reichskonkordat , signed on 20 July 1933, between Germany and the Holy See, while thus a part of an overall Vatican policy, was controversial from its beginning. It remains the most important of Pacelli's concordats. It is debated, not because of its content, which is still valid today, but because of its timing. A national concordat with Germany was one of Pacelli's main objectives as secretary of state, because he had hoped to strengthen
25950-414: The uniqueness of the Immaculate Conception as a gift from God to Mary, that Jesus might receive his body from one unstained by sin. This dogma states that Mary was a virgin before, during and after giving birth ( de fide ). This oldest Marian doctrine, (also held by Lutheran , Eastern Orthodox , and Oriental Orthodox , and many other Christians ) affirms Mary's "real and perpetual virginity even in
26123-462: The upheaval following the Armistice, a disconcerted Pacelli sought Benedict XV's permission to leave Munich, where Kurt Eisner had formed the Free State of Bavaria , and he left for a while to Rorschach , and a tranquil Swiss sanatorium run by nuns. Schioppa, the uditore , was left in Munich. "His recovery began with a 'rapport ' " with the 24-year-old Sister Pascalina Lehnert – she would soon be transferred to Munich when Pacelli "pulled strings at
26296-480: The veneration of her in daily life, prayer, hymns , art , music , and architecture in modern and ancient Christianity throughout the ages. The four Marian dogmas of Mother of God , Immaculate Conception , perpetual virginity , and Assumption form the basis of Mariology. However, a number of other Catholic doctrines about the Virgin Mary have been developed by reference to sacred scripture , theological reasoning and church tradition. The development of Mariology
26469-449: The veneration of the Virgin Mary. Catholics place high emphasis on Mary's roles as protector and intercessor and the Catechism refers to Mary as "honored with the title 'Mother of God', to whose protection the faithful fly in all their dangers and needs". Key Marian prayers include: Ave Maria , Alma Redemptoris Mater , Sub tuum praesidium , Ave maris stella , Regina caeli , Ave Regina caelorum and
26642-427: The view that among them it typically happened between their mid and late teen years or late teens and early twenties. After eight days, the boy was circumcised according to Jewish law and named " Jesus " ( ישוע , Yeshu'a ), which means " Yahweh is salvation". After Mary continued in the " blood of her purifying " another 33 days, for a total of 40 days, she brought her burnt offering and sin offering to
26815-409: The wedding rites. Since the angel Gabriel had told Mary that Elizabeth—having previously been barren—was then miraculously pregnant, Mary hurried to see Elizabeth, who was living with her husband Zechariah in "the hill country..., [in] a city of Juda". Mary arrived at the house and greeted Elizabeth who called Mary "the mother of my Lord", and Mary spoke the words of praise that later became known as
26988-426: The wife of Joseph. John 19:25 states that Mary had a sister; semantically it is unclear if this sister is the same as Mary of Clopas , or if she is left unnamed. Jerome identifies Mary of Clopas as the sister of Mary, mother of Jesus. According to the early 2nd century historian Hegesippus , Mary of Clopas was likely Mary's sister-in-law, understanding Clopas (Cleophas) to have been Joseph's brother. According to
27161-459: The writer of Luke, Mary was a relative of Elizabeth , wife of the priest Zechariah of the priestly division of Abijah , who was herself part of the lineage of Aaron and so of the Tribe of Levi . Some of those who believe that the relationship with Elizabeth was on the maternal side, believe that Mary, like Joseph, was of the royal Davidic line and so of the Tribe of Judah , and that the genealogy of Jesus presented in Luke 3 from Nathan ,
27334-491: Was 12–14 years old. Her age during her pregnancy has varied up to 17 in apocryphal sources. In a large part, apocryphal texts are historically unreliable. According to ancient Jewish custom, Mary technically could have been betrothed at about 12, but some scholars hold the view that in Judea it typically happened later. Hyppolitus of Thebes says that Mary lived for 11 years after the death of her son Jesus, dying in 41 AD. The earliest extant biographical writing on Mary
27507-515: Was also enrolled at the State University, La Sapienza where he studied modern languages and history. At the end of the first academic year however, in the summer of 1895, he dropped out of both the Capranica and the Gregorian University. According to his sister Elisabetta, the food at the Capranica was to blame. Having received a special dispensation he continued his studies from home and so spent most of his seminary years as an external student. In 1899, he completed his education in Sacred Theology with
27680-418: Was also formally the Grand Master of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem , prefect of the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office , prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Oriental Churches and prefect of the Sacred Consistorial Congregation . There was however a Cardinal-Secretary to run these bodies on a day-to-day basis. Pacelli took the same papal name as his predecessor,
27853-426: Was an almost universally held belief among Christians from the 2nd until the 19th century. It is included in the two most widely used Christian creeds , which state that Jesus "was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary" (the Nicene Creed , in what is now its familiar form) and the Apostles' Creed . The Gospel of Matthew describes Mary as a virgin who fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah 7:14, The authors of
28026-458: Was confirmed by the First Council of Ephesus , held at the Church of Mary in 431. The Council decreed that Mary is the Mother of God because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human. This doctrine is widely accepted by Christians in general, and the term "Mother of God" had already been used within the oldest known prayer to Mary, the Sub tuum praesidium , which dates to around 250 AD. The Virgin birth of Jesus
28199-414: Was far advanced in years. Mary was given to service as a consecrated virgin in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old. This was in spite of the patent impossibility of its premise that a girl could be kept in the Temple of Jerusalem along with some companions. Some unproven apocryphal accounts, such as the apocryphal Gospel of James 8:2, state that at the time of her betrothal to Joseph, Mary
28372-418: Was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 2 March 1939 until his death in October 1958. Before his election to the papacy , he served as secretary of the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs , papal nuncio to Germany , and Cardinal Secretary of State , in which capacity he worked to conclude treaties with various European and Latin American nations, including
28545-628: Was nearing death at the time —from condemning the Kristallnacht in November 1938, when he was informed of it by the papal nuncio in Berlin. The draft encyclical Humani generis unitas ("On the Unity of the Human Race") was ready in September 1938 but, according to those responsible for an edition of the document and other sources, it was not forwarded to the Holy See by the Jesuit General Wlodimir Ledóchowski . The draft encyclical contained an open and clear condemnation of colonialism , racial persecution and antisemitism . Historians Passelecq and Suchecky have argued that Pacelli learned about
28718-464: Was no protest movement or open opposition to the internationalization efforts. In his encyclical Mediator Dei , Pius XII links liturgy with the last will of Jesus Christ . But it is His will, that the worship He instituted and practised during His life on earth shall continue ever afterwards without intermission. For He has not left mankind an orphan. He still offers us the support of His powerful, unfailing intercession, acting as our "advocate with
28891-423: Was one of only two men known to have served as Camerlengo immediately prior to being elected as pope (the other being Pope Leo XIII ). According to rumours, he asked for another ballot to be taken to ensure the validity of his election. After his election was indeed confirmed, he chose the name Pius XII in honour of his immediate predecessor. His coronation took place on 12 March 1939. Upon being elected pope he
29064-486: Was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The direct equivalents of title in Latin are Deipara and Dei Genitrix , although the phrase is more often loosely translated into Latin as Mater Dei ("Mother of God"), with similar patterns for other languages used in the Latin Church . However, this same phrase in Greek ( Μήτηρ Θεοῦ ), in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ , is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons . The Council stated that
29237-407: Was resting at his favourite retreat, the Rorschach convent sanatorium. He left Berlin on 10 December 1929. David G. Dalin wrote "of the forty-four speeches Pacelli gave in Germany as papal nuncio between 1917 and 1929, forty denounced some aspect of the emerging Nazi ideology". In 1935 he wrote a letter to Karl Joseph Schulte , the archbishop of Cologne, describing the Nazis as "false prophets with
29410-414: Was specifically written in 1964 to avoid both Marian maximalism and minimalism. Pope John Paul II was also careful to avoid both maximalism and minimalism in his Mariology and avoided taking personal positions on issues which were subject to theological debate. Mariology is related to Christology (the study of Christ ) and in the Catholic theological and papal writings has been viewed as interwoven with
29583-433: Was the nature of concordats and the function of canon law when a concordat falls into abeyance. Promoted to the position of minutante , he prepared digests of reports that had been sent to the Secretariat from all over the world and in the same year became a papal chamberlain . In 1905 he received the title domestic prelate . From 1904 until 1916, he assisted Cardinal Pietro Gasparri in his codification of canon law with
29756-404: Was the ruler of Judaea. Mary is involved in the only event in Jesus' adolescent life that is recorded in the New Testament. At the age of 12, Jesus, having become separated from his parents on their return journey from the Passover celebration in Jerusalem, was found in the Temple among the religious teachers. Mary was present when, at her suggestion, Jesus worked his first miracle during
29929-400: Was to become Pius XI's 1937 encyclical, Mit brennender Sorge . The encyclical was written in German and not the usual Latin of official Catholic Church documents. Secretly distributed by an army of motorcyclists and read from every German Catholic Church pulpit on Palm Sunday , it condemned the paganism of the Nazi ideology. Pius XI credited its creation and writing to Pacelli. It was
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