Defunct
151-535: Defunct The Second Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history during which the House of Bourbon returned to power after the fall of Napoleon in 1815. The Second Bourbon Restoration lasted until the July Revolution of 26 July 1830. Louis XVIII and Charles X , brothers of the executed King Louis XVI , successively mounted the throne and instituted a conservative government intended to restore
302-741: A bachelor's degree . There are also seminaries for older adults who are well out of school, such as the Pope St. John XXIII National Seminary in Massachusetts, and for other more specialized purposes. All seminaries are run either by religious orders or by dioceses or other similar structures. Often a seminary will train both that particular order's or diocese's priests and the priests of other orders or dioceses that select that particular seminary for its priests. For instance, Saint John's Seminary in Boston, Massachusetts trains priests for many of
453-731: A monarchy , then Second Republic , then Second Empire , until a more lasting French Third Republic was established in 1870. France was one of the Triple Entente powers in World War I against the Central Powers . France was one of the Allied Powers in World War II , but was conquered by Nazi Germany in 1940. The Third Republic was dismantled, and most of the country was controlled directly by Germany, while
604-686: A strong economic, cultural, military and political factor in the 21st century. Stone tools discovered at Chilhac and Lézignan-la-Cèbe indicate that pre-human ancestors may have been present in France at least 1.6 million years ago. Neanderthals were present in Europe from about 400,000 BC , but died out about 40,000 years ago, possibly out-competed by modern humans during a period of cold weather. The earliest modern humans entered Europe by 43,000 years ago (the Upper Palaeolithic ). In
755-642: A Gaulish family. In the decade following Valerian 's capture by the Persians in 260, Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire , which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes, the Franks and the Alamanni , entered Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian 's victory at Châlons in 274. A migration of Celts occurred in
906-742: A central political issue into the 20th century. Bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself with a new emphasis on personal piety that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful. Education: Public education was centralised, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the national educational system from Paris. New technical universities were opened in Paris which to this day have
1057-640: A centralized absolute monarchy through the Renaissance and Reformation . At the height of the French Wars of Religion , France became embroiled in another succession crisis, as the last Valois king, Henry III , fought against factions the House of Bourbon and House of Guise . Henry, the Bourbon King of Navarre , won and established the Bourbon dynasty. A burgeoning worldwide colonial empire
1208-578: A chief minister, Polignac, in November 1829 who was repellent to the liberals and, worse, Chateaubriand. Though Charles remained nonchalant, the deadlock led some royalists to call for a coup , and prominent liberals for a tax strike. At the opening of the session in March 1830, the King delivered a speech that contained veiled threats to the opposition; in response, 221 deputies (an absolute majority) condemned
1359-729: A coalition of European powers defeated him in the War of the Sixth Coalition , ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The First Bourbon Restoration lasted from about 6 April 1814. In July 1815 the First French Empire was succeeded by the Kingdom of France. This Kingdom existed until the popular uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. At the peace Congress of Vienna ,
1510-518: A college degree, usually a Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Philosophy , and terminating in a higher degree, such as a Master of Arts in Theology or a Master of Divinity . The pastoral dimension helps to develop pastoral familiarity with situations such as bedside manner , marriage, and life in the parish. For Catholic seminarians, seminary formation can be divided into four distinct stages of formation. The Dallas Theological Seminary (DTS)
1661-728: A considerable uproar, particularly among the Doctrinaires . Much more controversial was the introduction of the Jesuits , who set up a network of colleges for elite youth outside the official university system. The Jesuits were noted for their loyalty to the Pope and gave much less support to Gallican traditions. Inside and outside the Church they had enemies, and the king ended their institutional role in 1828. New legislation paid an indemnity to royalists whose lands had been confiscated during
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#17327798752201812-855: A cordial relation with the Plantagenet King. The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Louis: the Seventh Crusade and the Eighth Crusade . Both proved to be complete failures for the French King. Philip III became king when Saint Louis died in 1270 during the Eighth Crusade. Philip III was called "the Bold" on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities. Philip III took part in another crusading disaster:
1963-516: A correspondence between Lucius Munatius Plancus and Cicero to formalize the existence of Cularo (Grenoble). Gaul was divided into several different provinces. The Romans displaced populations to prevent local identities from becoming a threat to Roman control. Thus, many Celts were displaced in Aquitania or were enslaved and moved out of Gaul. There was a strong cultural evolution in Gaul under
2114-399: A critical role in training the elite. The aristocracy: Conservatism was bitterly split into the returning old aristocracy and the new elites arising under Napoleon after 1796. The old aristocracy was eager to regain its land, but felt no loyalty to the new regime. The newer elite, the " noblesse d'empire ", ridiculed the older group as an outdated remnant of a discredited regime that had led
2265-525: A first sentimental flush of popularity, Louis' gestures towards reversing the results of the French Revolution quickly lost him support among the disenfranchised majority. Symbolic acts such as the replacement of the tricolore flag with the white flag , the titling of Louis as the "XVIII" (as successor to Louis XVII , who never ruled) and as "King of France" rather than "King of the French", and
2416-589: A further period of division, subsequently conquering the Lombards under Desiderius in what is now northern Italy (774), incorporating Bavaria (788) into his realm, defeating the Avars of the Danubian plain (796), advancing the frontier with Al-Andalus as far south as Barcelona (801), and subjugating Lower Saxony after a prolonged campaign (804). In recognition of his successes and his political support for
2567-706: A greater threat, and Aëtius used the Visigoths against the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Châlons , in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila. The Roman Empire was on the verge of collapsing. Aquitania was definitely abandoned to the Visigoths , who would soon conquer a significant part of southern Gaul as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula. The Burgundians claimed their own kingdom, and northern Gaul
2718-622: A liberal majority within the Chamber of Deputies. He was ready for stark action and made his move after a final no-confidence vote by the liberal house majority, in March 1830. He set about to alter the Charter of 1814 by decree. These decrees, known as the "Four Ordinances", dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, suspended the liberty of the press, excluded the more liberal commercial middle-class from future elections, and called for new elections. French history The first written records for
2869-544: A minimum. The ultras broadened their support, and put a stop to growing military dissent in 1823, when intervention in Spain, in favour of Spanish Bourbon King Ferdinand VII , and against the Liberal Spanish Government , fomented popular patriotic fervour. Despite British backing for the military action, the intervention was widely seen as an attempt to win back influence in Spain, which had been lost to
3020-571: A more conservative form of governance than Louis. His more reactionary laws included the Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825–1830). Exasperated by public resistance and disrespect, the king and his ministers attempted to manipulate the general election of 1830 through their July Ordinances . This sparked a revolution in the streets of Paris, Charles abdicated, and on 9 August 1830 the Chamber of Deputies affirmed Louis Phillipe d'Orleans as King of
3171-492: A prefect appointed by Paris. The thicket of overlapping legal jurisdictions of the old regime had all been abolished, and there was now one standardised legal code, administered by judges appointed by Paris, and supported by police under national control. The church: The Revolutionary governments had confiscated all the lands and buildings of the Catholic Church , selling them to innumerable middle-class buyers, and it
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#17327798752203322-680: A regency for Napoleon's son, the King of Rome , and the Russians were open to either the duc d'Orléans , Louis Philippe , or Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte , Napoleon's former Marshal , who was heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne. Napoleon was offered to keep the throne in February 1814, on the condition that France return to its 1792 frontiers, but he refused. The feasibility of the Restoration
3473-438: A relatively powerful liberal bloc into the Chamber of Deputies. The 17-strong liberal bloc of 1824 grew to 180 in 1827, and 274 in 1830. This liberal majority grew increasingly dissatisfied with the policies of the centrist Martignac and the ultra-royalist Polignac, seeking to protect the limited protections of the Charter of 1814. They sought both the expansion of the franchise, and more liberal economic policies. They also demanded
3624-529: A series of bad harvests 1827–1830. Workers living on the margin were very hard-pressed, and angry that the government paid little attention to their urgent needs. Charles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Chambord , and left for England. However, the liberal, bourgeois-controlled Chamber of Deputies refused to confirm the Comte de Chambord as Henry V. In a vote largely boycotted by conservative deputies,
3775-407: A similar fashion to the 1816 chamber, and fears over the charbonnerie , the French equivalent of the carbonari . In the 1824 election , another large majority was secured. Louis XVIII died on 16 September 1824 and was succeeded by his brother, the Comte d'Artois, who took the title of Charles X . The accession to the throne of Charles X, the leader of the ultra-royalist faction, coincided with
3926-557: A succession of victories against other Germanic tribes such as the Alamanni at Tolbiac . In 496, pagan Clovis adopted Catholicism . This gave him greater legitimacy and power over his Christian subjects and granted him clerical support against the Arian Visigoths. He defeated Alaric II at Vouillé in 507 and annexed Aquitaine, and thus Toulouse, into his Frankish kingdom. The Goths retired to Toledo in what would become Spain. Clovis made Paris his capital and established
4077-520: Is an educational institution for educating students (sometimes called seminarians ) in scripture and theology , generally to prepare them for ordination to serve as clergy , in academics, or mostly in Christian ministry . The English word is taken from Latin : seminarium , translated as 'seed-bed', an image taken from the Council of Trent document Cum adolescentium aetas , 'Since
4228-597: Is an evangelical theological seminary in Dallas, Texas . It is known for popularizing the theological system of dispensationalism . DTS has campuses in Dallas, Houston , and Washington, D.C. , as well as extension sites in Atlanta , Austin , San Antonio , Nashville , Northwest Arkansas , Europe, and Guatemala , and a multilingual online education program. DTS is the largest non-denominational seminary accredited by
4379-549: Is debatable, the Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and militarily. Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the Battle of Baugé (1421), the humiliating defeats of Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. Charles VII (reigned 1422–61) established
4530-752: The Code of Canon Law . Seminaries are overseen by regional conferences of bishops . In the United States, the governing document is Program of Priestly Formation: in the United States of America (6th Ed.) , published by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops in 2022. Seminaries in the Catholic Church are divided into minor seminaries for teenagers and major seminaries for adults, including both college seminaries, sometimes also known as minor seminaries, for undergraduate students and post-graduate seminaries for those who already have
4681-527: The Aide-toi, which backed liberals, constitutionnels , and the contre-opposition (constitutional monarchists). The new chamber did not result in a clear majority for any side. Villèle's successor, the vicomte de Martignac , who began his term in January 1828, tried to steer a middle course, appeasing liberals by loosening press controls, expelling Jesuits, modifying electoral registration, and restricting
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4832-757: The Albigensian Crusade . Southern France was then largely absorbed in the royal domains. France became a truly centralised kingdom under Louis IX (reigned 1226–70). The kingdom was vulnerable: war was still going on in the County of Toulouse, and the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc. Count Raymond VII of Toulouse finally signed the Treaty of Paris in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands for life, but his daughter, married to Count Alfonso of Poitou , produced him no heir and so
4983-729: The Aragonese Crusade , which cost him his life in 1285. More administrative reforms were made by Philip IV , also called Philip the Fair (reigned 1285–1314). This king was responsible for the end of the Knights Templar , signed the Auld Alliance , and established the Parlement of Paris . Philip IV was so powerful that he could name popes and emperors, unlike the early Capetians. The papacy was moved to Avignon and all
5134-474: The Association of Theological Schools . DTS was founded as "Evangelical Theological College" in 1924 by Rollin T. Chafer and his brother, Lewis Sperry Chafer , who taught the first class of thirteen students, and William Henry Griffith Thomas , who was to have been the school's first theology professor but died before the first classes began. Their vision was a school where expository Bible preaching
5285-721: The Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age the territory of France was largely dominated by the Bell Beaker culture , followed by the Armorican Tumulus culture , Rhône culture , Tumulus culture , Urnfield culture and Atlantic Bronze Age culture, among others. The Iron Age saw the development of the Hallstatt culture followed by the La Tène culture . The first written records for the history of France appear in
5436-541: The Crusader states . The French were also active in the Iberian Reconquista to Rechristianize Muslim Spain and Portugal. The Iberian reconquista made use of French knights and settlers to repopulate former Muslim settlements that were sacked by conquering Spanish or Portuguese Christians. The monarchy overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and established absolute sovereignty over France in
5587-668: The French Fifth Republic . Into the 1960s most of the French colonial empire became independent, while smaller parts were incorporated into the French state as overseas departments and collectivities . Since World War II France has been a permanent member in the UN Security Council and NATO . It played a central role in the unification process after 1945 that led to the European Union . It remains
5738-440: The French conquest of Algeria ; victory was announced over the Dey of Algiers in early July. Plans were drawn up to invade Belgium, which was shortly to undergo its own revolution . However, foreign policy did not prove sufficient to divert attention from domestic problems. Charles's dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, his July Ordinances which set up rigid control of the press, and his restriction of suffrage resulted in
5889-423: The July Revolution of 1830. The major cause of the regime's downfall, however, was that, while it managed to keep the support of the aristocracy, the Catholic Church and even much of the peasantry, the ultras' cause was deeply unpopular outside of parliament and with those who did not hold the franchise, especially the industrial workers and the bourgeoisie. A major reason was a sharp rise in food prices , caused by
6040-416: The Loire according to other authors like Strabo . The Celts founded cities such as Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) and Burdigala (Bordeaux) while the Aquitanians founded Tolosa (Toulouse). Long before any Roman settlements, Greek navigators settled in what would become Provence . The Phoceans founded important cities such as Massalia (Marseille) and Nikaia (Nice), bringing them into conflict with
6191-409: The Merovingian dynasty but his kingdom would not survive his death in 511. Under Frankish inheritance traditions, all sons inherit part of the land, so four kingdoms emerged: centered on Paris , Orléans , Soissons , and Rheims . Over time, the borders and numbers of Frankish kingdoms were fluid and changed frequently. Also during this time, the Mayors of the Palace , originally the chief advisor to
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6342-438: The Ottoman Empire . The Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa captured Nice in 1543 and handed it down to Francis I. During the 16th century, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were the dominant power in Europe. The many domains of Charles V encircled France. The Spanish Tercio was used with great success against French knights. Finally, on 7 January 1558, the Duke of Guise seized Calais from the English. Economic historians call
6493-428: The Robertians , were formerly powerful princes themselves who had successfully unseated the weak and unfortunate Carolingian kings. The Capetians, in a way, held a dual status of King and Prince; as king they held the Crown of Charlemagne and as Count of Paris they held their personal fiefdom, best known as Île-de-France . Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would become some of
6644-403: The Robertines , were the predecessors of the Capetian dynasty . Led by Rollo , some Vikings had settled in Normandy and were granted the land, first as counts and then as dukes, by King Charles the Simple , in order to protect the land from other raiders. The people that emerged from the interactions between the new Viking aristocracy and the already mixed Franks and Gallo-Romans became known as
6795-534: The Société des amis de la liberté de la presse ; Choiseul-Stainville , Salvandy and Villemain were among the contributors. Another influential society was the Société Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera , which worked within the confines of legislation banning the unauthorized meetings of more than 20 members. The group, emboldened by the rising tide of opposition, was of a more liberal composition (associated with Le Globe ) and included members such as Guizot , Rémusat , and Barrot . Pamphlets were sent out which evaded
6946-518: The Third Crusade ; however, their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade. John Lackland , Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against the Lusignans and, as Louis VI had done often to his rebellious vassals, Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France. John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the decisive Battle of Bouvines (1214) resulted in complete failure. Philip II had annexed Normandy and Anjou, plus capturing
7097-405: The Treaty of Troyes Henry V was made heir to Charles VI. Henry V failed to outlive Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the Dual-Monarchy of England and France. It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc (1412–1431). Although this
7248-419: The duc de Reichstadt , remained interned in Austrian hands. Literary figures, most notably Chateaubriand , but also Hugo , Lamartine , Vigny , and Nodier , rallied to the ultras' cause. Both Hugo and Lamartine later became republicans, whilst Nodier was formerly. Soon, however, Villèle proved himself to be nearly as cautious as his master, and, so long as Louis lived, overtly reactionary policies were kept to
7399-443: The history of France appeared in the Iron Age . What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as Gaul . Greek writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in the area: the Gauls , Aquitani and Belgae . Over the first millennium BC the Greeks, Romans and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and offshore islands. The Roman Republic annexed southern Gaul in
7550-409: The papacy , Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III in 800. Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious (emperor 814–840) kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive Louis I's death. Two of his sons — Charles the Bald and Louis the German — swore allegiance to each other against their brother — Lothair I — in the Oaths of Strasbourg , and the empire
7701-407: The " Estates General ", but in practice the Estates General had no power, for it could petition the king but could not pass laws. The Catholic Church controlled about 40% of the wealth. The king (not the pope) nominated bishops, but typically had to negotiate with noble families that had close ties to local monasteries and church establishments. The nobility came second in terms of wealth, but there
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#17327798752207852-422: The 16th century. Hugh Capet in 987 became "King of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). He was recorded to be recognised king by the Gauls , Bretons , Danes , Aquitanians , Goths , Spanish and Gascons . Hugh's son— Robert the Pious —was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's demise. Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert II, as King of the Franks, met Emperor Henry II in 1023 on
8003-443: The 3rd century BC. In the early 3rd century BC, some Belgae ( Germani cisrhenani ) conquered the surrounding territories of the Somme in northern Gaul after battles supposedly against the Armoricani (Gauls) near Ribemont-sur-Ancre and Gournay-sur-Aronde , where sanctuaries were found. When Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca fought the Romans, he recruited several Gaulish mercenaries who fought on his side at Cannae . It
8154-460: The 4th century in Armorica . They were led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc and came from Britain. They spoke the now extinct British language , which evolved into the Breton , Cornish , and Welsh languages . In 418 the Aquitanian province was given to the Goths in exchange for their support against the Vandals . Those same Goths had sacked Rome in 410 and established a capital in Toulouse. The Roman Empire had difficulty integrating all
8305-433: The Army and foreign affairs. In April 1814, the Armies of the Sixth Coalition restored Louis XVIII of France to the throne, the brother and heir of the executed Louis XVI. A constitution was drafted: the Charter of 1814 . It presented all Frenchmen as equal before the law, but retained substantial prerogatives for the king and nobility and limited voting to those paying at least 300 Francs a year in direct taxes. The king
8456-401: The Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. Administration: First, France was now highly centralised, with all important decisions made in Paris. The political geography was completely reorganised and made uniform, dividing the nation into more than 80 départements which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an identical administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by
8607-414: The Bourbons were treated politely by the victorious monarchies, but had to give up nearly all the territorial gains made by revolutionary and Napoleonic France since 1789. Unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime , the Restoration Bourbon regime was a constitutional monarchy , with some limits on its power. The new king, Louis XVIII, accepted the vast majority of reforms instituted from 1792 to 1814. Continuity
8758-436: The British under Napoleon. The French expeditionary army, called the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis , was led by the duc d'Angoulême , the comte d'Artois's son. The French troops marched to Madrid and then to Cádiz , ousting the Liberals with little fighting (April to September 1823), and would remain in Spain for five years. Support for the ultras amongst the voting rich was further strengthened by doling out favours in
8909-401: The Catholic monopoly of public primary education. Decazes purged a number of ultra-royalist prefects and sub-prefects, and in by-elections, an unusually high proportion of Bonapartists and republicans were elected, some of whom were backed by ultras resorting to tactical voting . The ultras were strongly critical of the practice of giving civil service employment or promotions to deputies, as
9060-418: The Counts of Boulogne and Flanders, although Aquitaine and Gascony remained loyal to the Plantagenet King. Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII, reigned 1223–26) was involved in the subsequent English civil war as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances. While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for
9211-411: The County of Toulouse went to the King of France. King Henry III of England had not yet recognized the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire. He landed in 1230 at Saint-Malo with a massive force. This evolved into the Saintonge War (1242). Ultimately, Henry III was defeated and had to recognise Louis IX's overlordship, although
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#17327798752209362-426: The Fair. Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-called Angevin Empire . During the first part of his reign Philip II allied himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II— Richard Lionheart —and together they launched a decisive attack on Henry's home of Chinon and removed him from power. Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then went crusading during
9513-429: The French king. Abbot Suger arranged the 1137 marriage between Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine in Bordeaux, which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him considerable power. The marriage was ultimately annulled and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy — Henry Fitzempress , who would become King of England two years later. The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than
9664-402: The French, ushering in the July Monarchy . Louis XVIII's restoration to the throne in 1814 was effected largely through the support of Napoleon's former foreign minister, Talleyrand , who convinced the victorious Allied Powers of the desirability of a Bourbon Restoration. The Allies had initially split on the best candidate for the throne: Britain favoured the Bourbons, the Austrians considered
9815-405: The Guard was disbanded. Pamphlets continued to proliferate, which included accusations in September that Charles, on a trip to Saint-Omer , was colluding with the Pope and planned to reinstate the tithe, and had suspended the Charter under the protection of a loyal garrison army. By the time of the election, the moderate royalists (constitutionalists) were also beginning to turn against Charles, as
9966-435: The Holy See. Only some Catholic universities may bestow these degrees; these are called ecclesiastical or pontifical universities . The only pontifical seminary outside of Italy is the Pontifical College Josephinum , in Columbus, Ohio . As outlined by the Ratio , Catholic seminary formation is composed of four major components, or dimensions: human, spiritual, intellectual and pastoral. The human dimension focuses on
10117-422: The Hundred Days. This Second Restoration saw the beginning of the Second White Terror , largely in the south, when unofficial groups supporting the monarchy sought revenge against those who had aided Napoleon's return: about 200–300 were killed, while thousands fled. About 70,000 government officials were dismissed. The pro-Bourbon perpetrators were often known as the Verdets because of their green cockets, which
10268-503: The Iron Age. In 600 BC, Ionian Greeks founded the colony of Massalia (present-day Marseille ) on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea , making it one of the oldest cities in France. At the same time, some Celtic tribes arrived in the eastern parts ( Germania superior ) of the current territory of France, but this occupation spread in the rest of France only between the 5th and 3rd century BC. Covering large parts of modern-day France, Belgium, northwest Germany and northern Italy, Gaul
10419-434: The King of France did not seize Aquitaine. Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France. There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which had been brutally conquered. The Conseil du Roi , which would evolve into the Parlement , was founded in these times. After his conflict with King Henry III of England , Louis established
10570-401: The Normans. France was a very decentralised state during the Middle Ages . The authority of the king was more religious than administrative. The 11th century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like Normandy , Flanders or Languedoc enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The Capetians , as they were descended from
10721-410: The Plantagenet claimant to the French throne. A notable figure of the war was Joan of Arc , a French peasant girl who led forces against the English, establishing herself as a national heroine. The war ended with a Valois victory in 1453, strengthening French nationalism and increasing the power and reach of the French monarchy. During the Ancien Régime over the next centuries, France transformed into
10872-516: The Revolution. Although this law had been engineered by Louis, Charles was influential in seeing that it was passed. A bill to finance this compensation, by converting government debt (the rente ) from 5% to 3% bonds, which would save the state 30 million francs a year in interest payments, was also put before the chambers. Villèle's government argued that rentiers had seen their returns grow disproportionately to their original investment, and that
11023-817: The Roman Empire, the most obvious one being the replacement of the Gaulish language by Vulgar Latin . It has been argued the similarities between the Gaulish and Latin languages favoured the transition. Gaul remained under Roman control for centuries and Celtic culture was then gradually replaced by Gallo-Roman culture . The Gauls became better integrated with the Empire with the passage of time. For instance, generals Marcus Antonius Primus and Gnaeus Julius Agricola were both born in Gaul, as were emperors Claudius and Caracalla . Emperor Antoninus Pius also came from
11174-808: The United States was founded in Andover, Massachusetts , in 1807 as the Andover Theological Seminary and was affiliated with the Congregationalist Church . After two mergers and a number of relocations, Andover is now part of the Yale Divinity School , in New Haven, Connecticut . General guidelines for seminary formation are set out in the governing document as of 2016 is Ratio Fundamentalis Institutionis Sacerdotalis , 1992's Pastores dabo vobis , and
11325-773: The Vatican. For instance, the Pontifical North American College , which trains priests from the United States and elsewhere, is supported by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops . These colleges usually award degrees to seminarians and priests pursuing further education and specializing in specific fields such as Scripture , hagiography , moral theology , or Canon Law , among countless others. In addition to civil degrees, these pontifical seminaries confer ecclesiastical degrees ( Baccalaureate of Sacred Theology , Licentiate of Sacred Theology , and Doctorate of Sacred Theology ), which are backed by
11476-415: The actions of préfects , who began removing certain voters who had failed to provide up-to-date documents since the 1824 election. 18,000 voters were added to the 60,000 on the first list; despite préfect attempts to register those who met the franchise and were supporters of the government, this can mainly be attributed to opposition activity. Organization was mainly divided behind Chateaubriand's Friends and
11627-546: The age of adolescence' which called for the first modern seminaries. In the United States, the term is currently used for graduate-level theological institutions, but historically it was used for high schools . The establishment of seminaries in modern times resulted from Roman Catholic reforms of the Counter-Reformation after the Council of Trent . These Tridentine seminaries placed great emphasis on spiritual formation and personal discipline as well as
11778-436: The army, non-Catholics, and workers hit by a post-war slump and British imports. Napoleon's emissaries informed him of this brewing discontent, and, on 20 March 1815, he returned to Paris from Elba . On his Route Napoléon , most troops sent to stop his march, including some that were nominally royalist, felt more inclined to join the former Emperor than to stop him. Louis fled from Paris to Ghent on 19 March. After Napoleon
11929-633: The barbarian newcomers - with whom foederati treaties were concluded - within the empire, and generals as Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used the Huns against the Burgundians , and these mercenaries destroyed Worms , killed king Gunther , and pushed the Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near Lugdunum in 443. The Huns, united by Attila , became
12080-403: The body declared the French throne vacant, and elevated Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans , to power. There is still considerable debate among historians as to the actual cause of the downfall of Charles X. What is generally conceded, though, is that between 1820 and 1830, a series of economic downturns combined with the rise of a liberal opposition within the Chamber of Deputies, ultimately felled
12231-517: The borderline. They agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships. The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the Peace and Truce of God (beginning in 989) and the Cluniac Reforms . Under King Philip I , the kingdom enjoyed a modest recovery during his extraordinarily long reign (1060–1108). His reign also saw
12382-661: The censorship laws, and the group provided organizational assistance to liberal candidates against pro-government state officials in the November 1827 election . In April 1827, the King and Villèle were confronted by an unruly National Guard . The garrison which Charles reviewed, under orders to express deference to the king but disapproval of his government, instead shouted derogatory anti-Jesuit remarks at his devoutly Catholic niece and daughter in law, Marie Thérèse, Madame la Dauphine . Villèle suffered worse treatment, as liberal officers led troops to protest at his office. In response,
12533-426: The chamber was dissolved by Louis for its reactionary measures, and electoral manipulation resulted in a more liberal chamber in 1816 . Richelieu served until 29 December 1818, followed by Jean-Joseph, Marquis Dessolles until 19 November 1819, and then Decazes (in reality the dominant minister from 1818 to 1820) until 20 February 1820. This was the era in which the Doctrinaires dominated policy, hoping to reconcile
12684-550: The conservative Bourbons. Between 1827 and 1830, France faced an economic downturn, industrial and agricultural, that was possibly worse than the one that sparked the revolution. A series of progressively worsening grain harvests in the late 1820s pushed up the prices on various staple foods and cash crops . In response, the rural peasantry throughout France lobbied for the relaxation of protective tariffs on grain to lower prices and ease their economic situation. However, Charles X, bowing to pressure from wealthier landowners , kept
12835-678: The contemporary popes were French, such as Philip IV's puppet Bertrand de Goth, Pope Clement V . The tensions between the Houses of Plantagenet and Capet climaxed during the so-called Hundred Years' War (actually several distinct wars over the period 1337 to 1453) when the Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the Black Death in France , as well as several devastating civil wars. In 1420, by
12986-506: The death in 1477 of Charles the Bold , France and the Habsburgs began a long process of dividing his rich Burgundian lands, leading to numerous wars. In 1532, Brittany was incorporated into the Kingdom of France. France engaged in the long Italian Wars (1494–1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. Francis I faced powerful foes, and he was captured at Pavia . The French monarchy then sought for allies and found one in
13137-502: The earliest ones. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, kings of France and England and the Holy Roman Emperor. The reign of Philip II Augustus (junior king 1179–80, senior king 1180–1223) saw the French royal domain and influence greatly expanded. He set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip
13288-545: The era from about 1475 to 1630 the "beautiful 16th century" because of the return of peace, prosperity and optimism across the nation, and the steady growth of population. In 1559, Henry II of France signed (with the approval of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor ) two treaties ( Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis ) : one with Elizabeth I of England and one with Philip II of Spain . This ended long-lasting conflicts between France, England and Spain. The Protestant Reformation , inspired in France mainly by John Calvin , began to challenge
13439-652: The first French standing army, the Compagnies d'ordonnance , and defeated the Plantagenets once at Patay (1429) and again, using cannons, at Formigny (1450). The Battle of Castillon (1453) was the last engagement of this war; Calais and the Channel Islands remained ruled by the Plantagenets. France's population was 13 million people in 1484 and 20 million in 1700. It had the second largest population in Europe around 1700. France's lead slowly faded after 1700, as other countries grew faster. Political power
13590-607: The formation of Catholic schools. Charles, unhappy with the new government, surrounded himself with men from the Chevaliers de la Foi and other ultras, such as the Prince de Polignac and La Bourdonnaye . Martignac was deposed when his government lost a bill on local government. Charles and his advisers believed a new government could be formed with the support of the Villèle, Chateaubriand, and Decazes monarchist factions, but chose
13741-457: The future Charles X, triggered Decazes' fall from power and the triumph of the Ultras. Richelieu returned to power for a short interval, from 1820 to 1821. The press was more strongly censored, detention without trial was reintroduced, and Doctrinaire leaders, such as François Guizot , were banned from teaching at the École Normale Supérieure . Under Richelieu, the franchise was changed to give
13892-497: The government continued to consolidate its position. By 1820, the opposition liberals —who, with the ultras, made up half the chamber—proved unmanageable, and Decazes and the king were looking for ways to revise the electoral laws again, to ensure a more tractable conservative majority. In February 1820, the assassination by a Bonapartist of the Duc de Berry , the ultrareactionary son of Louis' ultrareactionary brother and heir-presumptive,
14043-625: The government to introduce a bill to restrict the press in December, having largely withdrawn censorship in 1824. This only inflamed the opposition even more, and the bill was withdrawn. The Villèle cabinet faced increasing pressure in 1827 from the liberal press, including the Journal des débats , which sponsored Chateaubriand's articles. Chateaubriand, the most prominent of the anti-Villèle ultras, had combined with other opponents of press censorship (a new law had reimposed it on 24 July 1827) to form
14194-543: The government, and Charles subsequently prorogued and then dissolved parliament. Charles retained a belief that he was popular amongst the unenfranchised mass of the people, and he and Polignac chose to pursue an ambitious foreign policy of colonialism and expansionism, with the assistance of Russia . France had intervened in the Mediterranean a number of times after Villèle's resignation, and expeditions were now sent to Greece and Madagascar . Polignac also initiated
14345-651: The king retained extensive power over policy-making, as well as the sole power of the Executive, he was, nonetheless, reliant upon the Parliament to accept and pass his legal decrees. The Charter also fixed the method of election of the Deputies, their rights within the Chamber of Deputies, and the rights of the majority bloc. Thus, in 1830, Charles X faced a significant problem. He could not overstep his constitutional bounds, and yet, he could not pursue his policies with
14496-647: The kings, would become the real power in the Frankish lands; the Merovingian kings themselves would be reduced to little more than figureheads. By this time Muslims had conquered Hispania and Septimania became part of the Al-Andalus, which were threatening the Frankish kingdoms. Duke Odo the Great defeated a major invading force at Toulouse in 721 but failed to repel a raiding party in 732. The mayor of
14647-605: The late 2nd century BC, and legions under Julius Caesar conquered the rest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC. A Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman Empire . In the later stages of the empire, Gaul was subject to barbarian raids and migration. The Frankish king Clovis I united most of Gaul in the late 5th century. Frankish power reached its fullest extent under Charlemagne . The medieval Kingdom of France emerged from
14798-533: The launch of the First Crusade to regain the Holy Land . It is from Louis VI (reigned 1108–37) onward that royal authority became more accepted. Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar. The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite unpopular; he was described as greedy and ambitious. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the royal image, reinforced
14949-610: The legitimacy and rituals of the Catholic Church . French King Henry II severely persecuted Protestants under the Edict of Chateaubriand (1551). Renewed Catholic reaction — headed by the powerful Francis, Duke of Guise — led to a massacre of Huguenots at Vassy in 1562, starting the first of the French Wars of Religion , during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant ("Huguenot") and Catholic forces. Seminary A seminary , school of theology , theological college , or divinity school
15100-521: The market economy, provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town). Although most peasants in France spoke local dialects, an official language emerged in Paris and the French language became the preferred language of Europe's aristocracy and the lingua franca of diplomacy and international relations. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V quipped, "I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse." With
15251-488: The militia in July 1816. Owing to tension between the King's government and the ultra-royalist Chamber of Deputies, the latter began to assert their rights. After they attempted to obstruct the 1816 budget, the government conceded that the chamber had the right to approve state expenditure. However, they were unable to gain a guarantee from the King that his cabinets would represent the majority in parliament. In September 1816,
15402-557: The monarchy with the French Revolution and power with liberty . The following year, the government changed the electoral laws, resorting to gerrymandering , and altering the franchise to allow some rich men of trade and industry to vote, in an attempt to prevent the ultras from winning a majority in future elections. Press censorship was clarified and relaxed, some positions in the military hierarchy were made open to competition, and mutual schools were set up that encroached on
15553-408: The monarchy's recognition of the anniversaries of the deaths of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were significant. A more tangible source of antagonism was the pressure applied to possessors of biens nationaux (the lands confiscated by the revolution) by the Catholic Church and the returning émigrés' attempts to repossess their former lands. Other groups bearing ill-feeling towards Louis included
15704-411: The nation to disaster. Both groups shared a fear of social disorder, but the level of distrust as well as the cultural differences were too great, and the monarchy too inconsistent in its policies, for political cooperation to be possible. The returning old aristocracy recovered much of the land they had owned directly. However, they lost all their old seigneurial rights to the rest of the farmland, and
15855-527: The neighboring Celts and Ligurians. The Celts themselves often fought with Aquitanians and Germans, and a Gaulish war band led by Brennus invaded Rome c. 393 or 388 BC following the Battle of the Allia . However, the tribal society of the Gauls did not change fast enough for the centralized Roman state. The Gaulish tribal confederacies were defeated by the Romans in battles such as Sentinum and Telamon during
16006-505: The new law, leading to a sharp rise in its value. On 29 May 1825 the Coronation of Charles X took place at Reims Cathedral , the traditional site of French coronations . In 1826, Villèle introduced a bill reestablishing the law of primogeniture , at least for owners of large estates, unless they chose otherwise. The liberals and the press rebelled, as did some dissident ultras, such as Chateaubriand. Their vociferous criticism prompted
16157-465: The official government newspaper indicated a general shift in Parisian politics towards the left. And yet, Charles' base of power was certainly toward the right of the political spectrum, as were his own views. He simply could not yield to the growing demands from within the Chamber of Deputies. The situation would soon come to a head. The Charter of 1814 had made France a constitutional monarchy. While
16308-582: The other dioceses in New England which are suffragan dioceses of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston . Either way, a man who seeks to enter a seminary to become a priest must be sponsored by either a diocese or by a religious order. Often a diocese might be attached to or affiliated with a larger Catholic college or university so that the larger college and its faculty provides more general education in history or theology while
16459-654: The palace, Charles Martel , defeated that raiding party at the Battle of Tours and earned respect and power within the Frankish Kingdom. The assumption of the crown in 751 by Pepin the Short (son of Charles Martel) established the Carolingian dynasty as the kings of the Franks. Carolingian power reached its fullest extent under Pepin's son, Charlemagne . In 771, Charlemagne reunited the Frankish domains after
16610-529: The peasants were no longer under their control. The pre-Revolutionary aristocracy had dallied with the ideas of the Enlightenment and rationalism. Now the aristocracy was much more conservative and supportive of the Catholic Church. For the best jobs, meritocracy was the new policy, and aristocrats had to compete directly with the growing business and professional class. Citizens' rights: Public anti-clerical sentiment became stronger than ever before, but
16761-470: The peasants' biens nationaux , and the new system of dividing the country into départments were not undone by the new king. Relations between church and state remained regulated by the Concordat of 1801 . However, in spite of the fact that the Charter was a condition of the Restoration, the preamble declared it to be a "concession and grant", given "by the free exercise of our royal authority". After
16912-506: The place of the monarchy and the church, and called for more commemorations for historical royal figures. Over the course of the parliamentary term, the ultra-royalists increasingly began to fuse their brand of politics with state ceremony, much to Louis' chagrin. Decazes, perhaps the most moderate minister, moved to stop the politicisation of the National Guard (many Verdets had been drafted in) by banning political demonstrations by
17063-492: The political establishment was relatively stable until the subsequent reign of Charles X. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a major power in French politics. Throughout the Bourbon Restoration, France experienced a period of stable economic prosperity and the preliminaries of industrialisation. The eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of major changes to France which
17214-438: The political situation to the Parisian public, and can thus be seen as a crucial link between the rise of the liberals and the increasingly agitated and economically suffering French masses. By 1830, the Restoration government of Charles X faced difficulties on all sides. The new liberal majority clearly had no intention of budging in the face of Polignac's aggressive policies. The rise of a liberal press within Paris which outsold
17365-663: The proprieties, if not all the institutions, of the Ancien régime . Exiled supporters of the monarchy returned to France but were unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution . Exhausted by the Napoleonic Wars , the nation experienced a period of internal and external peace, stable economic prosperity and the preliminaries of industrialization. Following the French Revolution (1789–1799), Napoleon Bonaparte became ruler of France. After years of expansion of his French Empire by successive military victories,
17516-425: The redistribution was just. The final law allocated state funds of 988 million francs for compensation ( le milliard des émigrés ), financed by government bonds at a value of 600 million francs at 3% interest. Around 18 million francs were paid per year. Unexpected beneficiaries of the law were some one million owners of biens nationaux , the old confiscated lands, whose property rights were now confirmed by
17667-671: The reputation of being "more royalist than the king". The legislature threw out the Talleyrand-Fouché government and sought to legitimize the White Terror, passing judgement against enemies of the state, sacking 50,000–80,000 civil servants, and dismissing 15,000 army officers. Richelieu, an émigré who had left in October 1789, who " had nothing at all to do with the new France", was appointed Prime Minister . The chambre introuvable , meanwhile, continued to aggressively uphold
17818-551: The right, as the majority bloc, to appoint the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. Also, the growth of the liberal bloc within the Chamber of Deputies corresponded roughly with the rise of a liberal press within France. Generally centered around Paris, this press provided a counterpoint to the government's journalistic services, and to the newspapers of the right. It grew increasingly important in conveying political opinions and
17969-503: The royal power. From 1127 onward Louis had the assistance of a skilled religious statesman, Abbot Suger . Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of the robber barons . When Louis VI died in 1137, much progress had been made towards strengthening Capetian authority. Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advice, King Louis VII (junior king 1131–37, senior king 1137–80) enjoyed greater moral authority over France than his predecessors. Powerful vassals paid homage to
18120-403: The same time, international pressures, combined with weakened purchasing power from the provinces, led to decreased economic activity in urban centers . This industrial downturn contributed to the rising poverty levels among Parisian artisans. Thus, by 1830, multiple demographics had suffered from the economic policies of Charles X. While the French economy faltered, a series of elections brought
18271-482: The seminarian's ability to relate to others, show etiquette, and care for himself (in what he eats, frequency of exercise, healthcare, etc.). The spiritual dimension aids the seminarian in becoming more responsive to God and forming a habit of prayer throughout the day. It also emphasizes the importance of the Sacraments and liturgy . The intellectual dimension consists of academic classes, usually beginning with
18422-797: The seminary focuses on topics specific to the needs of future priests, such as training in canon law , the sacraments , and preaching , or specific to the particular order or diocese. For instance the Theological College in Washington, D.C. , is part of The Catholic University of America . Further, in Rome there are several seminaries which educate seminarians or already ordained priests and bishops and which are maintained by orders or dioceses from outside of Italy. Many countries have their own pontifical seminary in Italy, usually very close to
18573-524: The south was controlled until 1942 by the collaborationist Vichy government . Following liberation in 1944, the Fourth Republic was established. France slowly recovered, and enjoyed a baby boom that reversed its low fertility rate. Long wars in Indochina and Algeria drained French resources and ended in political defeat. In the wake of the 1958 Algerian Crisis , Charles de Gaulle set up
18724-588: The southern United States. The International Council for Evangelical Theological Education was founded in 1980 by the Theological Commission of the World Evangelical Alliance . In 2015, it would have 1,000 member schools in 113 countries. In some countries, the term seminary is also used for secular schools of higher education that train teachers; in the nineteenth century, many female seminaries were established in
18875-852: The strongest rulers of western Europe. The Normans , the Plantagenets , the Lusignans , the Hautevilles , the Ramnulfids , and the House of Toulouse successfully carved lands outside France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history was the Norman Conquest by William the Conqueror . An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in the crusades, and French knights founded and ruled
19026-475: The study, first of philosophy as a base, and, then, as the final crown, theology. The oldest Catholic seminary in the United States is St. Mary's Seminary and University in Baltimore founded in 1791. In the United States, Protestant institutions also widely adopted the term 'seminary' for independent graduate schools (separate from a university) to train their ministers. The oldest such Protestant seminary in
19177-427: The tariffs in place. He did so based upon the Bourbon response to the " Year Without a Summer " in 1816, during which Louis XVIII relaxed tariffs during a series of famines, caused a downturn in prices, and incurred the ire of wealthy landowners, who were the traditional source of Bourbon legitimacy. Thus, between 1827 and 1830, peasants throughout France faced a period of relative economic hardship and rising prices. At
19328-474: The ultras' control of power in the Chamber of Deputies; thus, the ministry of the comte de Villèle was able to continue. The restraint Louis had exercised on the ultra-royalists was removed. As the country underwent a Christian revival in the post-revolutionary years, the ultras worked to raise the status of the Roman Catholic Church once more. The Church and State Concordat of 11 June 1817
19479-465: The wealthiest electors a double vote, in time for the November 1820 election . After a resounding victory, a new Ultra ministry was formed, headed by Jean-Baptiste de Villèle , a leading Ultra who served for six years. The ultras found themselves back in power in favourable circumstances: Berry's wife, the duchesse de Berry , gave birth to a "miracle child", Henri , seven months after the duc's death; Napoleon died on Saint Helena in 1821, and his son,
19630-551: The western part of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire , known as West Francia , and achieved increasing prominence under the rule of the House of Capet , founded in 987. A succession crisis in 1328 led to the Hundred Years' War between the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet . The war began in 1337 following Philip VI 's attempt to seize the Duchy of Aquitaine from its hereditary holder, Edward III of England ,
19781-448: Was an important factor in their calculations. The working class in the cities was a small element, and had been freed of many restrictions imposed by medieval guilds. However, France was very slow to industrialise, and much of the work remained drudgery without machinery or technology to help. France was still split into localities, especially in terms of language, but now there was an emerging French nationalism that focused national pride in
19932-479: Was consultative (except on taxation), as only the King had the power to propose or sanction laws, and appoint or recall ministers. The franchise was limited to men with considerable property holdings, and just 1% of people could vote. Many of the legal, administrative, and economic reforms of the revolutionary period were left intact; the Napoleonic Code , which guaranteed legal equality and civil liberties,
20083-498: Was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo and sent again into exile, Louis returned. During his absence a small revolt in the traditionally pro-royalist Vendée was put down but there were otherwise few subversive acts favouring the Restoration, even though Napoleon's popularity began to flag. Talleyrand was again influential in seeing that the Bourbons were restored to power, as was Joseph Fouché , Napoleon's minister of police during
20234-738: Was divided among Louis's three sons ( Treaty of Verdun , 843). After a last brief reunification (884–887), the imperial title ceased to be held in the western realm, which was to form the basis of the future French kingdom. The eastern realm, which would become Germany, elected the Saxon dynasty of Henry the Fowler . Under the Carolingians , the kingdom was ravaged by Viking raiders . In this struggle some important figures such as Count Odo of Paris and his brother King Robert rose to fame and became kings. This emerging dynasty, whose members were called
20385-516: Was established in the 16th century. In the late 18th century the monarchy and associated institutions were overthrown in the French Revolution . The Revolutionary Tribunal executed political opponents by guillotine , instituting the Reign of Terror (1793–94). The country was governed as a Republic , until Napoleon 's French Empire was declared in 1804. Following his defeat in the Napoleonic Wars , France went through regime changes, being ruled as
20536-567: Was his basic policy. He did not try to recover land and property taken from the royalist exiles. He continued in peaceful fashion the main objectives of Napoleon's foreign policy, such as the limitation of Austrian influence. He reversed Napoleon regarding Spain and the Ottoman Empire , restoring the friendships that had prevailed until 1792. Politically, the period was characterized by a sharp conservative reaction, and consequent minor but persistent civil unrest and disturbances. Otherwise,
20687-462: Was impracticable because of these payments. The legacy of this, and the White Terror, left Louis with a formidable opposition. Louis's chief ministers were at first moderate, including Talleyrand, the Duc de Richelieu , and Élie, duc Decazes ; Louis himself followed a cautious policy. The chambre introuvable , elected in 1815 , given the nickname "unobtainable" by Louis, was dominated by an overwhelming ultra-royalist majority which quickly acquired
20838-612: Was in doubt, but the allure of peace to a war-weary French public, and demonstrations of support for the Bourbons in Paris, Bordeaux , Marseille , and Lyon , helped reassure the Allies. Louis, in accordance with the Declaration of Saint-Ouen , granted a written constitution, the Charter of 1814 , which guaranteed a bicameral legislature with a hereditary/appointive Chamber of Peers and an elected Chamber of Deputies – their role
20989-404: Was inhabited by many Celtic and Belgae tribes whom the Romans referred to as Gauls and who spoke the Gaulish language roughly between the Oise and the Garonne , according to Julius Caesar . On the lower Garonne the people spoke Aquitanian , a Pre-Indo-European language related to (or a direct ancestor of) Basque whereas a Belgian language was spoken north of Lutecia but north of
21140-401: Was no unity. Each noble had his own lands, his own network of regional connections, and his own military force. The cities had a quasi-independent status, and were largely controlled by the leading merchants and guilds. Peasants made up the vast majority of the population, who in many cases had well-established rights that the authorities had to respect. In the 17th century peasants had ties to
21291-479: Was now based in certain elements of the middle class and even the peasantry. The great masses of French people were peasants in the countryside or impoverished workers in the cities. They gained new rights and a new sense of possibilities. Although relieved of many of the old burdens, controls, and taxes, the peasantry was still highly traditional in its social and economic behaviour. Many eagerly took on mortgages to buy as much land as possible for their children, so debt
21442-444: Was ordered to pay 700 million francs in indemnities, and the country's borders were reduced to their 1790 status, rather than 1792 as in the previous treaty. Until 1818, France was occupied by 1.2 million foreign soldiers, including around 200,000 under the command of the Duke of Wellington , and France was made to pay the costs of their accommodation and rations, on top of the reparations. The promise of tax cuts, prominent in 1814,
21593-503: Was politically impossible to restore them. The bishop still ruled his diocese (which was aligned with the new department boundaries) and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other religious were paid state salaries. All the old religious rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, although this became
21744-402: Was practically abandoned to the Franks. Aside from the Germanic peoples, the Vascones entered Wasconia from the Pyrenees and the Bretons formed three kingdoms in Armorica: Domnonia , Cornouaille and Broërec . In 486, Clovis I , leader of the Salian Franks , defeated Syagrius at Soissons and subsequently united most of northern and central Gaul under his rule. Clovis then recorded
21895-399: Was set to replace the Concordat of 1801 , but, despite being signed, it was never validated. The Villèle government, under pressure from the Chevaliers de la Foi including many deputies, voted in the Anti-Sacrilege Act in January 1825, which punished by death the theft of consecrated hosts . The law was unenforceable and only enacted for symbolic purposes, though the act's passing caused
22046-498: Was taught simply, and under Chafers' leadership, DTS pioneered one of the first four-year degrees in theology, the Master of Theology (Th.M.). The present location of the school was purchased in 1926 and Doctor of Theology (Th.D.) program was started in 1927. Chafer remained president until his death in 1952. The seminary had a considerable influence in the fundamentalist movement by training students who established various Bible Colleges and independent fundamentalist churches in
22197-429: Was the business community, in part due to a financial crisis in 1825, which they blamed on the government's law of indemnification. Hugo and a number of other writers, dissatisfied with the reality of life under Charles X, also began to criticize the regime. In preparation for the 30 September registration cut-off for the election, opposition committees worked furiously to get as many voters as possible signed up, countering
22348-415: Was the colour of the comte d'Artois – this being the title of Charles X at the time, who was associated with the hardline ultra-royalists , or Ultras. After a period in which local authorities looked on helplessly at the violence, the King and his ministers sent out officials to restore order. A new Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815, which had more punitive terms than the 1814 treaty . France
22499-459: Was the supreme head of the state. He commanded the land and sea forces, declared war, made treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, appointed all public officials, and made the necessary regulations and ordinances for the execution of the laws and the security of the state. Louis was relatively liberal, choosing many centrist cabinets. Louis XVIII died in September 1824 and was succeeded by his brother, who reigned as Charles X . The new king pursued
22650-460: Was this Gaulish participation that caused Provence to be annexed in 122 BC by the Roman Republic . Later, the Consul of Gaul — Julius Caesar — conquered all of Gaul. Despite Gaulish opposition led by Vercingetorix , the Gauls succumbed to the Roman onslaught. The Gauls had some success at first at Gergovia , but were ultimately defeated at Alesia in 52 BC. The Romans founded cities such as Lugdunum ( Lyon ), Narbonensis (Narbonne) and allow in
22801-418: Was widely dispersed. The law courts ("Parlements") were powerful. However, the king had only about 10,000 officials in royal service – very few indeed for such a large country, and with very slow internal communications over an inadequate road system. Travel was usually faster by ocean ship or river boat. The different estates of the realm — the clergy, the nobility, and commoners — occasionally met together in
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