The Rio Bavispe or Bavispe River is a river in Mexico which flows briefly north then mainly south by southwest until it joins with the Aros River to become the Yaqui River , eventually joining the Gulf of California .
132-654: Historically, the Rio Bavispe valley was the scene of many Apache raids and their skirmishes with the Mexican military. Missionaries settled the upper Bavispe River in the early 1600s. The Bavispe River comprises a large part of the northern Yaqui River watershed. The mainstem of the Bavispe starts in the Sierra Madre Occidental right on the border of Chihuahua , southeast of Huachinera, Sonora , and
264-481: A famous world map was produced. In 1506 Hernán Cortés took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a large estate of land and indigenous slaves for his effort. In 1510 he accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar , an aide of the governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. In 1518 Velázquez put him in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. In 1517 Francisco Hernández de Córdoba discovered
396-582: A hypoxic dead zone that runs east–west along the Texas–Louisiana coastline. In July 2008, researchers reported that between 1985 and 2008, the area roughly doubled in size. It was 8,776 square miles (22,730 km ) in 2017, the largest ever recorded. Poor agricultural practices in the northern portion of the Gulf of Mexico have led to a tremendous increase of nitrogen and phosphorus in neighboring marine ecosystems, which has resulted in algae blooms and
528-480: A magnitude 6.0 earthquake occurred about 250 miles (400 km) west-southwest of Anna Maria, Florida . The quake was reportedly felt from Louisiana to Florida. There were no reports of damage or injuries. Items were knocked from shelves and seiches were observed in swimming pools in parts of Florida. The earthquake was described by the USGS as an intraplate earthquake , the largest and most widely felt recorded in
660-633: A marine basin which separated the island arc that came to form the Guerrero terrane from the accretions that came to form the Sierra Madre terrane. It contains a lower formation made up of pillow basalts with pillow breccias , tuffs, and shales underlying a group of pelagic limestones , oozes , and turbidites . Covering the southern basement are sedimentary and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks containing argillite , limestone, volcanic schist , slate , and greywacke which were exposed in
792-416: A source of water , in an otherwise arid environment from the increased precipitation from the mountain range. As such, rivers that have headwaters in the mountains provide water for irrigation in the surrounding lands. The need for water to irrigate prompted the construction of dams, which has been the source of several environmental concerns in the area. The northern end of the range is more arid; hence,
924-448: A desert landscape. Oak forests are the predominant plant life, and extend into the lowland deserts. This forest and canyon land provided a place for a variety of indigenous people to live, until Spanish settlers with associated mestizos came into the area to found towns for the silver mines in the area. The major industries in the area now are agriculture and forestry, which have become contentious because of land degradation and
1056-726: A documentary about the project, short videos and video updates during the expedition. Video footage from the ROV was an integral part of this outreach and used extensively in the Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck documentary. On July 30, 1942, the Robert E. Lee , captained by William C. Heath, was torpedoed by the German submarine U-166 . She was sailing southeast of the entrance to the Mississippi River when
1188-505: A few towns of note, including Creel, Chihuahua , with 5,000 inhabitants; it serves as a stop on the train line. South of Copper Canyon is the town of El Salto, Durango , situated along highway 40. To the west is Copala, Sinaloa . To the south live the indigenous Cora people in the towns of Jesús María and La Mesa del Nayar. In addition, 1,000 people live in the village of Huajimic in Nayarit. The Bolaños River valley of Jalisco
1320-492: A lack of available oxygen. Occurrences of masculinization and estrogen suppression were observed as a result. An October 2007 study of the Atlantic croaker found a disproportioned sex ratio of 61% males to 39% females in hypoxic sites. This was compared with a 52% to 48% male-female ratio found in reference sites, showing an impairment of reproductive output for fish populations inhabiting hypoxic coastal zones. According to
1452-480: A large scale from many of the bays and sounds. Other important industries along the coast include shipping, petrochemical processing and storage, military use, paper manufacture, and tourism. The gulf's warm water temperature can feed powerful Atlantic hurricanes causing extensive human death and other destruction as happened with Hurricane Katrina in 2005. In the Atlantic, a hurricane will draw up cool water from
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#17327733443891584-624: A series of Paleozoic sedimentary sequences from a deep marine environment underlying it, considered by some to be part of the Cotes Terrane and by others to be transported . In some areas, distinct sedimentary rocks can be identified by shallow-water Silurian and Mississippian sedimentary rocks underlying deep-water Pennsylvanian and Permian , which are divided by Mississippian rhyolite . The Permian clastics contain some detrital rock that sit alongside low-grade metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks with serpentinite. South of
1716-629: A series of folds, thrust , and left lateral faults date from the middle Miocene. This may be evidence for a left transpressional shear zone . The area between this boundary and the Aguascalientes fault is filled with numerous grabens and half-grabens, as well an east–west left shear zone, the El Roble shear zone. At the west end of these grabens and half-grabens are the Pochotitan and the more northerly San Pedro fault systems, which form
1848-422: A serious threat to marine life and adjacent coastal wetlands and to the livelihoods of Gulf Coast shrimpers and fishermen. Coast Guard Rear Admiral Sally Brice O'Hare stated that the U.S. government will be "employing booms, skimmers, chemical dispersants and controlled burns" to combat the oil spill. By May 1 the oil spill cleanup efforts were underway but hampered by rough seas and the "tea like" consistency of
1980-573: A smaller scale, mineral deposits are distributed in formations of the Sierra Madre, although the events that placed these deposits vary throughout the mountains. The Guerrero composite terrane contains many of the economic deposits, often found in ore bodies younger than the Cretaceous. Gold and silver deposits most commonly occur in the altered andesites of the early volcanics, typically these deposits are between 30 and 50 million years old. These are believed to be caused by later intrusions into
2112-435: A summer monsoon , and two dry seasons each year. Air pressure changes in northwestern Mexico and the southwest United States are the main causes of seasonal variation in the Sierra Madre. A high pressure area that rests over the mountains in the winter begins to move north of the mountains into New Mexico during the month of June. The high pressure begins to break down and move south during September or October; however,
2244-407: A thick core covered by volcanics and eroded by numerous rivers. Some have suggested that the basement of the mountains have numerous intrusions made by mafic magma . At their surface, the mountains are made up of large-scale ignimbrite sheet that has been incised by rivers flowing from rainfall in the mountains. The surface of the plateau is almost exclusively from the second series of flows causing
2376-409: Is a high plateau of volcanic rock that is eroded in areas to reveal a basement composed of plutonic and sedimentary rocks underlying the two groups of extrusive volcanics. The lower of these groups is a series of volcanic rocks formed by lava flows . The surface of the plateau is made up of a second series of volcanic ignimbrites , covered mostly by clay rich organic soils . Some intrusions in
2508-810: Is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera , that runs northwest–southeast through northwestern and western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California . The Sierra Madre is part of the American Cordillera , a chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that consist of an almost continuous sequence that form the western "sounds" of North America , Central America , South America , and West Antarctica . The Spanish name sierra madre means "mother mountain range" in English, and occidental means "western", these thus being
2640-423: Is also a belt of iron deposits further east. Most soil in the mountains is covered by an organic -rich layer over layers rich in clay . Soils are commonly phaeozems that are up to 100 centimetres (39 in). Some soils are cambisols that are less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) deep and well- drained . Due to the high clay content, which blocks water from being absorbed into the soil, larger rock particles in
2772-788: Is an ocean basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean , mostly surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States ; on the southwest and south by the Mexican states of Tamaulipas , Veracruz , Tabasco , Campeche , Yucatán , and Quintana Roo ; and on the southeast by Cuba . The Southern U.S. states of Texas , Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida , which border
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#17327733443892904-631: Is an excellent example of a passive margin . The continental shelf is quite wide at most points along the coast, most notably at the Florida and Yucatán Peninsulas. The shelf is exploited for its oil by means of offshore drilling rigs, most of which are situated in the western gulf and in the Bay of Campeche. Another important commercial activity is fishing; major catches include red snapper , amberjack , tilefish , swordfish , and various grouper , as well as shrimp and crabs. Oysters are also harvested on
3036-723: Is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Straits of Florida between the U.S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba. Because of its narrow connection to the Atlantic Ocean, the gulf experiences very small tidal ranges . The size of the gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km (620,000 sq mi). Almost half of the basin consists of shallow continental shelf waters. The volume of water in
3168-587: Is formed by the confluence of three rivers at aptly named Três Rios . The Rio Bavispe flows northwest through mountainous country until the upper end of the wide Bavispe Valley. This valley trends northward until making a 180 degree curve west around the Sierra del Tigre . At the north end of the Sierra del Tigre, the Bavispe is joined at Morelos, Sonora by the waters of the Rio San Bernardino (which drain
3300-553: Is formed by the range is cut by deep river valleys. This plateau is formed from volcanic rock overlying a basement of metamorphic rock. This uplift has caused changes in weather patterns; increased rainfall occurring in the mountains has provided areas where ecosystems can form in wetter areas than surrounding land. This water source forms watersheds that provide the arid surroundings with water that makes it possible to irrigate and farm crops. The wet ecosystems are islands of biodiversity, differing significantly from what would otherwise be
3432-404: Is four to five times saltier than the rest of the water. The first exploration of the site was unmanned, using Hercules and in 2015 a team of three used the deep-submergence vehicle Alvin . The site cannot sustain any kind of life other than bacteria , mussels with a symbiotic relationship , tube worms and certain kinds of shrimp . It has been called the "Jacuzzi of Despair". Because it
3564-461: Is marked by different volcanic processes. The first was a continuation of the Oligocene flare-up, which lasted through the early Miocene. This may be a distinct second occurrence of the same process, placing silica-rich lava above Oligocene rocks. Also in the early Miocene more intermediate basaltic andesites occur along faults and in grabens. Beginning in the early Miocene and continuing into
3696-651: Is populated with mining communities, such as San Martín de Bolaños , which has a population of around 3,000. Few paved roads cross the mountains, meaning that travel times can be long, even between cities that are relatively close. In the north, Mexico Federal Highway 16 connects Hermosillo , Sonora and La Junta, Chihuahua. In the mountains, the La Entrada al Pacifico Corridor is an incomplete road intended to connect Los Mochis , Sinaloa and Chihuahua. Durango and Mazatlán are connected by highway 40 , around 24 degrees north latitude. The Sierra Madre Occidental
3828-531: Is warmer than the surrounding water (65 °F or 18 °C compared to 39 °F or 4 °C), animals are attracted to it but cannot survive once they enter it. The Gulf of Mexico is 41 percent continental slope , 32 percent continental shelf , and 24 percent abyssal plain with the greatest depth of 12,467 feet in the Sigsbee Deep . Seven main areas are given as: As early as the Maya civilization ,
3960-591: The Deepwater Horizon oil platform, located in the Mississippi Canyon about 40 miles (64 km) off the Louisiana coast, suffered a catastrophic explosion ; it sank a day and a half later. It was in the process of being sealed with concrete for temporary abandonment, to avoid environmental problems. Although initial reports indicated that relatively little oil had leaked, by April 24 it
4092-856: The Aguamilpa Dam begun in 1991 and the El Cajón Dam upstream from it. To provide irrigation water for farming the dry basin , the Nazas river was dammed in the 1930s and 1940s. This has led to the former drainage lakes in the area drying up, and soil depletion from the elimination of the river as a source of soil. Due to the continued logging in the area, erosion on the slopes of hillsides has increased. Numerous small populations live in Copper Canyon, some of them around old missions. Many settlements consist of single families or small family groups near agricultural fields. There are also
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4224-518: The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement ) to help predict the potential impacts of future oil/gas explorations. Since 1979, the specimens have been deposited in the national collections of the National Museum of Natural History. The major environmental threats to the gulf are agricultural runoff and oil drilling . There are 27,000 abandoned oil and gas wells beneath
4356-664: The Grand Canyon . This plateau has an average elevation of 2,250 m (7,380 ft) with most of the more eroded canyons on the western slope, due to the higher moisture content. The highest elevations occur in the Tarahumara range. The exact elevations of the highest peaks are not known within accurate enough ranges to determine their relative elevation. The highest point is probably Cerro Mohinora , located at 25°57′N 107°03′W / 25.950°N 107.050°W / 25.950; -107.050 . Estimates for
4488-438: The Gulf of Mexico . On the western side of the mountains, which are affected by the largest change in precipitation between the dry season and monsoon season, in the monsoon season rainfall can exceed 300 mm (12 in) in a single month. The southern region receives more of the rainfall than the northern. Much of this precipitation occurs as tropical storms . As the high pressure over New Mexico breaks down, rainfall in
4620-697: The Marathon Uplift in west Texas and the Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma , and to Alabama where it linked directly to the Appalachian Mountains . It was created by the collision of continental plates that formed Pangaea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, this mountain range was breached in the late Cretaceous by the formation of the Mississippi Embayment . The rifting that created
4752-650: The Mardi Gras sank around the early 19th century about 35 mi (56 km) off the coast of Louisiana in 4,000 feet (1,200 m) of water. She is believed to have been a privateer or trader. The shipwreck, whose real identity remains a mystery, lay forgotten at the bottom of the sea until it was discovered in 2002 by an oilfield inspection crew working for the Okeanos Gas Gathering Company (OGGC). In 2007 an expedition led by Texas A&M University and funded by OGGC under an agreement with
4884-572: The Mesozoic and all of the Cenozoic further depressed the underlying crust to its current position about 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi) below sea level. Particularly during the Cenozoic, a time of relative stability for the coastal zones, thick clastic wedges built out the continental shelf along the northwestern and northern margins of the basin. To the east, the stable Florida Platform
5016-557: The National Response Center , the oil industry has thousands of minor accidents in the Gulf of Mexico every year. In June 1979, the Ixtoc I oil platform in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout leading to a catastrophic explosion, which resulted in a massive oil spill that continued for nine months before the well was finally capped. This was the largest oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico to date. On April 20, 2010,
5148-741: The Nazas River and Aguanaval River drain the mountains into a closed basin. These mountains supply 90% of the water used for irrigation within the watershed. North of this system is the Conchos River which drains into the Rio Grande . Along many rivers the arid conditions have caused courses to be dammed to provide water for irrigation. These dams have caused concerns along with those caused by other activities. The Yaqui has been dammed with three large reservoirs along its course. The Río Grande de Santiago has also been dammed, including
5280-974: The San Bernardino Valley ) whose beginnings are in extreme southeast Cochise County, Arizona . From this confluence the Rio Bavispe turns south by southwest and enters the La Angostura Reservoir ( Lázaro Cárdenas Dam), then continues 80 miles further south until it joins with the larger Rio Aros to form the Yaqui River . The Yaqui River enters the Gulf of California at the port city of Guaymas, Sonora . The river hosts an assemblage of native fishes: Yaqui trout, three suckers (Bavispe, Rio Grande, and Yaqui), Mexican stoneroller, roundtail chub, Yaqui catfish, beautiful shiner and longfin dace. Non-native fish include predatory black and yellow bullhead ( Ameiras melas and Ameiras natalis ). Important threatened or endangered mammals include
5412-618: The Sierra Madre del Sur and the Eje Volcánico Transversal (Transverse Volcanic Axis) of central Mexico after crossing 1,250 km (780 mi). The mountains range from 300 km (190 mi) from the Gulf of California in the north, but begin to approach within 50 km (30 mi) of the Pacific in the south. These mountains are generally considered to be part of the much larger American cordillera ,
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5544-840: The Sonoran pronghorn antelope ( Antilocapra americana sonoriensis ), Mexican gray wolf ( Canis lupus baileyi ), jaguar ( Panthera onca ), ocelot ( Leopardus pardalis ), jaguarundi ( Puma yagouaroundi ), and lesser long-nosed bat ( Leptonycteris yerbabuenae ). North American beaver ( Castor canadensis ) were historically native to the Rio Bavispe: Baird reported beavers in Canon de Guadalupe (at 5,000 ft, affluent of Rio Bavispe) in 1859, Mearns reported them in Canon de Guadalupe (at 5,000 ft, affluent of Rio Bavispe) in 1907, and Caire observed beaver activity north of Tasaviri (near San Miguelito just west of Morales, Sonora) on
5676-580: The Yaqui River , which drains that area, is an important source of irrigation in the state of Sonora. The Yaqui drains into the Gulf of California , as do the Fuerte River in Sinaloa and the Humaya River further south. The Río Grande de Santiago drains 100,000 km (39,000 sq mi) from the southern slopes of the Sierra Madre. Along the more arid eastern slopes of the mountains,
5808-428: The eastern cottontail , which lives in the forests of the western slopes, cliff chipmunk , rock squirrel , Mexican fox squirrel , and various species of Cricetidae . Raccoons , hog-nosed skunk , and hooded skunk live in the mountains. The white-nosed coati lives on the western slopes, and the ring-tailed cat lives throughout. Many species of bats live in the mountains also. A variety of lizards live in
5940-822: The "Western mother mountain range". To the east, from the Spanish oriental meaning "eastern" in English, the Sierra Madre Oriental range or "Eastern mother mountain range" runs generally parallel to the Sierra Madre Occidental along eastern Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico . The range extends from northern Sonora , a state near the Mexico–U.S. border at Arizona , southeast towards to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and Sierra Madre del Sur ranges. The high plateau that
6072-473: The Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. Seafloor spreading stopped at the end of the Jurassic, about 145–150 million years ago. During the late Jurassic through early Cretaceous, the basin experienced a period of cooling and subsidence of the crust underlying it. The subsidence was the result of a combination of crustal stretching, cooling, and loading. Initially,
6204-422: The Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the opening basin to create an enclosed marginal sea. The subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt and associated anhydrite evaporites . During the late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the basin and progressed to the point that seafloor spreading and formation of oceanic crust occurred. At this point, sufficient circulation with
6336-596: The Cortes and Carborca Terranes is the San José de García Terrane, which is a combination of Cretaceous arc volcanics and volcaniclastics , which may be thrusting over the Cortes terrane. The southern part of the range is made up of the Guerrero Composite Terrane, a large body, which is actually a complex of five different subterranes, not all of them within the main body of the Sierra Madre. However,
6468-597: The Gulf of Mexico was used as a trade route off the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula and present-day Veracruz . Although the Spanish voyage of Christopher Columbus was credited with the discovery of the Americas by Europeans, the ships in his four voyages did not reach the Gulf of Mexico. Instead, the Spanish sailed into the Caribbean around Cuba and Hispaniola . The first alleged European exploration of
6600-491: The Gulf of Mexico was by Amerigo Vespucci in 1497. Vespucci is purported to have followed the coastal land mass of Central America before returning to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Florida between Florida and Cuba. However, this first voyage of 1497 is widely disputed, and many historians doubt that it took place as described. In his letters, Vespucci described this trip, and once Juan de la Cosa returned to Spain,
6732-679: The Light on Cape San Antonio in Cuba, through this island to the meridian of 83°W and to the Northward along this meridian to the latitude of the South point of the Dry Tortugas (24°35'N), along this parallel Eastward to Rebecca Shoal (82°35'W) thence through the shoals and Florida Keys to the mainland at the eastern end of Florida Bay and all the narrow waters between the Dry Tortugas and
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#17327733443896864-704: The Minerals Management Service (now BOEM ) was launched to undertake the deepest scientific archaeological excavation ever attempted at that time to study the site on the seafloor and recover artifacts for eventual public display in the Louisiana State Museum . As part of the project educational outreach Nautilus Productions in partnership with BOEM, Texas A&M University, the Florida Public Archaeology Network and Veolia Environmental produced
6996-415: The North, and a number of different accreted terranes , which are mostly covered by Cenozoic volcanism. The northern extent of the Sierra Madre is the Cortés Terrane, although the northern extreme of this contains a small portion of the Carborca Terrane. Some of the northern end may also be underlain by a Precambrian basement placed around the same time as the Grenville Orogeny . Some of this area has
7128-657: The Pacific. In addition to gold and silver and their related deposits, tin , iron , and mercury occur, sometimes in later units, mostly in later volcanics, and Molybdenum occurs in the mountains, often along with older copper deposits or in Oligocene deposits in the east. The belt of tin deposits lies mostly within the eastern slopes from Durango to Guanajuato. In these areas, tin occurs in rhyolitic ignimbrites in many, possibly over 1000, small deposits of cassiterite . Typically these deposits are divided from overlying ignimbrites by breccia, which may also contain ore. Many of these are thought to be hydrothermal deposits To
7260-401: The Rio Bavispe mainstem in 1978. A 1999 survey found beaver sign at 14 different sites on the upper Bavispe River mainstem, associated with the presence of cottonwoods ( Populus fremontii ) and willows ( Salix exigua ). This article related to a river in Mexico is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sierra Madre Occidental The Sierra Madre Occidental
7392-427: The Sierra Madre Occidental include tufted jay , the "gray-eared" subspecies of red warbler , eared quetzal , thick-billed parrot , and formerly included the imperial woodpecker , which now may be extinct. The rivers and streams of the range contain some of the southernmost trout populations in North America. These populations may be native, although this is not universally accepted. Invasive fish compete with
7524-405: The Sierra Madre ends. Because of the monsoon, the summer accounts for the majority of rainfall in the area. The spring and fall dry season separate out a weaker wet season in the winter. In addition to increasing in the southern ranges of the mountains, rainfall increases in the higher elevations of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Humidity in the mountains varies at wide levels as does rainfall. In
7656-399: The Sierra Madre from the central Mexican Plateau . The more southern one is the north–south Aguascalientes fault extending 150 kilometres (93 mi) from Altos de Jalisco to near Zacatecas, where it joins the more northern northwest–southeast trending San Luis–Tepehuanes fault extending from Guanajuato to Durango. The southern boundary of the Sierra Madre Occidental with the Jalisco block is
7788-413: The Southern Cordilleran Basaltic Andesite Suite. The tuffs are above a thick formation of lava rock. Around five or six units have been identified, mostly around the Copper Canyon area. These tuffs have allowed wide-ranging correlation with formations in other geographical areas, for example Death Valley . During the Miocene, three periods of volcanism marked separate events in the Sierras. Each period
7920-415: The United States of America and the Republic of Cuba, of December 16, 1977. Mexico and United States: Treaty to resolve pending boundary differences and maintain the Rio Grande and Colorado River as the international boundary, of November 23, 1970; Treaty on maritime boundaries between the United States of America and the United Mexican States (Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean), of May 4, 1978, and treaty on
8052-496: The United States, in accordance with Mexico's domestic legislation. On March 13, 2009, the CLCS accepted Mexico's arguments for extending its continental shelf up to 350 nautical miles (650 km; 400 mi) into the Western Polygon. Since this would extend Mexico's continental shelf well into territory claimed by the United States, however, Mexico and the U.S. would need to enter a bilateral agreement based on international law that delimits their respective claims. A ship now called
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#17327733443898184-423: The Yucatán Peninsula. This was the first European encounter with an advanced civilization in the Americas , with solidly built buildings and a complex social organization which they recognized as being comparable to those of the Old World ; they also had reason to expect that this new land would have gold . All of this encouraged two further expeditions, the first in 1518 under the command of Juan de Grijalva , and
8316-403: The activity of magmatism in the area, forming the first major igneous series in the area. The igneous series are made up of formations of plutonic and volcanic rock, which would later be exposed. Interbedded with these rocks are sedimentary deposit rocks. In the center of the range, some of these rocks have been deformed by tectonic forcing that occurred at the same time. The southern part of
8448-490: The animal may have been extirpated; the black bear population is small, and the Mexican grizzly bear that once resided here is confirmed extinct. Jaguars and ocelots are also now rare. On the other hand, mountain lion and bobcat are more common. On the eastern slopes there are American badger , coyote and gray fox that live across the mountains. Native ungulates include the white tailed deer , mule deer , and collared peccary . Rodents and lagomorphs include
8580-437: The area and surroundings. The Tarahumara frog lives in the oak and pine stands preferring moving water to pools. The southern extent of the Sonoran mountain kingsnake 's range is the Chihuahuan desert into the mountains. Other snakes and frogs live in the mountains, and many species live in the western slopes. Birds frequent the mountains, some as a migratory path and others as native species . The migratory birds often use
8712-450: The area have deposited ore veins that are commercially viable. The landscape was shaped after rock placement. Rivers cut valleys into the plateau, following folds in the rocks. Rocks have broken off of the slopes, forming rocky sides. The bedrock is covered by the clay rich soils, except in eroded areas, where water carries away deposits leaving a stony surface. The basement is thought to be Older North American basement, especially in
8844-442: The area to the west as an overwintering area, and migrate north along the western slopes. In the northern canyons birds may be divided into different habitats , or more specifically, the different types of forest, leading to differences in range by elevation. Some of this difference by elevation may even extend the range of some species, enabling tropical species to use the mountain valleys for migration. Bird species endemic to
8976-421: The area typically have large responses to the change in climate with each season. Monsoon season is the largest of these effects, with leaf buds following only a few months after the rains begin. Flowering season occurs in the months preceding the summer monsoon. This is only the peak flowering season, with plants flowering throughout the year. Due to the early flowering, fruit is ripe and seeds are dispersed at
9108-422: The area, by combining species from different regions. Animals typically associated with arid and mountainous habitats share the mountains with species associated with habitats further south. There are many carnivorous and omnivorous mammals native to the area, although several are extirpated or are part of threatened populations. The Mexican wolf 's range in the mountains is limited to the foothills of Durango or
9240-717: The attack. One officer, nine crewmen and 15 passengers were lost. The passengers aboard Robert E. Lee were primarily survivors of previous torpedo attacks by German U-boats. The wreck's location was discovered during the C & C Marine survey that located the U-166 . In 2001 the wreck of U-166 was found in 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of water, less than two miles (3.2 km) from where it had attacked Robert E. Lee . Various biota include chemosynthetic communities near cold seeps and non chemosynthetic communities such as bacteria and other micro- benthos , meiofauna , macrofauna , and megafauna (larger organisms such as crabs , sea pens , crinoids , demersal fish , cetaceans , and
9372-474: The basin is roughly 2.4 × 10 cubic kilometers (5.8 × 10 cubic miles). The gulf is one of the most important offshore petroleum production regions in the world, making up one-sixth of the United States' total production. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the southeast limit of the Gulf of Mexico as: A line joining Cape Catoche Light ( 21°37′N 87°04′W / 21.617°N 87.067°W / 21.617; -87.067 ) with
9504-514: The basin was associated with zones of weakness within Pangaea, including sutures where the Laurentia , South American , and African plates collided to create it. First, there was a late Triassic–early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds . Second, as rifting progressed through early and middle Jurassic times, the continental crust
9636-400: The beginning of the rains. There are also areas where plants have little response to the seasons, particularly those areas that experience moist conditions, caused by the elevations. These plants may maintain leaves through times when other areas are in the dry season, during which most deciduous trees have no leaves. The mountains are often a corridor for species allowing more diversity in
9768-639: The breakdown is usually at a slower pace than the movement north. This high pressure belt is associated with the mechanics that form the Bermuda High . The climate in the mountains is mild. Summer temperatures maintain a constant level. Maximum temperatures are typically in July at around 31 C with average temperatures of the order of 16 C during this same period. Mean annual temperatures are between 13–18 °C (55–65 °F) above 1,800 metres (6,000 ft). Below-freezing temperatures can occur in
9900-595: The canyon of the Santiago River. Near these sediments late Oligocene to early Miocene granite and granodiorite intrusive bodies occur. A possible cause of this is that these bodies were roof pendants which were uplifted by plutons . Mesozoic limestone also occurs in northern portion of the mountains, mostly from the Cretaceous. Towards the end of the Cretaceous , the Laramide orogeny increased
10032-543: The captain of the next expedition to Yucatán. In 1523, a treasure ship was wrecked en route at Padre Island , Texas. When word of the disaster reached Mexico City, the viceroy requested a rescue fleet and sent Ángel de Villafañe from Mexico City, marching overland to find the treasure-laden vessels. Villafañe traveled to Pánuco and hired a ship to transport him to the site, which had already been visited from that community. He arrived in time to greet García de Escalante Alvarado (a nephew of Pedro de Alvarado ), commander of
10164-495: The coast. On April 7, 1528, they spotted land north of what is now Tampa Bay . They turned south and traveled for two days looking for a great harbor the master pilot Miruelo knew of. Sometime during these two days, one of the five remaining ships was lost on the rugged coast, but nothing else is known of it. In 1697 French sailor Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was chosen by the Minister of Marine to lead an expedition to rediscover
10296-497: The coastline spans 1,680 miles (2,700 km), receiving water from 33 major rivers that drain 31 states and 2 Canadian provinces. The southwestern and southern shores lie along the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and the northernmost tip of Quintana Roo. The Mexican coastline spans 1,743 miles (2,805 km). On its southeast quadrant, the gulf is bordered by Cuba. It supports major American, Mexican and Cuban fishing industries. The outer margins of
10428-407: The combination of crustal stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km (3.1–4.3 mi) of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional and oceanic crust. Because subsidence occurred faster than sediment could fill it, the basin expanded and deepened. Later, loading of the crust within the basin and adjacent coastal plain by the accumulation of kilometers of sediments during the rest of
10560-727: The delimitation of the continental shelf in the western Gulf of Mexico beyond 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi), of June 9, 2000. On December 13, 2007, Mexico submitted information to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) regarding the extension of Mexico's continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles. Mexico sought an extension of its continental shelf in the Western Polygon based on international law, UNCLOS, and bilateral treaties with
10692-401: The depths and making it less likely that further hurricanes will follow in its wake (warm water being one of the preconditions necessary for their formation). However, the gulf is shallower; when a hurricane passes over the water temperature may drop but it soon rebounds and becomes capable of supporting another tropical storm. From 1970 to 2020, surface temperatures warmed at approximately twice
10824-587: The early flows. Fissure-vein deposits have been divided into two groups of fissure vein deposits, which are divided geographically into an eastern and western series. In the east, the gold and silver are accompanied by lead and zinc . In the south, the Bolaños mine district is contained with the Bolaños Graben. Some also occur as epithermal deposits. Also, some gold occurs along with copper in Cenozoic iron-oxide skarn and replacement deposits along
10956-460: The early morning before dawn, the air is almost saturated (often over 90% relative humidity ) near the mountain tops with low clouds over the range. Lower in the range, air is not as near saturated in the morning. Seasonal variation in humidity is also present with average May and June relative humidity around 50%, with 25% possible during the day. Also during the day, relative humidity drops and cloud levels rise as temperatures rise. The humidity of
11088-621: The east of these units is a belt of more mercury deposits, followed by another belt of manganese deposits, although these deposits are mostly limited to Chihuahua and Hidalgo. Iron occurs in three different regions placed by different mechanisms. Along the Pacific there the numerous skarn and replacement deposits mentioned above with relation to gold. Iron occurs in Durango in the form of magnetite lava flows, which are often surrounded by smaller hematite deposits, thought to be ash flows. There
11220-404: The eastern slopes have increased organic content and a clay heavy layer that is developed more than those of the more arid eastern lands. The thickness of soil layers also increases. Problems with soil degradation have been aggravated by the cultivation of drug crops, leading to deforestation of many areas. Other problems include overgrazing , which has led to terracing from cattle paths and
11352-472: The explosion destroyed the #3 hold, vented through the B and C decks and damaged the engines, the radio compartment and the steering gear. After the attack she was under escort by USS PC-566 , captained by Lieutenant Commander Herbert G. Claudius, en route to New Orleans . PC-566 began dropping depth charges on a sonar contact, sinking U-166 . The badly damaged Robert E. Lee first listed to port then to starboard and finally sank within about 15 minutes of
11484-542: The extinct Caribbean monk seal ) are living in the Gulf of Mexico. Recently, resident Bryde's whales within the gulf were classified as an endemic, unique subspecies and making them as one of the most endangered whales in the world. The Gulf of Mexico yields more fish, shrimp, and shellfish annually than the south and mid-Atlantic , Chesapeake , and New England areas combined. The Smithsonian Institution Gulf of Mexico holdings are expected to provide an important baseline of understanding for future scientific studies on
11616-422: The formation of a soil crust , and soil acidification , which poses a risk to some grasslands as of 2002. The climate varies considerably between the northern and southern extents of this long mountain range. Seasonal variations also occur due to the presence of large bodies of warm water delivering warm damp air from each side of the range. This region undergoes a seasonal variety with two wet seasons, including
11748-440: The gulf on the north, are often referred to as the " Third Coast " of the United States (in addition to its Atlantic and Pacific coasts). The Gulf of Mexico took shape approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics . The Gulf of Mexico basin is roughly oval in shape and is approximately 810 nautical miles (1,500 km; 930 mi) wide. Its floor consists of sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It
11880-499: The gulf's first such study estimated concentrations that rival the highest globally reported. There are frequent " red tide " algae blooms that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. This has especially been plaguing the southwest and southern Florida coast, from the Florida Keys to north of Pasco County, Florida . The gulf contains
12012-564: The gulf's shoreline is fringed by numerous bays and smaller inlets. Stream that empty into the gulf include the Mississippi River and the Rio Grande in the northern gulf, and the Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers in the southern gulf. The land that forms the gulf's coast, including many long, narrow barrier islands, is almost uniformly low-lying and is characterized by marshes and swamps as well as stretches of sandy beach. The Gulf of Mexico
12144-523: The gulf. These have generally not been checked for potential environmental problems. In 1973 the United States Environmental Protection Agency prohibited the dumping of undiluted chemical waste by manufacturing interests into the gulf, and the military confessed to similar behavior in waters off Horn Island . Microplastics within semi-enclosed seas like the gulf have been reported in high concentrations, and
12276-609: The height of the mountain start around 3,040 m (9,970 ft) and go up to 3,300 m (10,800 ft). However, Cerro Barajas, at 26°24′N 106°5′W / 26.400°N 106.083°W / 26.400; -106.083 , may be as high as 3,300 m (10,800 ft) although other sources give 3,170 m (10,400 ft) as the elevation. Cerro Gordo, at 23°12′N 104°57′W / 23.200°N 104.950°W / 23.200; -104.950 , may have an elevation between 3,350 m (10,990 ft) and 3,340 m (10,960 ft). The southern end of
12408-420: The higher mountains, with precipitation occurring as snowfall certain times of year. During the summer monsoon, wind patterns undergo large-scale changes. In May there is very little large-scale wind current through the mountains, most circulates around the mountains, although onshore flow is present. As the high pressure moves north, air is pulled off the Gulf of Mexico, bringing easterly winds aloft to
12540-486: The impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill . In Congressional testimony, Dr. Jonathan Coddington, associate director of Research and Collections at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History , provides a detailed overview of the Gulf collections and their sources which Museum staff have made available on an online map. The samples were collected for years by the former Minerals Management Service (renamed
12672-465: The interior basins . These faults are commonly covered by alluvium and basalt , making them difficult to discern, but can be found in certain fault blocks . Grabens have formed in the north, and some of these are filled with volcanic and sedimentary floors, and long depressions have formed in the southern Sierra Madre. The faulting decreases in the center of the range where the faults are mostly small normal faults , but increases once again on
12804-495: The mainland being considered to be within the Gulf. The consensus among geologists is that before the late Triassic , the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. Before the Late Triassic, the area consisted of dry land, which included continental crust that now underlies Yucatán , within the middle of the supercontinent Pangaea . This land lay south of a continuous mountain range that extended from north-central Mexico, through
12936-568: The mainland, Biloxi , with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville . On May 1 he completed Fort Maurepas on the northeast side of the Bay of Biloxi. On May 4 d'Iberville sailed for France leaving his teenage brother, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne , as second in command to the French commandant. The Gulf of Mexico's eastern, northern, and northwestern shores lie along the US states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The US portion of
13068-562: The middle, an arc of andesite was placed during the spreading of the Gulf of California . The basin and range-style faulting of the middle-late Miocene took place at the same time as the placement of alkali basalts , In the westernmost slopes mafic dikes formed. These events have also been linked to the subduction of the Farallon Plate . Episodes of volcanism continued into the Quaternary . The Sierras are believed to be
13200-539: The monsoon season. Precipitation varies on both annual and seasonal scales in the Sierra Madre. Annual differences in regional climate are associated with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation with El Niño years leading to a wetter climate. Monsoon rains come to the Sierra Madre in June as the high pressure area moves north, leading to wet summer seasons. This causes east winds bringing moisture from
13332-501: The mountains extending from Alaska down to these across western North America. Sierra Tarahumara or Tarahumara is the name for the region of the Sierra Madre beginning at the Durango border and extending north. This name comes from the Tarahumara natives. This is a dramatic landscape of steep mountains formed by a high plateau that has been cut through with canyons including Copper Canyon , larger and, in places, deeper than
13464-600: The mountains may be referred to as the Sierra Huichola. In this area, the Sierra Madre begins to give way to the Basin and Range Province . Subranges of this area include the Sierra de Alica and the Sierra Pajaritos , both in Nayarit, and the Sierra los Huicholes , Sierra de Morones , Sierra Nochistlán, and Sierra Fría extending eastwards into Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Aguascalientes. The mountains act as
13596-417: The mountains. On the east slope of the mountain, daytime upslope winds flow to the crest, where the flow joins westerly winds. The mountains cause convection during the following monsoon season, during which nocturnal winds at low levels in the atmosphere move moisture overnight. Extensive lightning activity occurs during this season. After the high pressure breaks down, wind patterns return to those prior to
13728-558: The mouth of the Mississippi River and to colonize Louisiana which the English coveted. D'Iberville's fleet sailed from Brest on October 24, 1698. On January 25, 1699, d'Iberville reached Santa Rosa Island near Pensacola founded by the Spanish; he sailed from there to Mobile Bay and explored Massacre Island, later renamed Dauphin Island . He cast anchor between Cat Island and Ship Island ; and on February 13 he went to
13860-634: The native population's opposition to these practices. The range trends from the north to southeast. Canyons cut by the rivers of the wet western slopes exist in addition to those of the northeast slopes, notably the Copper Canyon . The range runs parallel to the Pacific coast of Mexico, from just south of the Arizona-Sonora border southeast through eastern Sonora , western Chihuahua , Sinaloa , Durango , Zacatecas , Nayarit , Jalisco , Aguascalientes to Guanajuato , where it joins with
13992-539: The native species which has been a cause of concern among researchers, along with concerns about the effects of logging on these species. The Sonoran Desert is found in the northwestern foothills at 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft). The Chihuahuan Desert is found to the northeast and east, the Meseta Central matorral and Central Mexican matorral to the southeast, and the Sinaloan dry forests to
14124-462: The oil. Cleanup operations were resumed after conditions became favorable. On May 27 the USGS had revised the estimate of the leak from 5,000 barrels per day (790 m /d) to 12,000–19,000 barrels per day (3,000 m /d) an increase from earlier estimates. On July 15 BP announced that the leak had stopped for the first time in 88 days. In July BP reached an $ 18.7bn settlement with the U.S. government,
14256-612: The past three decades in the region. According to the September 11, 2006 issue of The Tampa Tribune , earthquake tremors were last felt in Florida in 1952, recorded in Quincy , 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Tallahassee . Cuba and Mexico: Exchange of notes constituting an agreement on the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone of Mexico in the sector adjacent to Cuban maritime areas (with map), of July 26, 1976. Cuba and United States: Maritime boundary agreement between
14388-401: The range are the major determining factors in the dominant plants. Oaks dominate the lower reaches of the mountains, where stands grow down to about 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Some oak species even continue into the surrounding ecosystems. In the western slopes of the range, cloud forest also occurs, mostly on mid-elevation slopes with little exposure to wind or sun in the southern end of
14520-519: The range contains none of the volcanism that is apparent in the northern range. These formations ended in the Paleocene . Eocene volcanism formed a series of andesitic and rhyolitic formations in the area, with spatial and temporal variations throughout. Most of the gold and silver deposits are also in these rocks. In the Oligocene, ash flows became the predominant deposit of the area, with interbedded lava flows between. These ash flows began
14652-525: The range is also influenced by the same seasonal changes as rainfall. In the dry season dew points are low at high elevations (500 hPa), around −22 °C (−8 °F) in the south of the range, and −24 and −26 °C (−11 and −15 °F) in the north in May. In June, dew points begin to increase from the May levels up to −20 °C (−4 °F) in the north and −16 °C (3 °F) in the south. By July these dew points are at −14 °C (7 °F) throughout
14784-424: The range, but the forests in the mountains vary by elevation and place in the range. This ecoregion is noted for its high biodiversity and large number of endemic species, and for allowing some species to extend their range . The dominant plants vary across the range, and the habitat that they present varies from scattered woodland to both deciduous and coniferous forest. The elevation and latitude in
14916-442: The range. At higher elevations pines begin to grow alongside the oaks, and pines begin to dominate the oaks at higher elevations. At high elevations and in the north, mixed conifer forests become the dominant ecosystem. These forests are composed primarily of pines and firs , which begin to grow at these elevations. There are also grasslands on some mountain tops, surrounded by the forest that occur in those areas. Plants in
15048-405: The range. The range allows higher dew points throughout these periods than the surrounding low lands. This rise in humidity accompanies the monsoon. The mountains create a diverse setting for plants and animals by creating a different set of conditions from the surroundings. The Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests are found at elevations of 1,500–3,000 m (4,900–9,800 ft) throughout
15180-474: The rate observed for the global ocean surface. The gulf is considered aseismic ; however, mild tremors have been recorded throughout history (usually 5.0 or less on the Richter magnitude scale ). Earthquakes may be caused by interactions between sediment loading on the sea floor and adjustment by the crust. On September 10, 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Information Center reported that
15312-415: The rock that is most visible to be ignimbrites with lava flow layers. The region has a general strike from just west of north to just south of east. Faults in the area tend to be younger than the upper volcanics, excluding those associated with calderas, but do occur in distinct periods. The large faults along the eastern slope have caused the slope to be made up of large escarpments that face into
15444-474: The salvage operation, when Alvarado arrived by sea on July 22, 1554. The team labored until September 12 to salvage the Padre Island treasure. This loss, in combination with other ship disasters around the Gulf of Mexico, gave rise to a plan for establishing a settlement on the northern Gulf Coast to protect shipping and more quickly rescue castaways. As a result, the expedition of Tristán de Luna y Arellano
15576-525: The second in 1519 under the command of Hernán Cortés , which led to the Spanish exploration, military invasion, and ultimately settlement and colonization known as the Conquest of Mexico . Hernández did not live to see the continuation of his work: he died in 1517, the year of his expedition, as the result of the injuries and the extreme thirst suffered during the voyage, and disappointed in the knowledge that Diego Velázquez had given precedence to Grijalva as
15708-435: The second series of high magmatism formations. The Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up formed a series of ignimbrite formations, layered one atop another, that are sometimes broken by lava flows. The ignimbrite formations in this area cover the largest area of any known series, with ten calderas identified in the province. Three of these calderas are in Copper Canyon. The lava has formed a series of mafic rocks that comprise
15840-465: The soil help reduce runoff and soil losses from erosion. Areas that are covered in stone are known as lithosols , and make up most of the remaining surface in the mountains, especially on upper slopes. The last major soil type are vertisols , which are thin mineral-poor soils. Soils at higher elevations experience more leaching , due to increased rainfall. Acidic soils may have lower calcium content, leading to lower plant soil quality . Soils along
15972-409: The states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, as well as 400 local authorities. As of 2015 BP's cost for the clean-up, environmental and economic damages and penalties has reached $ 54bn. On May 12, 2016, a release of oil from subsea infrastructure on Shell's Brutus oil rig released 2,100 barrels of oil. This leak created a visible 2 by 13 miles (3.2 by 20.9 km) oil slick in
16104-560: The strongest ocean currents known, originates in the gulf as a continuation of the Caribbean Current –Yucatán Current– Loop Current system. Other circulation features include a permanent cyclonic gyre in the Bay of Campeche, as well as anticyclonic gyres which are shed by the Loop Current and travel westward where they eventually dissipate. The Bay of Campeche constitutes a major arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally,
16236-607: The terrane is mostly covered by volcanics and sedimentary deposits, so it is only visible where erosion has revealed it. The main subterranes of the Guerrero Composite Terrane that are within the Sierra Madre are the Tahue and Zihuatanejo terranes. Dividing the Guerrero Terrane from the rest of the Sierra Madre terranes is a boundary that is thought to represent the Early Cretaceous Arperos Basin,
16368-507: The west and southwest. These lower elevations are usually graded into by a stand of tropical deciduous forest , which has a large portion of flora made up of flowering plants and legumes . These flowering plants are mostly from the genus Bursera . The ecotone , made up of the tropical deciduous forest, is commonly sparsely populated, sometimes only by small stands of trees. It may be referred to as savanna . Gulf of Mexico The Gulf of Mexico ( Spanish : Golfo de México )
16500-614: The western boundary of the faults in the southern mountains. In the north there is an unknown boundary between the Cortes Terrane and the Guerrero Composite Terrane. Some theorize that this is a section of the Mojave–Sonora Megashear, but this theory is not universally accepted; however, the Megashear is important, and, in fact, is necessary for reconstructions of the opening of the Gulf of California, as of 2003. On
16632-410: The western slope. In fact, the major normal faults tend to diverge around the center of the core and join at either end. Some of these faults may have allowed ignimbrites to erupt from the surface, and so there may be some association between the ignimbrite occurrence and faults; this can be used to find out information about different kinds of basement rock present. There are two faults dividing
16764-414: The wide continental shelves of Yucatán and Florida receive cooler, nutrient-enriched waters from the deep by a process known as upwelling , which stimulates plankton growth in the euphotic zone . This attracts fish, shrimp, and squid. River drainage and atmospheric fallout from industrial coastal cities also provide nutrients to the coastal zone. The Gulf Stream , a warm Atlantic Ocean current and one of
16896-462: Was claimed by BP that approximately 1,000 barrels (160 m ) of oil per day were issuing from the wellhead , about 1-mile (1.6 km) below the surface on the ocean floor. On April 29, the U.S. government revealed that approximately 5,000 barrels (790 m ) per day, five times the original estimate, were pouring into the gulf from the wellhead. The resulting oil slick quickly expanded to cover hundreds of square miles of ocean surface, posing
17028-483: Was involved during the latest Cretaceous and early Paleogene periods in a compressive deformation episode, the Laramide Orogeny , which created the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico. In 2014, Erik Cordes of Temple University and others discovered a brine pool 3,300 feet (1,000 m) below the gulf's surface, with a circumference of 100 feet (30 m) and 12 feet (3.7 m) feet deep, which
17160-402: Was not covered by the sea until the latest Jurassic or the beginning of Cretaceous time. The Yucatán Platform was emergent until the mid-Cretaceous. After both platforms were submerged, the formation of carbonates and evaporites has characterized the geologic history of these two stable areas. Most of the basin was rimmed during the early Cretaceous by carbonate platforms, and its western flank
17292-514: Was sent and landed at Pensacola Bay on August 15, 1559. On December 11, 1526, Charles V granted Pánfilo de Narváez a license to claim what is now the Gulf Coast of the United States, known as the Narváez expedition . The contract gave him one year to gather an army, leave Spain, be large enough to found at least two towns of 100 people each, and garrison two more fortresses anywhere along
17424-482: Was stretched and thinned. This thinning created a broad zone of transitional crust, which displays modest and uneven thinning with block faulting and a broad zone of uniformly thinned transitional crust, which is half the typical 40- kilometer (25 mi ) thickness of continental crust. It was at this time that rifting first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to
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