160-544: The East Rhine Railway (German: Rechte Rheinstrecke , literally 'right (of the) Rhine railway') is a major, double-track, electrified railway line, running along the right bank of the Rhine from Cologne to Wiesbaden . The 179-kilometer (111.2 mi)-long line forms two Deutsche Bahn routes . Route 465 extends from Cologne to Koblenz , via Troisdorf , Bonn-Beuel , Unkel , and Neuwied . From Koblenz, Route 466 extends to Wiesbaden, via Rüdesheim am Rhein . Together with
320-402: A (nearly) continuous conductor running along the track that usually takes one of two forms: an overhead line , suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings, or a third rail mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding " pickup shoe ". Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor, but some systems use
480-732: A French minister of State's declaration that Italy would never lay its hands on Rome, the Emperor had commented "You know, in politics, one should never say 'never'." ) and had made various proposals for resolving the Roman Question , but Pius IX rejected them all. Despite his support for Italian unification, Napoleon could not press the issue for fear of angering Catholics in France. Raffaele de Cesare, an Italian journalist, political scientist, and author, noted that: The alliance, proposed two years before 1870, between France, Italy, and Austria,
640-422: A Korps headquarters and its component units. Most reservists lived close to their regimental depots and could be swiftly mobilized. Austrian policy was to ensure that units were stationed far from home to prevent them from taking part in separatist revolts. Conscripts on leave or reservists recalled to their units during mobilization faced a journey that might take weeks before they could report to their units, making
800-516: A dispatch to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Alexander Mensdorff-Pouilly . He explained to him that Prussian public opinion had become extremely sensitive about the Duchies issue and that he had no doubt that "this artificial exaggeration of the danger by public opinion formed an essential part of the calculations and actions of Count Bismarck [who considered] the annexation of the Duchies ...
960-548: A federal union" in 1871. The resulting German Empire would become one of the most influential European powers. In addition to war reparations, the following territorial changes took place: The war meant the end of the German Confederation. Those states who remained neutral or passive during the conflict took different actions after the Prague treaty: The Austrian Chancellor Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust
1120-573: A higher total efficiency. Electricity for electric rail systems can also come from renewable energy , nuclear power , or other low-carbon sources, which do not emit pollution or emissions. Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power with diesel engines (see e.g. ' ICE TD ') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost all high speed trains are electric. The high power of electric locomotives also gives them
1280-467: A historical concern for double-stack rail transport regarding clearances with overhead lines but it is no longer universally true as of 2022 , with both Indian Railways and China Railway regularly operating electric double-stack cargo trains under overhead lines. Railway electrification has constantly increased in the past decades, and as of 2022, electrified tracks account for nearly one-third of total tracks globally. Railway electrification
1440-582: A matter of life and death for his political existence [and wished] to make it appear such for Prussia too." Possible evidence can be found in Bismarck's orchestration of the Austrian alliance during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark, which can be seen as his diplomatic "masterstroke". Taylor also believes that the alliance was a "test for Austria rather than a trap" and that the goal
1600-872: A maximum speed of 120 km/h. From Moenchengladbach to Rommerskirchen, the tariffs of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Ruhr (VRR) apply; from Grevenbroich to Neuwied, those of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Sieg (VRS); and from Unkel to Koblenz, the tariffs of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Mosel (VRM). Until 2010, the southern section was served by the Loreley-Bahn (RB 10) and the Loreley-Express (RE 10) services, using electric class 143 or 110 locomotives and 4-5 coaches every one or two hours. In 2007,
1760-537: A number of European countries, India, Saudi Arabia, eastern Japan, countries that used to be part of the Soviet Union, on high-speed lines in much of Western Europe (including countries that still run conventional railways under DC but not in countries using 16.7 Hz, see above). Most systems like this operate at 25 kV, although 12.5 kV sections exist in the United States, and 20 kV
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#17327795615441920-553: A partial mobilization against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June. Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June. For several centuries, Central Europe was split into a few large- or medium-sized states and hundreds of tiny entities , which while ostensibly being within the Holy Roman Empire ruled by
2080-457: A power grid that is delivered to a locomotive, and within the locomotive, transformed and rectified to a lower DC voltage in preparation for use by traction motors. These motors may either be DC motors which directly use the DC or they may be three-phase AC motors which require further conversion of the DC to variable frequency three-phase AC (using power electronics). Thus both systems are faced with
2240-857: A railway line along the Rhine (the extension of the West Rhine railway past Rolandseck was similarly delayed). In particular, the Prussian military objected that the suggested route would pass close to the Ehrenbreitstein Fortress , part of the Koblenz Fortress system. Therefore, in 1853 the Prussian War Ministry declared itself against the line. For the Duchy of Nassau such considerations had less weight than
2400-498: A relative lack of flexibility (since electric trains need third rails or overhead wires), and a vulnerability to power interruptions. Electro-diesel locomotives and electro-diesel multiple units mitigate these problems somewhat as they are capable of running on diesel power during an outage or on non-electrified routes. Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service and requiring greater complexity of locomotive power. There used to be
2560-481: A separate fourth rail for this purpose. In comparison to the principal alternative, the diesel engine , electric railways offer substantially better energy efficiency , lower emissions , and lower operating costs. Electric locomotives are also usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesel. They have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Some electric traction systems provide regenerative braking that turns
2720-418: A third rail. The key advantage of the four-rail system is that neither running rail carries any current. This scheme was introduced because of the problems of return currents, intended to be carried by the earthed (grounded) running rail, flowing through the iron tunnel linings instead. This can cause electrolytic damage and even arcing if the tunnel segments are not electrically bonded together. The problem
2880-471: A unique rifling system invented by Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg called the Lenk system. The Prussians, however, by this point had replaced up to 60% of their smooth bore artillery with the technologically superior C64 (field gun) , which had been in production since 1859. However, due to tactical reluctance on the part of Prussian high command to utilise relatively unfamiliar technology, and doctrinal stagnation in
3040-533: A united Germany had also become unpopular following the fall of the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849. One of the strongest social forces in Germany at the time was religion, which provided Germans with common confessional values and identities that transcended national boundaries. This led to a strong confessional rivalry between the southern Catholic and northern Protestant states. Breuilly remarks that
3200-705: A variety of other names, was fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia , with each also being aided by various allies within the German Confederation . Prussia had also allied with the Kingdom of Italy , linking this conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification . The Austro-Prussian War was part of the wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia , and resulted in Prussian dominance over
3360-466: A widespread disinterest in the establishment of armed home guards". Nevertheless, the formed North German Confederation would go on to win the war and annex Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg in 1871. According to Geoffrey Wawro , the political and military power accumulated by Prussia allowed it to annex the northern German states in 1866 and then "force the Catholic states very much against their will into
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#17327795615443520-527: Is already subject a high level of delays. The EBA has also asked DB Netz to provide more overtaking tracks in the stations of Niederdollendorf , Unkel, Rheinbrohl, Bad Hönningen, Hattenheim and Oestrich-Winkel, some of which were illegally withdrawn from railway operations. On 3 October 2014, the signal boxes in Schierstein, Niederwalluf, Eltville, Hattenheim and Geisenheim were taken out of service at 5:30 am CET and signalling has since been controlled by
3680-411: Is derived by using resistors which ensures that stray earth currents are kept to manageable levels. Power-only rails can be mounted on strongly insulating ceramic chairs to minimise current leak, but this is not possible for running rails, which have to be seated on stronger metal chairs to carry the weight of trains. However, elastomeric rubber pads placed between the rails and chairs can now solve part of
3840-451: Is effected by one contact shoe each that slide on top of each one of the running rails . This and all other rubber-tyred metros that have a 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge track between the roll ways operate in the same manner. Railways and electrical utilities use AC as opposed to DC for the same reason: to use transformers , which require AC, to produce higher voltages. The higher
4000-526: Is electrified, companies often find that they need to continue use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified. The increasing demand for container traffic, which is more efficient when utilizing the double-stack car , also has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to have sufficient clearance, at additional cost. A problem specifically related to electrified lines are gaps in
4160-545: Is known that even on 6 August 1866, I was in the position to observe the French ambassador make his appearance to see me in order, to put it succinctly, to present an ultimatum: to relinquish Mainz , or to expect an immediate declaration of war. Naturally I was not doubtful of the answer for a second. I answered him: "Good, then it's war!" He travelled to Paris with this answer. A few days after one in Paris thought differently, and I
4320-486: Is limited and losses are significantly higher. However, the higher voltages used in many AC electrification systems reduce transmission losses over longer distances, allowing for fewer substations or more powerful locomotives to be used. Also, the energy used to blow air to cool transformers, power electronics (including rectifiers), and other conversion hardware must be accounted for. Standard AC electrification systems use much higher voltages than standard DC systems. One of
4480-778: Is no longer exactly one-third of the grid frequency. This solved overheating problems with the rotary converters used to generate some of this power from the grid supply. In the US , the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad , the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Philadelphia and Reading Railway adopted 11 kV 25 Hz single-phase AC. Parts of the original electrified network still operate at 25 Hz, with voltage boosted to 12 kV, while others were converted to 12.5 or 25 kV 60 Hz. In
4640-447: Is sufficient traffic, the reduced track and especially the lower engine maintenance and running costs exceed the costs of this maintenance significantly. Newly electrified lines often show a "sparks effect", whereby electrification in passenger rail systems leads to significant jumps in patronage / revenue. The reasons may include electric trains being seen as more modern and attractive to ride, faster, quieter and smoother service, and
4800-410: Is that the power-wasting resistors used in DC locomotives for speed control were not needed in an AC locomotive: multiple taps on the transformer can supply a range of voltages. Separate low-voltage transformer windings supply lighting and the motors driving auxiliary machinery. More recently, the development of very high power semiconductors has caused the classic DC motor to be largely replaced with
4960-894: Is the countrywide system. 3 kV DC is used in Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Chile, the northern portion of the Czech Republic, the former republics of the Soviet Union , and in the Netherlands on a few kilometers between Maastricht and Belgium. It was formerly used by the Milwaukee Road from Harlowton, Montana , to Seattle, across the Continental Divide and including extensive branch and loop lines in Montana, and by
East Rhine Railway - Misplaced Pages Continue
5120-580: Is the development of powering trains and locomotives using electricity instead of diesel or steam power . The history of railway electrification dates back to the late 19th century when the first electric tramways were introduced in cities like Berlin , London , and New York City . In 1881, the first permanent railway electrification in the world was the Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway in Berlin , Germany. Overhead line electrification
5280-531: Is to be established as a two-level station with a link with the Siebengebirgsbahn , a section of the Bonn Stadtbahn . The construction costs for the 13 km-long line is (as of December 2014) up to €502 to be mainly borne by the federal Government. The state of NRW is contributing €47.5 million to these costs. According to Deutsche Bahn’s plans, construction is to begin in early 2017. Since
5440-420: Is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating stations , transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains. Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines , but most purchase power from an electric utility . The railway usually provides its own distribution lines, switches, and transformers . Power is supplied to moving trains with
5600-838: Is used on some narrow-gauge lines in Japan. On "French system" HSLs, the overhead line and a "sleeper" feeder line each carry 25 kV in relation to the rails, but in opposite phase so they are at 50 kV from each other; autotransformers equalize the tension at regular intervals. Various railway electrification systems in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries utilised three-phase , rather than single-phase electric power delivery due to ease of design of both power supply and locomotives. These systems could either use standard network frequency and three power cables, or reduced frequency, which allowed for return-phase line to be third rail, rather than an additional overhead wire. The majority of modern electrification systems take AC energy from
5760-518: The Landwehr , the home guard. Introducing universal conscription for three years increased the size of the active duty army and provided Prussia with a reserve army equal in size to that which Moltke deployed against Austria. Had France under Napoleon III attempted to intervene against the Prussians, they could have faced him with equal or superior numbers of troops. Prussian conscript service
5920-547: The Alvensleben Convention of February 1863 with Russia, whereas Austria had not. France : France was also unlikely to enter on the side of Austria, because Bismarck and Napoleon III met in Biarritz and allegedly discussed whether or not France would intervene in a potential Austro-Prussian war. The details of the discussion are unknown but many historians think Bismarck was guaranteed French neutrality in
6080-528: The Creditanstalt , and the state was heavily in debt. Historian Christopher Clark wrote that there is little to suggest that Prussia had an overwhelming economic and industrial advantage over Austria and wrote that a larger portion of the Prussian population was engaged in agriculture than in the Austrian population and that Austrian industry could produce the most sophisticated weapons in the war (rifled artillery). The Austro-Prussian War ended quickly and
6240-656: The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad (now New Jersey Transit , converted to 25 kV AC) in the United States, and the Kolkata suburban railway (Bardhaman Main Line) in India, before it was converted to 25 kV 50 Hz. DC voltages between 600 V and 750 V are used by most tramways and trolleybus networks, as well as some metro systems as the traction motors accept this voltage without
6400-711: The HSL-Zuid and Betuwelijn , and 3,000 V south of Maastricht . In Portugal, it is used in the Cascais Line and in Denmark on the suburban S-train system (1650 V DC). In the United Kingdom, 1,500 V DC was used in 1954 for the Woodhead trans-Pennine route (now closed); the system used regenerative braking , allowing for transfer of energy between climbing and descending trains on
6560-533: The Holy Roman Emperor , operated in a largely independent fashion. When an existing Emperor died, seven secular and ecclesiastical princes, each of whom ruled at least one of the states, would elect a new Emperor. Over time the Empire became smaller and by 1789 came to consist of primarily German peoples (aside from Bohemia, Moravia, the southern Netherlands and Slovenia). Aside from five years (1740–1745),
East Rhine Railway - Misplaced Pages Continue
6720-648: The Innovia ART system. While part of the SkyTrain network, the Canada Line does not use this system and instead uses more traditional motors attached to the wheels and third-rail electrification. A few lines of the Paris Métro in France operate on a four-rail power system. The trains move on rubber tyres which roll on a pair of narrow roll ways made of steel and, in some places, of concrete . Since
6880-554: The Italian annexation of the Austrian realm of Venetia . The war erupted as a result of the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein , which the two of them had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The crisis started on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to permit
7040-787: The Nassau State Railway in 1861. As a result, the line was not extended to Oberlahnstein until 22 February 1862 and Niederlahnstein until 3 June 1864. From 1862 to 1900 the Bingerbrück–Rüdesheim train ferry operated between Bingerbrück and Rüdesheim , connecting the East Rhine lines and the Nahe Valley Railway . The construction of the Sieg Railway from Deutz to Giessen (which started in 1859) enabled Nassau to negotiate with Prussia over
7200-722: The Rhein-Erft-Bahn (RB 27) lines. The RE-8 serves the Cologne/Bonn Airport station and extends south of Koblenz on the Horchheimer Bridge. It uses Series-425 electric locomotives and a maximum speed of 140 km/h. The RB 27 operates between Porz and Koblenz, crossing from the north via the Urmitz Bridge. It operates non-stop from Koblenz to Cochem twice daily. The RB-27 uses Series-143 electric locomotives and three double-decker carriages with
7360-636: The Southern Railway serving Coulsdon North and Sutton railway station . The lines were electrified at 6.7 kV 25 Hz. It was announced in 1926 that all lines were to be converted to DC third rail and the last overhead-powered electric service ran in September 1929. AC power is used at 60 Hz in North America (excluding the aforementioned 25 Hz network), western Japan, South Korea and Taiwan; and at 50 Hz in
7520-685: The Taunus railway (Route 645.1), the line is used by Stadt-Express line SE-10 of the Rhine-Main Transport Association , which runs from Frankfurt to Koblenz and Neuwied. With the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed railway and the Sieg Railway , the East Rhine Railway forms a six-track line between Cologne-Porz and Troisdorf. It includes two tunnels between Rüdesheim and Niederlahnstein , including
7680-461: The United States , the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad was one of the first major railways to be electrified. Railway electrification continued to expand throughout the 20th century, with technological improvements and the development of high-speed trains and commuters . Today, many countries have extensive electrified railway networks with 375 000 km of standard lines in
7840-456: The Urmitz railway bridge , in 1954. In 1961, during the electrification of the line, new single-line tunnels were built parallel to the existing double-line Loreley and Rossstein tunnels. The old tunnels were then converted to single-line operations and electrified. With the opening of the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line at the end of 2002, Troisdorf station was completely rebuilt and
8000-697: The Alte Heerstraße overbridge). The construction costs are estimated at €1.5 million in Bendorf and €1 million in Horchheim. NRWbahnarchiv von André Joost: www.eisenbahntunnel-portal.de: Rail electrification Railway electrification is the use of electric power for the propulsion of rail transport . Electric railways use either electric locomotives (hauling passengers or freight in separate cars), electric multiple units ( passenger cars with their own motors) or both. Electricity
8160-522: The Artillery Corps, the modern Krupp guns were either sent to reserve units or used in tandem and to the same effect as their smooth bore counterparts, something that massively throttled their effectiveness in the war, and many of the guns that saw combat were the old smooth bore muzzle loaders. The Austrians too, while having standardised the Lenk system of rifling in their cannon, did not use their artillery to full effect. They specifically targeted
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#17327795615448320-705: The Atlantic Ocean to go and observe the American Civil War. These officers met with high ranking commanders and recorded both Union and Confederate tactics. They wrote about troop movements, artillery positioning, and new methods of attack that worked well for the Americans. These officers then travelled back to Prussia and briefed their generals about these observations. Some officers, such as Justus Scheibert , published their adventures in America for
8480-419: The Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia . There, the Prussian armies, led nominally by King William I , converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové) on 3 July. The Prussian Army of the Elbe advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the First Army on the center, prematurely; they risked being counter-flanked on their own left. Victory therefore depended on
8640-401: The Austrian mobilization much slower than that of the Prussian Army. The railway system of Prussia was more extensively developed than that within Austria. Railways made it possible to supply larger numbers of troops than hitherto and allowed the rapid movement of troops within friendly territory. The more efficient Prussian rail network allowed the Prussian army to concentrate more rapidly than
8800-433: The Austrian-Prussian war, which concentrate mainly on the fact that he had a master plan that resulted in this war, the North German Confederation and the unification of Germany. Bismarck maintained that he orchestrated the conflict in order to bring about the North German Confederation, the Franco-Prussian War and the eventual unification of Germany. On 22 February 1866, Count Károlyi , Austrian ambassador in Berlin , sent
8960-528: The Austrians rapidly, rather than continue the war in hopes of further gains. William had "planned to install both the crown prince of Hanover and the nephew of the elector of Hesse as titular grand dukes in small territorial residuals of their dynastic inheritance" due to opposition in the government cabinet, including Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia , to the annexation of several German states. The Austrians accepted mediation from France's Napoleon III . The Peace of Prague on 23 August 1866 resulted in
9120-413: The Austrians. Moltke, reviewing his plans to Roon stated, "We have the inestimable advantage of being able to carry our Field Army of 285,000 men over five railway lines and of virtually concentrating them in twenty-five days. ... Austria has only one railway line and it will take her forty-five days to assemble 200,000 men." Moltke had also said earlier, "Nothing could be more welcome to us than to have now
9280-458: The Electorate of Hesse by the crown of Prussia". Anti-annexationist petitions were organised and reached a significant number of signatures, with a separatist petition in Hanover reaching half a million signatures. In Nassau, Prussian soldiers were reportedly attacked by locals "with stones and axes"; according to Jasper Heinzen, "brawls between occupation troops and local veterans soon became so prevalent that one historian has called these incidents
9440-413: The Friedrich-Wilhelms works and the line would then turn southeast to parallel the Sieg Railway to Siegburg. On July 11, 1870 the section of line was opened from Neuwied to Oberkassel, where the Bonn–Oberkassel train ferry provided a connection between the West Rhine and East Rhine lines. In addition, the line from Friedrich-Wilhelms-Hütte to Siegburg had already been completed; the complete opening of
9600-442: The German states. The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony . It resulted in the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by the unification of all of the northern German states in the North German Confederation that excluded Austria and the other southern German states, a Kleindeutsches Reich . The war also resulted in
9760-416: The Habsburg family, whose personal territory was Austria , controlled the Emperorship from 1440 to 1806, although it became increasingly ceremonial only as Austria found itself at war at certain times with other states within the Empire, such as Prussia , which in fact defeated Austria during the War of Austrian Succession to seize the province of Silesia in 1742. While Austria was traditionally considered
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#17327795615449920-415: The Italian government wanted to join this potential alliance, but Italian public opinion was bitterly opposed so long as Napoleon III kept a French garrison in Rome protecting Pope Pius IX , thereby denying Italy the possession of its capital (Rome had been declared capital of Italy in March 1861, when the first Italian Parliament had met in Turin). Napoleon III was not strictly opposed to this (in response to
10080-411: The Netherlands, New Zealand ( Wellington ), Singapore (on the North East MRT line ), the United States ( Chicago area on the Metra Electric district and the South Shore Line interurban line and Link light rail in Seattle , Washington). In Slovakia, there are two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatras (one a cog railway ). In the Netherlands it is used on the main system, alongside 25 kV on
10240-438: The Prussian army, and thus would remain arbiter of the European situation. But when the war suddenly broke out, before anything was concluded, the first unexpected French defeats overthrew all previsions, and raised difficulties for Austria and Italy which prevented them from making common cause with France. Wörth and Sedan followed each other too closely. The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon's feet—that dragged him into
10400-419: The Prussian artillery with their own batteries, limiting their impact on the battlefield in regards to Prussian infantry. One notable exception is the use of Austrian artillery to good effect against infantry at Battle of Königgrätz . The Generals of the Prussian army realized that, in order to stay ahead of their Austrian enemies, they needed to explore new military tactics. They sent officers to travel across
10560-472: The Rhenish Railway, preferred a route via Troisdorf and Opladen to Essen. Emil Langen, board member of the Rhenish Railway and director of Friedrich-Wilhelms Ironworks in Troisdorf (now the location of the suburb and station of Troisdorf-Friedrich-Wilhelms-Hütte), finally implemented a change in the planned route north of Beuel. The new route went northeast from Beuel, crossing the Sieg river at Menden (now part of Sankt Augustin ). A station would be built at
10720-401: The S-Bahn line that connects Cologne with Troisdorf is being extended along the East Rhine Railway to Bonn-Oberkassel . The first plans for this line were made in the 1990s as part of the planning approval procedure for the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed railway . In addition to the existing stations on the Right Rhine line, new stations are planned in Bonn-Ramersdorf and Bonn-Vilich. The latter
10880-427: The UK, the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway pioneered overhead electrification of its suburban lines in London, London Bridge to Victoria being opened to traffic on 1 December 1909. Victoria to Crystal Palace via Balham and West Norwood opened in May 1911. Peckham Rye to West Norwood opened in June 1912. Further extensions were not made owing to the First World War. Two lines opened in 1925 under
11040-422: The Wiesbaden main station and Koblenz. Regional-Express trains operate every hour between Mönchengladbach main station and Koblenz, via Cologne Central Station and Vallendar , using the Horchheim bridge. RegionalBahn trains operate every hour between Mönchengladbach Hbf, Cologne Hbf and Koblenz, via the Urmitz Railway Bridge. The northern section is also served hourly by the Rhein-Erft-Express (RE 8) and
11200-452: The Wiesbaden–Neuwied section could be raised from 50 to 80 km/h and that several overtaking loops, 67 sets of points and 10 km of track could be dispensed with. The dismantling was carried out without Federal Railway Authority ( Eisenbahn-Bundesamt , EBA) approval. The line is already at 93% capacity, with an extreme mix of different types of trains with considerably differing top speeds, including scheduled passenger services, which
11360-494: The ability to pull freight at higher speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an electrification can also be a cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if train weights are to be increased on a system. On the other hand, electrification may not be suitable for lines with low frequency of traffic, because lower running cost of trains may be outweighed by
11520-529: The abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan, that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made Emperor, and was supported by the votes of the conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it was his supreme duty not to abandon the Pontiff. ... For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations ... Without him
11680-516: The advantages of raising the voltage is that, to transmit certain level of power, lower current is necessary ( P = V × I ). Lowering the current reduces the ohmic losses and allows for less bulky, lighter overhead line equipment and more spacing between traction substations, while maintaining power capacity of the system. On the other hand, the higher voltage requires larger isolation gaps, requiring some elements of infrastructure to be larger. The standard-frequency AC system may introduce imbalance to
11840-644: The advantages of the Prussian army against the Austrian Empire. Taylor wrote that Bismarck was reluctant to pursue war as it "deprived him of control and left the decisions to the generals whose ability he distrusted". (The two most important personalities within the Prussian army were the War Minister Albrecht Graf von Roon and Chief of the General Staff Helmuth Graf von Moltke .) Taylor suggested that Bismarck
12000-572: The civil commissioner who oversaw the integration of Hanover into Prussia, to remark that "As a whole the Hanoverians are a tougher, less accommodating tribe than the Saxons. Their particularism rests not solely on Prussophobia .. . but above all on a deep-rooted conviction that life is nowhere better than in Hanover. Theirs is a solid ... national feeling". The protests of George V of Hanover and
12160-468: The confessional rivalry was so strong that "a Hamburg Lutheran had more in common with a Swedish Lutheran than with an Austrian Catholic". The minor nations of Germany valued their independence and believed that their ability to remain sovereign depended on Austro-Prussian dualism, with neither side allowed to become too powerful. Confessional division also played an important role in German dualism, and there
12320-588: The connections from the East Rhine railway towards Siegburg were removed. The line is heavily congested and gives priority to long-distance freight trains. Long distance passenger trains in the Rhine Valley use the West Rhine line and the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed line. When there are line closures on the left side, the long-distance trains are diverted to the East Rhine route. In that case
12480-716: The continuation of the line, since the planned Sieg line passed through the Dillenburg district, which was part of Nassau. Finally in 1860 an agreement between both states was concluded, which allowed Prussia to build the Sieg line. In return Prussia agreed to build the Pfaffendorf Bridge , which connected the line near Niederlahnstein with the West Rhine Railway ( Linke Rheinstrecke ) in Koblenz finished
12640-547: The direction of Wiesbaden cross on the Horchheimer Bridge (south of Koblenz). Trains travelling in the direction of Cologne cross the Urmitz Railway Bridge (north of Koblenz), or travel via Vallendar over the Horchheimer Bridge. Generally Regional-Express trains operate every two hours between the Frankfurt and Wiesbaden main train stations and Koblenz. RegionalBahn trains operate every two hours between
12800-559: The dissolution of the German Confederation , Prussian annexation of four of Austria's former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. This left Prussia free to form the North German Confederation the next year, incorporating all the German states north of the Main River . Prussia chose not to seek Austrian territory for itself, and this made it possible for Prussia and Austria to ally in
12960-410: The distance they could transmit power. However, in the early 20th century, alternating current (AC) power systems were developed, which allowed for more efficient power transmission over longer distances. In the 1920s and 1930s, many countries worldwide began to electrify their railways. In Europe, Switzerland , Sweden , France , and Italy were among the early adopters of railway electrification. In
13120-642: The economic advantages. Therefore, it gave the Wiesbaden Railway Company ( Wiesbadener Eisenbahngesellschaft ) a concession to build the East Rhine line on Nassau national territory. On 11 August 1856, the first section of the Nassau Rhine Railway ( Nassauische Rheinbahn ) was opened from Wiesbaden to Rüdesheim. Because of the difficult nature of the construction, the Nassau government took over construction in 1858, establishing
13280-448: The electrification. Electric vehicles, especially locomotives, lose power when traversing gaps in the supply, such as phase change gaps in overhead systems, and gaps over points in third rail systems. These become a nuisance if the locomotive stops with its collector on a dead gap, in which case there is no power to restart. This is less of a problem in trains consisting of two or more multiple units coupled together, since in that case if
13440-404: The end of funding. Most electrification systems use overhead wires, but third rail is an option up to 1,500 V. Third rail systems almost exclusively use DC distribution. The use of AC is usually not feasible due to the dimensions of a third rail being physically very large compared with the skin depth that AC penetrates to 0.3 millimetres or 0.012 inches in a steel rail. This effect makes
13600-517: The estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, declaring the Austrian decision a breach of the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria replied on 7 February, asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights in the duchies. In March 1866, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia. Prussia responded with a partial mobilization of five divisions on 28 March. The Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck made an alliance with Italy on 8 April, committing it to
13760-530: The event of a war. Bismarck was aware of his numerical superiority but still "he was not prepared to advise it immediately even though he gave a favourable account of the international situation". When the Prussian victory became clear, France attempted to extract territorial concessions in the Palatinate , Rhenish Hesse and Luxembourg . In his speech to the Reichstag on 2 May 1871, Bismarck said: It
13920-591: The experiment was curtailed. In 1970 the Ural Electromechanical Institute of Railway Engineers carried out calculations for railway electrification at 12 kV DC , showing that the equivalent loss levels for a 25 kV AC system could be achieved with DC voltage between 11 and 16 kV. In the 1980s and 1990s 12 kV DC was being tested on the October Railway near Leningrad (now Petersburg ). The experiments ended in 1995 due to
14080-500: The fact that electrification often goes hand in hand with a general infrastructure and rolling stock overhaul / replacement, which leads to better service quality (in a way that theoretically could also be achieved by doing similar upgrades yet without electrification). Whatever the causes of the sparks effect, it is well established for numerous routes that have electrified over decades. This also applies when bus routes with diesel buses are replaced by trolleybuses. The overhead wires make
14240-473: The future, since Austria felt threatened more by Italian and Pan-Slavic irredentism than by Prussia. The war left Prussia dominant in German politics (since Austria was now excluded from Germany and no longer the top German power). The northern states protested against their annexation to Prussia, and both the dethroned rulers and the local population lamented the loss of their nation's sovereignty. Local resistance and regional loyalty led Hans von Hardenberg ,
14400-1012: The general power grid. This is especially useful in mountainous areas where heavily loaded trains must descend long grades. Central station electricity can often be generated with higher efficiency than a mobile engine/generator. While the efficiency of power plant generation and diesel locomotive generation are roughly the same in the nominal regime, diesel motors decrease in efficiency in non-nominal regimes at low power while if an electric power plant needs to generate less power it will shut down its least efficient generators, thereby increasing efficiency. The electric train can save energy (as compared to diesel) by regenerative braking and by not needing to consume energy by idling as diesel locomotives do when stopped or coasting. However, electric rolling stock may run cooling blowers when stopped or coasting, thus consuming energy. Large fossil fuel power stations operate at high efficiency, and can be used for district heating or to produce district cooling , leading to
14560-606: The great powers of Europe intervened is listed below: Britain : Britain had no stake economically or politically in the war between Prussia and Austria, thus, was not going to intervene. Russia : Russia was unlikely to enter on the side of Austria, due to ill will over Austrian support of the anti-Russian alliance during the Crimean War and Prussia had stood by Russia during the January Uprising in Poland, signing
14720-411: The high cost of the electrification infrastructure. Therefore, most long-distance lines in developing or sparsely populated countries are not electrified due to relatively low frequency of trains. Network effects are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications have subsequently been removed because of
14880-446: The leader of the German states, Prussia became increasingly powerful and by the late 18th century was ranked as one of the great powers of Europe. Francis II 's abolition of the office of Holy Roman Emperor in 1806 also deprived him of his imperial authority over most of German-speaking Europe, though little true authority remained by that time; he did, however, retain firm control of an extensive multi-ethnic empire (most of it outside
15040-470: The line only awaited the completion of the Sieg bridge. During the Franco-Prussian War , the line was of great strategic importance as a supply route. As a result, the building of the Sieg bridge was accelerated with extra workers, starting in the late summer of 1870. The whole route was opened on March 1, 1871. At the same time a branch was opened from Friedrich-Wilhelms-Hütte to Troisdorf and
15200-596: The line to Cologne, which would later become the main line. In 1878/79, the Horchheim rail bridge was built south of Koblenz, creating a further connection between the West Rhine and East Rhine lines. During World War I , three Rhine crossings were built using very similar building methods: All three bridges were destroyed in World War II . Only the Kronprinz-Wilhelm Bridge was rebuilt, as
15360-460: The line. Unkel , Rheinbrohl , Rüdesheim , Hattenheim and Oestrich-Winkel stations would be largely abandoned in connection with the installation of electronic interlockings on the line. A simulation and an operational test in the course of the Netz 21 (network 21) strategy had shown at the end of 1998 that with new, fast rolling stock for regional services and alternating stops, the top speed on
15520-605: The local population proved to be an effective obstacle to Hanover's assimilation into Prussia, and led to the founding of the German-Hanoverian Party , which received 46.6% of the Hanoverian vote in the March 1871 Reichstag election . Hostility to annexation was also felt in smaller annexed kingdoms such as Hesse, where the dethroned Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel strongly condemned "the usurpation of
15680-497: The losses (saving 2 GWh per year per 100 route-km; equalling about €150,000 p.a.). The line chosen is one of the lines, totalling 6000 km, that are in need of renewal. In the 1960s the Soviets experimented with boosting the overhead voltage from 3 to 6 kV. DC rolling stock was equipped with ignitron -based converters to lower the supply voltage to 3 kV. The converters turned out to be unreliable and
15840-593: The lower part of Trentino , and moved towards Trento . The Prussian peace with Austria forced the Italian government to seek an armistice with Austria on 12 August. According to the Treaty of Vienna , signed on 12 October, Austria ceded Veneto to France, which, in turn, ceded it to Italy. In order to prevent "unnecessary bitterness of feeling or desire for revenge" and forestall intervention by France or Russia, Bismarck pushed King William I of Prussia to make peace with
16000-422: The maximum power that can be transmitted, also can be responsible for electrochemical corrosion due to stray DC currents. Electric trains need not carry the weight of prime movers , transmission and fuel. This is partly offset by the weight of electrical equipment. Regenerative braking returns power to the electrification system so that it may be used elsewhere, by other trains on the same system or returned to
16160-521: The monarch joined the Austrians, despite the Hessian Landtag voting for neutrality. King George V of Hanover during the spring of 1866 was contacted by Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph about establishing a coalition against the Prussians, but his success took some time. The Hanoverian monarch concluded that his kingdom would fall if it were to fight against the Prussian armies. Most of
16320-405: The most distinctive inaugural feature of the Prussian era". Anti-Prussian and separatist sentiment in newly annexed kingdoms continued into 1871, as local Prussian authorities complained about "a not insignificant number" of deserters from Hanover and Schleswig, and the population reacted to the Franco-Prussian War with "recurrent acts of sabotage on telegraph lines, latent French sympathies, and
16480-402: The need for overhead wires between those stations. Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased by electrification, but many systems claim lower costs due to reduced wear-and-tear on the track from lighter rolling stock. There are some additional maintenance costs associated with the electrical equipment around the track, such as power sub-stations and the catenary wire itself, but, if there
16640-740: The next day. Prussia's general mobilization orders were signed in steps on 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12 May. When Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet on 1 June and also decided on 5 June to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June, Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865 had thereby been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for
16800-1366: The operation of services on the section from the Koblenz–Frankfurt section was tendered by the Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund (Rhine-Main Transport Association, RMV) and the Zweckverband Schienenpersonennahverkehr Rheinland-Pfalz Nord (Association for Passenger Rail Transport of Rhineland-Palatinate North). On 12 December 2010, VIAS GmbH took over operations of the service, now called the RheingauLinie (originally numbered SE 10, but called RB 10 again from December 2016). Between Koblenz, Lahnstein and Wiesbaden trains now stop at every station, but between Wiesbaden and Frankfurt Central Station there now only two stops. Similarly, between Neuwied and Koblenz Central Station there were initially no stations. Since its completion in April 2011, Koblenz Stadtmitte station has also been served. The services run every hour, sometimes even every half-hour. VIAS GmbH uses new Stadler FLIRT sets for
16960-713: The operations centre in Frankfurt and, if necessary, via the under operations centre ( Unterzentrale , UZ) in Oberlahnstein. The signal box in Oestrich-Winkel will remain for at least two more years (until ca. 2017), the signal box in Rüdesheim is to be permanently preserved as a so-called Inselstellwerk (island signal box). In order to link Bonn to Cologne and the Cologne Bonn Airport ,
17120-608: The original plans the line should have turned at Beuel on the Rhine to Siegburg. Later the line should have been extended via the Agger River valley to Overath and then via Witten to Bochum , or alternatively Essen . These plans were, however, viewed critically in Cologne, since it would have involved the construction of a major traffic axis through the Bergisches Land near Cologne. Gustav von Mevissen, president of
17280-614: The other two instantly attack their flank and rear, threatening their lines of communication. Prussian infantry were equipped with the Dreyse needle gun , a bolt-action rifle which could be fired faster than the muzzle-loading Lorenz rifles of the Austrian army. In the Franco-Austrian War of 1859, French troops took advantage of poorly trained enemies who did not readjust their gunsights as they got closer – thus firing too high at close range. By rapidly closing
17440-505: The phase separation between the electrified sections powered from different phases, whereas high voltage would make the transmission more efficient. UIC conducted a case study for the conversion of the Bordeaux-Hendaye railway line (France), currently electrified at 1.5 kV DC, to 9 kV DC and found that the conversion would allow to use less bulky overhead wires (saving €20 million per 100 route-km) and lower
17600-608: The previous boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire). After 1815, the German states were once again reorganized into a loose confederation: the German Confederation , under Austrian leadership. Prussia had been contesting Austria's supremacy in Germany since at least 1850, when a war between the two powers had nearly erupted over Prussia's leadership of the Erfurt Union , though at that time Prussia had backed down . At
17760-508: The problem by insulating the running rails from the current return should there be a leakage through the running rails. The Expo and Millennium Line of the Vancouver SkyTrain use side-contact fourth-rail systems for their 650 V DC supply. Both are located to the side of the train, as the space between the running rails is occupied by an aluminum plate, as part of stator of the linear induction propulsion system used on
17920-635: The public to enjoy. In 1866, the Prussian economy was rapidly growing, partly as a result of the Zollverein , which gave Prussia an advantage in the war. Prussia could equip its armies with breech-loading rifles and later with new Krupp breech-loading artillery but the Austrian economy was suffering from the effects of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Second Italian War of Independence . Austria had only one bank,
18080-529: The range, French troops came to close quarters with an advantage over the Austrian infantry. After the war, the Austrians adopted the same methods, which they termed the Stoßtaktik ("shock tactics"). Although they had some warnings of the Prussian weapon, they ignored these and retained Stoßtaktik . The Austrians were equipped with breech-loading rifled cannon, which was superior to the Prussian muzzle loading smooth bore cannon. The Austrian Artillery used
18240-465: The resistance per unit length unacceptably high compared with the use of DC. Third rail is more compact than overhead wires and can be used in smaller-diameter tunnels, an important factor for subway systems. The London Underground in England is one of few networks that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third-rail and overhead networks, is provided by
18400-570: The revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some electric locomotives can switch to different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation. Six of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for European and international standardisation. Some of these are independent of the contact system used, so that, for example, 750 V DC may be used with either third rail or overhead lines. There are many other voltage systems used for railway electrification systems around
18560-498: The running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized at +420 V DC , and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails at −210 V DC , which combine to provide a traction voltage of 630 V DC . The same system was used for Milan 's earliest underground line, Milan Metro 's line 1 , whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or
18720-467: The same task: converting and transporting high-voltage AC from the power grid to low-voltage DC in the locomotive. The difference between AC and DC electrification systems lies in where the AC is converted to DC: at the substation or on the train. Energy efficiency and infrastructure costs determine which of these is used on a network, although this is often fixed due to pre-existing electrification systems. Both
18880-1088: The service "visible" even in no bus is running and the existence of the infrastructure gives some long-term expectations of the line being in operation. Due to the height restriction imposed by the overhead wires, double-stacked container trains have been traditionally difficult and rare to operate under electrified lines. However, this limitation is being overcome by railways in India, China and African countries by laying new tracks with increased catenary height. Austro-Prussian War Prussian -led German states and Italian victory Prussian-led German states [REDACTED] Austrian-led German Confederation states 637,262 522,203 The Austro-Prussian War , (German: Preußisch-Österreichischer Krieg ) also by many variant names such as Seven Weeks' War , German Civil War , Brothers War or Fraternal War , known in Germany as Deutscher Krieg ("German War"), Deutsch-Deutscher Krieg ("German-German War"), Deutscher Bruderkrieg ( pronounced [ˌdɔʏtʃɐ ˈbʁuːdɐkʁiːk] ; "German Brothers War") and by
19040-585: The service. Because of the renewal of track on the line in 2010 and the good acceleration of the FLIRT sets, the travel time is only slightly longer than that of the former RE 10 service, which did not stop at each station. Between Koblenz and Kaub, tariffs of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Mosel apply and between Lorchhausen and Wiesbaden/Frankfurt, the tariffs of the Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund (RMV). Deutsche Bahn AG planned further closures on
19200-423: The situation in the Rhine completely. The Rhenish Railway Company ( Rheinische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft ) now had an interest in completing the East Rhine line, and soon received a concession for it. On 27 October 1869, the extension of the line was opened from Niederlahnstein to Neuwied. The route of the northern end was contentious. The concession referred to a line between Siegburg and Niederlahnstein and under
19360-420: The size of the army had been fixed by earlier laws that had not taken population growth into account, making conscription inequitable and unpopular for this reason. While some Prussian men remained in the army or the reserves until they were forty years old, about one man in three (or even more in some regions where the population had expanded greatly as a result of industrialisation) was assigned minimal service in
19520-456: The soldier was seeking cover on the ground, whereas the Austrian muzzle-loading rifles could be loaded only slowly, and generally from a standing position. The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia . Prussian Chief of General Staff Helmuth von Moltke had planned meticulously for the war. He rapidly mobilized the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where
19680-679: The southern German states sided with Austria against Prussia. Those that sided with Austria included the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Württemberg . Smaller middle states such as Baden , Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Hesse-Darmstadt , and Nassau also joined with Austria. Many of the German princes allied with the Habsburgs principally out of a desire to keep their thrones. Most of the northern German states joined Prussia, in particular Oldenburg , Mecklenburg-Schwerin , Mecklenburg-Strelitz , and Brunswick . The Kingdom of Italy participated in
19840-569: The steep approaches to the tunnel. The system was also used for suburban electrification in East London and Manchester , now converted to 25 kV AC. It is now only used for the Tyne and Wear Metro . In India, 1,500 V DC was the first electrification system launched in 1925 in Mumbai area. Between 2012 and 2016, the electrification was converted to 25 kV 50 Hz, which
20000-434: The stop for Bonn is replaced with Bonn-Beuel. Passenger services on the line are provided by RegionalBahn and Regional-Express trains. According to Deutsche Bahn timetables, the East Rhine route is KBS 465 (Cologne-Koblenz) and KBS 466 (Koblenz-Wiesbaden). The KBS 465 added a section from Cologne to Mönchengladbach a few years ago. All passenger trains start or finish at the Koblenz main station . Trains from there in
20160-443: The supply grid, requiring careful planning and design (as at each substation power is drawn from two out of three phases). The low-frequency AC system may be powered by separate generation and distribution network or a network of converter substations, adding the expense, also low-frequency transformers, used both at the substations and on the rolling stock, are particularly bulky and heavy. The DC system, apart from being limited as to
20320-694: The three-phase induction motor fed by a variable frequency drive , a special inverter that varies both frequency and voltage to control motor speed. These drives can run equally well on DC or AC of any frequency, and many modern electric locomotives are designed to handle different supply voltages and frequencies to simplify cross-border operation. Five European countries – Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden – have standardized on 15 kV 16 + 2 ⁄ 3 Hz (the 50 Hz mains frequency divided by three) single-phase AC. On 16 October 1995, Germany, Austria and Switzerland changed from 16 + 2 ⁄ 3 Hz to 16.7 Hz which
20480-575: The through traffic to non-electrified lines. If through traffic is to have any benefit, time-consuming engine switches must occur to make such connections or expensive dual mode engines must be used. This is mostly an issue for long-distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through electrification, but it can be too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and unless an entire network
20640-446: The time of the war, there was no strong national consciousness in Germany. Michael Hughes notes that in regards to Germany, "nationalism was a minority movement, deeply divided and with only a marginal impact on German political life". German newspapers were almost exclusively concerned with local affairs or their respective state governments, and the individual German states cultivated loyalty towards themselves. While rivalry with France
20800-514: The timely arrival of the Second Army on the left wing. This was achieved through the brilliant work of its Chief of Staff, Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal . Superior Prussian organization and élan decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, and the victory was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure. An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July. A preliminary peace
20960-466: The train stops with one collector in a dead gap, another multiple unit can push or pull the disconnected unit until it can again draw power. The same applies to the kind of push-pull trains which have a locomotive at each end. Power gaps can be overcome in single-collector trains by on-board batteries or motor-flywheel-generator systems. In 2014, progress is being made in the use of large capacitors to power electric vehicles between stations, and so avoid
21120-713: The train's kinetic energy back into electricity and returns it to the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. While diesel locomotives burn petroleum products, electricity can be generated from diverse sources, including renewable energy . Historically, concerns of resource independence have played a role in the decision to electrify railway lines. The landlocked Swiss confederation which almost completely lacks oil or coal deposits but has plentiful hydropower electrified its network in part in reaction to supply issues during both World Wars. Disadvantages of electric traction include: high capital costs that may be uneconomic on lightly trafficked routes,
21280-620: The trains of the East Rhine railway are planned to run on schedule during the construction period, a construction period of twelve years is estimated. The route is due to be finished at the end of 2028. On the section between Troisdorf and Bonn-Beuel , S-Bahn services are planned to commence at the end of 2026. The construction of new stations is planned in Bendorf (at the Rheinstraße level crossing) and in Koblenz-Horchheim (at
21440-413: The transmission and conversion of electric energy involve losses: ohmic losses in wires and power electronics, magnetic field losses in transformers and smoothing reactors (inductors). Power conversion for a DC system takes place mainly in a railway substation where large, heavy, and more efficient hardware can be used as compared to an AC system where conversion takes place aboard the locomotive where space
21600-470: The tyres do not conduct the return current, the two guide bars provided outside the running ' roll ways ' become, in a sense, a third and fourth rail which each provide 750 V DC , so at least electrically it is a four-rail system. Each wheel set of a powered bogie carries one traction motor . A side sliding (side running) contact shoe picks up the current from the vertical face of each guide bar. The return of each traction motor, as well as each wagon ,
21760-432: The voltage, the lower the current for the same power (because power is current multiplied by voltage), and power loss is proportional to the current squared. The lower current reduces line loss, thus allowing higher power to be delivered. As alternating current is used with high voltages. Inside the locomotive, a transformer steps the voltage down for use by the traction motors and auxiliary loads. An early advantage of AC
21920-416: The war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months, which was an obvious incentive for Bismarck to go to war with Austria within three months so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Austria responded with a mobilization of its Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April. Italy called for a general mobilization on 26 April and Austria ordered its own general mobilization
22080-489: The war that we must have." The Austrian army under Ludwig von Benedek in Bohemia (the present-day Czech Republic ) might previously have been expected to enjoy the advantage of the "central position", by being able to concentrate on successive attacking armies strung out along the frontier, but the quicker Prussian concentration nullified this advantage. By the time the Austrians were fully assembled, they would be unable to concentrate against one Prussian army without having
22240-604: The war to strengthen his negotiating position for territory along the Rhine , while the Russian Empire still bore a grudge against Austria from the Crimean War . The first war between two major continental powers in seven years, it used many of the same technologies as the Second Italian War of Independence , including railways to concentrate troops during mobilization and telegraphy to enhance long-distance communication. The Prussian Army used von Dreyse 's breech-loading needle gun , which could be rapidly loaded while
22400-419: The war with Prussia, because Austria held Venetia and other, smaller territories wanted by Italy to further the process of Italian unification . In return for Italian aid against Austria, Bismarck agreed not to make a separate peace until Italy had obtained Venetia. Notably, the other foreign powers abstained from this war. French Emperor Napoleon III , who expected a Prussian defeat, chose to remain out of
22560-405: The weight of an on-board transformer. Increasing availability of high-voltage semiconductors may allow the use of higher and more efficient DC voltages that heretofore have only been practical with AC. The use of medium-voltage DC electrification (MVDC) would solve some of the issues associated with standard-frequency AC electrification systems, especially possible supply grid load imbalance and
22720-525: The well-known Loreley Tunnel near Sankt Goarshausen . Soon after the opening of the first railways in the region, a line on the right bank of the Rhine began to be discussed. In 1844 the Mayor of Deutz suggested building a line from Deutz via Rüdesheim to Wiesbaden. In 1852, the town of Neuwied also began to press strongly for the building of a railway. However, others, particularly Prussia , had substantial reservations. There were military objections to
22880-532: The world, and the list of railway electrification systems covers both standard voltage and non-standard voltage systems. The permissible range of voltages allowed for the standardised voltages is as stated in standards BS EN 50163 and IEC 60850. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation. 1,500 V DC is used in Japan, Indonesia, Hong Kong (parts), Ireland, Australia (parts), France (also using 25 kV 50 Hz AC ) ,
23040-534: The world, including China , India , Japan , France , Germany , and the United Kingdom . Electrification is seen as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to diesel or steam power and is an important part of many countries' transportation infrastructure. Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters: Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to
23200-569: The year before. The bridge was inaugurated on 3 June 1864. A continuation of the East Rhine line through Prussia was not possible for the time being, because the concession that the Rhenish Railway had received for the West Rhine line had specified that no concession would be given for a railway on the right bank of the Rhine before 1876. As a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Nassau became part of Prussia, changing
23360-524: Was "impatient to take his revenge on Bismarck for Sadowa ". As a preliminary step, the Ausgleich with Hungary was "rapidly concluded". Beust "persuaded Francis Joseph to accept Magyar demands which he had until then rejected", but Austrian plans fell short of French hopes (e.g. Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen proposed a plan which required the French army to fight alone for six weeks in order to allow Austrian mobilisation). Victor Emmanuel II and
23520-415: Was a strong pressure in Catholic states to support Austria. In the absence of nationalist sentiment, a united German state could only be created through external force. Bismarck recognised this, remarking in 1862 that a united German state could not be forged through "speeches and majority decisions" but only through "blood and iron". There are many interpretations of Otto von Bismarck 's behaviour before
23680-503: Was an important element of German nationalist myth-making, many Germans cooperated with France during the Napoleonic Era, and those who resisted France did not do so out of nationalist sentiment. According to John Breuilly , any sense of a common German identity "was weakly developed and confined to particular groups" and "there was very little demand, certainly at popular level, for unification". The liberal-nationalist concept of
23840-437: Was exacerbated because the return current also had a tendency to flow through nearby iron pipes forming the water and gas mains. Some of these, particularly Victorian mains that predated London's underground railways, were not constructed to carry currents and had no adequate electrical bonding between pipe segments. The four-rail system solves the problem. Although the supply has an artificially created earth point, this connection
24000-553: Was first applied successfully by Frank Sprague in Richmond, Virginia in 1887-1888, and led to the electrification of hundreds of additional street railway systems by the early 1890s. The first electrification of a mainline railway was the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Baltimore Belt Line in the United States in 1895–96. The early electrification of railways used direct current (DC) power systems, which were limited in terms of
24160-638: Was fought mainly with existing weapons and munitions, which reduced the influence of economic and industrial power relative to politics and military culture. Before the war started, both the Austrian and Prussian governments sought to rally allies in Germany. On 15 June Bismarck offered territorial compensation in the Grand Duchy of Hesse to the Electorate of Hesse , if Elector Frederick William were to ally with Prussia. The proposition grievously offended Frederick William's "legitimist sensibilities" and
24320-418: Was given to understand that this instruction had been torn from Emperor Napoleon during an illness. The further attempts in relation to Luxemburg are known. Italy : Italy had already allied itself with Prussia because it wanted Lombardy - Venetia . This meant that Austria would be fighting both Italy and Prussia, without any non-German allies of its own. Bismarck may well have been encouraged to go to war by
24480-455: Was hoping to force Austrian leaders into concessions in Germany, rather than provoke war. The truth may be more complicated than simply that Bismarck, who famously said that "politics is the art of the possible", initially sought war with Austria or was initially against the idea of going to war with Austria. In 1862, von Roon had implemented several army reforms that ensured that all Prussian citizens were liable to conscription. Before this date,
24640-408: Was never concluded because Napoleon III ... would never consent to the occupation of Rome by Italy. ... He wished Austria to avenge Sadowa, either by taking part in a military action, or by preventing South Germany from making common cause with Prussia. ... If he could ensure, through Austrian aid, the neutrality of the South German States in a war against Prussia, he considered himself sure of defeating
24800-427: Was not war with Austria, contradicting what Bismarck later gave in his memoirs as his main reason for establishing the alliance. It was in the Prussian interest to gain an alliance with Austria to defeat Denmark and settle the issue of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The alliance can be regarded as an aid to Prussian expansion, rather than a provocation of war against Austria. Many historians believe that Bismarck
24960-436: Was one of continuous training and drill, in contrast to the Austrian army where some commanders routinely dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave soon after their induction into the army, retaining only a cadre of long-term soldiers for formal parades and routine duties. Austrian conscripts had to be trained almost from scratch when they were recalled to their units on the outbreak of war. The Prussian army
25120-407: Was shelled by Prussian artillery, but the garrison defended its position until armistice day. The Austrians were more successful in their war with Italy , defeating the Italians on land at the Battle of Custoza (24 June), and on sea at the Battle of Lissa (20 July). However, Italy's " Hunters of the Alps " led by Garibaldi defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Bezzecca on 21 July, conquered
25280-481: Was signed on 26 July at Nikolsburg . Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. Hanover's army defeated Prussia at the Second Battle of Langensalza on 27 June 1866, but, within a few days, they were forced to surrender by superior numbers. Prussian armies fought against Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Hessian states on the river Main , reaching Nuremberg and Frankfurt . The Bavarian fortress of Würzburg
25440-462: Was simply a Prussian expansionist , rather than a German nationalist, who sought the unification of Germany. It was at the Gastein Convention that the Austrian alliance was set up to lure Austria into war. The timing of the Prusso-Italian alliance of 8 April 1866 was perfect, because all other European powers were either bound by alliances that forbade them from entering the conflict, or had domestic problems that had priority. The reason why none of
25600-472: Was thus better trained and disciplined than the Austrian army, particularly in the infantry. While Austrian cavalry and artillery were as well trained as their Prussian counterparts, with Austria possessing two elite divisions of heavy cavalry, weapons and tactics had advanced since the Napoleonic Wars and cavalry charges had been rendered obsolete. The Prussian army was locally based, organized in Kreise (military districts, lit.: circles), each containing
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