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78-679: Wakasa existed as a political entity before the Ritsuryō system and the implementation of the Taihō Code of the Nara period . Wooden shipping tags labelled "Wakasa" have been found in the ruins of Fujiwara-kyō . Per the Nihon Shoki , ancient Wakasa was governed by a Kuni no miyatsuko , who was a descendant of Amenohiboko , a semi-legendary prince of Shilla , who settled in Tajima province during

156-591: A feudal Tokugawa shogunate to the modern empire of the Meiji government . The major ideological-political divide during this period was between the pro-imperial nationalists called ishin shishi and the shogunate forces, which included the elite shinsengumi swordsmen. Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of bakumatsu to seize personal power. Furthermore, there were two other main driving forces for dissent: first, growing resentment on

234-536: A "distributed field" ( 口分田 , kubunden ) , subject to taxation (approx. 3% of crops). The area of each field was 2 tan ( 段 ) for men (approx. 22 ares total), and two-thirds of this amount for women. (However, the Shinuhi and Kenin castes were only entitled to 1/3 of this area). The field was returned to the country at death. Land belonging to shrines and temples was exempt from taxation. Collection and redistribution of land took place every 6 years. The population

312-585: A Russian sailor was cut to pieces in the streets of Yokohama. In early 1860, two Dutch captains were slaughtered, also in Yokohama. Chinese and native servants of foreigners were also killed. Several missions were sent abroad by the Bakufu, in order to revise the commercial treaties. However, these efforts remained largely unsuccessful. A Japanese Embassy to the United States was sent in 1860, on board

390-684: A bad thing for Japan. In fact, one could even say it was appealing. However, among the senior officials of the Shogunate, there was a trauma from the Nagasaki Harbour Incident . They probably adopted a hardline stance as a result of assuming that Americans were no different from the British." The years 1854–1855 saw a dramatic series of earthquakes, known as the Ansei great earthquakes , with 120 major and minor tremors recorded over

468-412: A ceasefire due to the death of the previous shōgun , but the prestige of the shogunate was nevertheless seriously affected. This reversal encouraged the Bakufu to take drastic steps towards modernization. During the last years of the bakufu , or bakumatsu , the bakufu took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it

546-454: A centre for the kitamaebune coastal trade network. The Kyōgoku clan were transferred to Izumo Province in 1634 and were replaced by Sakai Tadakatsu , an important retainer of the shogunate, who had served as Tairō under shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu and Tokugawa Ietsuna . The Sakai clan continued to rule Obama for fourteen generations over 237 years to the end of the Edo period. During

624-532: A less than two-year period including the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Tōkai earthquake on 23 December 1854, the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Nankai earthquake occurring the following day, and the 6.9 magnitude 1855 Edo earthquake , which struck what is today modern Tokyo, on 11 November 1855. Shimoda on the Izu Peninsula was struck by the Tōkai earthquake and a subsequent tsunami, and because the port had just been designated as

702-428: A natural cut-off point between the aristocrats (fifth-rank and above [貴族 kizoku ]) and the menials (sixth-rank and below [地下 jige ]). Additionally, income in the form of koku (石, 1 koku = about 150 kilograms), or bushels of rice from the provinces, increased dramatically as one advanced in rank. The average sixth-rank official might earn 22 koku of rice a year, but the fifth rank might earn 225 koku of rice, while

780-653: A provincial level by orders of the kokushi (国司), a corvée at the Capital (although the corvée at the capital could be replaced by goods sent) and military service. A criminal system was introduced, with five levels of punishment ( 五刑 , gokei ) . It defined eight heavy crimes ( 八虐 , hachigyaku ) that were exempt from amnesty. The code was based on the Ten Abominations of the Tang code, but two crimes related to family life—family discord and disruption of

858-575: A target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto Takeaki . The French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki . By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868, the Japanese navy of

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936-419: A third rank official could earn as much as 6,957 a year. Registration of the citizens (戸籍 koseki ), updated every 6 years, and a yearly tax book (計帳 keichō ) were established. Based on the keichō , a tax system was established called (租庸調 So-yō-chō ). Tax was levied on rice crops but also on several local products (e.g. cotton, salt, tissue) sent to the capital. The system also established local corvée at

1014-627: Is called "Ritsuryō-sei" (律令制). Kyaku (格) are amendments of Ritsuryō, Shiki (式) are enactments. Ritsuryō defines both a criminal code ( 律 , Ritsu ) and an administrative code ( 令 , Ryō ) . During the late Asuka period (late 6th century – 710) and Nara period (710–794), the Imperial Court in Kyoto , trying to replicate China 's rigorous political system from the Tang dynasty , created and enforced some collections of Ritsuryō. Over

1092-759: The Kanrin Maru and the USS Powhattan . A First Japanese Embassy to Europe was sent in 1862. A Second Japanese Embassy to Europe would be sent in December 1863, with the mission to obtain European support to reinstate Japan's former closure to foreign trade, and especially stop foreign access to the harbor of Yokohama . The Embassy ended in total failure as European powers did not see any advantages in yielding to its demands. Belligerent opposition to Western influence further erupted into open conflict when

1170-660: The Ansei Reform (1854–1856), Abe then tried to strengthen the regime by ordering Dutch warships and armaments from the Netherlands and building new port defenses. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the shogunate acquired its first steam warship, the Kankō Maru , which was used for training, and opened the Nagasaki Naval Training Center with Dutch instructors, while a Western-style military school

1248-575: The Bakumatsu period , Obama Domain initially supported the Tokugawa shogunate. In 1865, the domain executed Mito rebellion leader Takeda Kōunsai and 353 of his followers and nominally participated in the Battle of Toba–Fushimi of the Boshin War . However, seeing that the shogunate was doomed, Sakai Tadaaki came out of retirement to seize control of the domain from his adopted son and defected to

1326-521: The Eejanaika . From 1859, the ports of Nagasaki , Hakodate and Yokohama became open to foreign traders as a consequence of the Treaties. Foreigners arrived in Yokohama and Kanagawa in great numbers, giving rise to trouble with the samurai. Violence increased against the foreigners and those who dealt with them. Murders of foreigners and collaborating Japanese soon followed. On 26 August 1859,

1404-500: The Emperor Kōmei , breaking with centuries of imperial tradition, began to take an active role in matters of state and issued, on March 11 and April 11, 1863, his " Order to expel barbarians " ( 攘夷実行の勅命 , jōi jikkō no chokumei ) . The Mōri clan of Chōshū , under Lord Mōri Takachika , followed on the order, and began to take actions to expel all foreigners from the date fixed as a deadline (May 10, Lunar calendar). Openly defying

1482-618: The Fujiwara clan , Minamoto clan , Taira clan and the Tachibana clan . Bakumatsu period Bakumatsu ( 幕末 , ' End of the bakufu ' ) were the final years of the Edo period when the Tokugawa shogunate ended . Between 1853 and 1867, under foreign diplomatic and military pressure, Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy known as sakoku and changed from

1560-1012: The Muromachi period , the shugo of Wakasa was held by the Shiba clan , followed by the Isshiki clan , and then by a cadet branch of the Takeda clan . During the Sengoku period , the Takeda clan were powerful supporters of the Ashikaga shogunate and their kanrei , the Hosokawa clan . However, when the Takeda clan erupted into a civil war over an internal succession dispute, the Asakura clan from neighbouring Echizen Province asserted control. The Asakura were in turn destroyed by Oda Nobunaga . The province

1638-570: The Namamugi incident and the murder of the English trader Richardson. The Royal Navy bombarded Kagoshima and sunk several ships. Satsuma however later negotiated and paid 25,000 pounds, but did not remit Richardson's killers, and in exchange obtained an agreement by Great Britain to supply steam warships to Satsuma. The conflict actually became the starting point of a close relationship between Satsuma and Great Britain, which became major allies in

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1716-505: The Treaty of Amity and Commerce was signed in 1858 and put into application from mid-1859. During the negotiations, Harris had convinced the Japanese negotiators to sign the treaty on the basis it was the best possible terms a Western power would offer. The most important points of the Treaty were: Japan was also forced to apply any further conditions granted to other foreign nations in

1794-527: The Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) maintained the prohibition on trade but opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American whaling ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence in Shimoda , a seaport on the Izu Peninsula , southwest of Edo. In February 1855, the Russians followed suit with

1872-407: The Treaty of Shimoda . The resulting damage to the shogunate was significant. Debate over government policy was unusual and had engendered public criticism of the shogunate. In the hope of enlisting the support of new allies, Abe, to the consternation of the fudai daimyō , had consulted with the shinpan and tozama daimyō , further undermining the already weakened bakufu . In

1950-717: The Wyoming suffered extensive damage with fourteen crew dead or wounded. On the heels of McDougal's engagement, two weeks later a French landing force of two warships, the Tancrède and the Dupleix , and 250 men under Captain Benjamin Jaurès swept into Shimonoseki and destroyed a small town, together with at least one artillery emplacement. In August 1863, the Bombardment of Kagoshima took place, in retaliation for

2028-559: The barbarians with their own methods". After 1839, however, traditionalists tended to prevail. Students of Western sciences were accused of treason ( Bansha no goku ), put under house arrest ( Takashima Shūhan ), forced to commit ritual suicide ( Watanabe Kazan , Takano Chōei ), or even assassinated as in the case of Sakuma Shōzan . When Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay (Tokyo Bay) in July 1853,

2106-624: The provincial capital of Wakasa is unknown, but is believed to have been in what is now the city of Obama . The Wakasa Kokubun-ji and the ichinomiya of Wakasa, the Wakasahiko Shrine are also located in Obama. Due to its location and strategic importance, during the Kamakura period , the position of shugo of Wakasa Province was retained directly by the Hōjō clan . After the start of

2184-515: The 12 year old Tokugawa Iemochi as shōgun whom it was perceived Tairō Ii Naosuke would have influence over, ultimately placing Nariaki and Yoshinobu under house arrest, and executing Yoshida Shōin (1830–1859, a leading sonnō-jōi intellectual who had opposed the American treaty and plotted a revolution against the bakufu) known as the Ansei Purge . Tairō Ii Naosuke , who had signed

2262-764: The Harris Treaty and tried to eliminate opposition to Westernization with the Ansei Purge , was himself murdered in March 1860 in the Sakuradamon incident . A servant of the French Minister was attacked at the end of 1860. On 14 January 1861, Henry Heusken , Secretary to the American mission, was attacked and murdered. On 5 July 1861, a group of samurai attacked the British Legation, resulting in two deaths. During this period, about one foreigner

2340-590: The Netherlands and the United States, planned an armed reaction against Japanese acts of violence against the citizens with the Bombardment of Shimonoseki. The Allied intervention occurred in September 1864, combining the naval forces of the four nations, against the powerful daimyō Mōri Takachika of the Chōshū Domain based in Shimonoseki , Japan. This conflict proved inopportune for America, which in 1864,

2418-692: The Satsuma Domain. The Shōhei Maru was built from 1853 to 1854 at Sakurajima in what is now Kagoshima Prefecture in accordance with a Dutch blueprint. Furthermore, fortifications were established at Odaiba in Tokyo Bay in order to protect Edo from an American incursion. Industrial developments also commenced soon afterwards in order to build modern cannons. A reverbatory furnace was established by Egawa Hidetatsu in Nirayama to cast cannons. The American fleet returned in 1854. The chairman of

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2496-652: The Tokugawa government. A national debate was already taking place about how to better avoid foreign incursions. Some such as Egawa claimed that it was necessary to use the foreigners' techniques to repel them. Others, such as Torii Yōzō  [ jp ] argued that only traditional Japanese methods should be employed and reinforced. Egawa argued that just as Confucianism and Buddhism had been introduced from abroad, it made sense to introduce useful Western techniques. A theoretical synthesis of "Western knowledge" and "Eastern morality" would later be accomplished by Sakuma Shōzan and Yokoi Shōnan , in view of "controlling

2574-514: The United Kingdom ( Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce ) on August 26, and France ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan ) on October 9). Trading houses were quickly set up in the open ports. The opening of Japan to uncontrolled foreign trade brought massive economic instability. While some prospered, many others went bankrupt. Unemployment rose, as well as inflation . Coincidentally, major famines also increased

2652-490: The appearance of large private lands, the first shōens . Strict application of the Handen-Shūju system decayed in the 8th and 9th century. In an attempt to maintain the system, the period between each collection/distribution was extended to 12 years under Emperor Kanmu . At the beginning of Heian period , the system was almost not enforced. The last collection/distribution took place between 902 and 903. The caste system

2730-622: The area of former Wakasa Province and Tsuruga District have a separate identity, and form the Reinan ( 嶺南 ) region of modern Fukui. Wakasa Province consisted of three districts: [REDACTED] Media related to Wakasa Province at Wikimedia Commons Ritsury%C5%8D Ritsuryō ( 律令 , Japanese: [ɾitsɯɾʲoː] ) is the historical legal system based on the philosophies of Confucianism and Chinese Legalism in Feudal Japan . The political system in accord to Ritsuryō

2808-505: The course of centuries, the ritsuryō state produced more and more information which was carefully archived; however, with the passage of time in the Heian period, ritsuryō institutions evolved into a political and cultural system without feedback. In 645, the Taika reforms were the first signs of implementation of the system. Major re-statements of Ritsuryō included the following: In

2886-443: The crises by debasing the gold content of its coins by two thirds, so as to match foreign gold-silver exchange ratios. Foreigners also brought cholera to Japan, leading to hundreds of thousands of deaths. Hotta lost the support of key Daimyōs, and when Tokugawa Nariaki opposed the new treaty, Hotta sought imperial sanction. The court officials, perceiving the weakness of the bakufu , rejected Hotta's request which resulted in

2964-526: The effect that the ports are to be closed and the foreigners driven out, because the people of the country do not desire intercourse with foreign countries. Edward Neale , the head of the British Legation, responded on very strong terms, equating the move with a declaration of war: It is, in fact, a declaration of war by Japan itself against the whole of the Treaty Powers, and the consequences of which, if not at once arrested, it will have to expiate by

3042-506: The emperor at its head. Two departments were set up: Posts of those public Departments were all divided into four ranks ( shitō ): kami (長官), suke (次官), jō (判官) and sakan (主典). This ubiquitous pattern would be replicated consistently, even amongst members of the court whose functions had little to do with those kinds of powers and responsibilities which are conventionally associated with governing – for example: A global system of ranking for all public posts (官 kan , 官職 kanshoku )

3120-617: The ensuing Boshin War . From the start, the Satsuma Province had generally been in favour of the opening and modernization of Japan. Although the Namamugi Incident was seen as unfortunate, it was taken not to be characteristic of Satsuma's policy, and was instead branded as an example of anti-foreign sonnō jōi sentiment, as a justification to a strong Western show of force. Naval forces from Great Britain , France ,

3198-575: The family (through incest, adultery, etc.) —were removed. In accordance with Chinese legal codes, land as well as citizens were to be "public property" (公地公民). One of the major pillars of the Ritsuryō was the introduction of the Handen-Shūju (班田収受制) system, similar to the equal-field system in China. The Handen-Shūju regulated land ownership. Based on the registration, each citizen over 6 was entitled to

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3276-496: The future to the United States, under the "most favoured nation" provision. Several foreign nations soon followed suit and obtained treaties with Japan (the Ansei Five-Power Treaties , with the United States ( Harris Treaty ) on July 29, 1858, the Netherlands ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Netherlands and Japan ) on August 18, Russia ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Russia and Japan ) August 19,

3354-485: The harbor. The ships of Perry were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns , capable of destroying buildings by delivering explosive shells at high velocity. In response to the Perry Expedition and increasing incursions of foreign warships into Japanese territorial waters, several modern sailing frigates, including Shōhei Maru and Asahi Maru , were constructed on orders of the Tokugawa shogunate by

3432-570: The harbour of Hyōgo in November 1865. Other displays of force were made by foreign forces, until the Emperor finally agreed to change his total opposition to the Treaties, by formally allowing the shōgun to handle negotiations with foreign powers. An agreements providing for the tariff revision was signed in June 1866. These conflicts led to the realization that head-on conflict with Western nations

3510-491: The head of the dissident faction was Tokugawa Nariaki , who had long embraced a militant loyalty to the emperor along with anti-foreign sentiments, and who had been put in charge of national defense in 1854. The Mito school —based on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles—had as its goal the restoration of the imperial institution, and the turning back of the West. Japanese historian Motohiko Izawa stated in his book, "The United States simply aimed to conduct business, which wasn't

3588-537: The imperial cause. Consequently, he was appointed imperial governor of Wakasa by the new Meiji government until the abolition of the han system in 1871. At the end of 1871, Wakasa was joined by Tsuruga District , Imadate District and Nanjō District to form "Tsuruga Prefecture". In 1876, Tsuruga Prefecture was divided, with former Wakasa and Tsuruga District joining Shiga Prefecture . In 1881, these area were given to Fukui Prefecture, which then assumed its present borders. Due to geography and these political changes,

3666-404: The intervention at Shimonoseki, foreign nations agreed to reduce the amount in exchange for a ratification of the Harris Treaty by the Emperor, a lowering of customs tariffs to a uniform 5%, and the opening of the harbours of Hyōgo (modern Kōbe ) and Osaka to foreign trade. In order to press their demands more forcefully, a squadron of four British, one Dutch and three French warships were sent to

3744-443: The intrusion of an American warship in 1837 in Kagoshima Bay , and from Saga Domain and Chōshū Domain , all southern domains mostly exposed to Western intrusions. These domains also studied the manufacture of Western weapons. By 1852 Satsuma and Saga had reverberatory furnaces to produce the iron necessary for firearms. Following the Morrison incident involving the Morrison under Charles W. King in 1837, Egawa Hidetatsu

3822-399: The later half of the seventh century, the Kokugunri system ( 国郡里制 , kokugunri-sei ) was introduced, dividing the regions of Japan into several administrative divisions. In 715 CE, the Gōri system ( 郷里制 , gōri-sei ) was introduced, resulting in the following. This system was abandoned in 740 CE. The ritsuryō system also established a central administrative government, with

3900-433: The morning of July 16, 1863, under sanction by Minister Pruyn, in an apparent swift response to the attack on the Pembroke , the U.S. frigate USS Wyoming under Captain McDougal sailed into the strait and single-handedly engaged the U.S.-built but poorly manned fleet. For almost two hours before withdrawing, McDougal sank one Japanese vessel and severely damaged the other two, along with some forty Japanese casualties, while

3978-401: The part of the tozama daimyō (or outside lords), and second, growing anti-Western sentiment following the arrival of Matthew C. Perry . The first related to those lords whose predecessors had fought against Tokugawa forces at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, after which they had been permanently excluded from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The second was to be expressed in

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4056-413: The phrase sonnō jōi , or "revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians". The turning point of the Bakumatsu was during the Boshin War and the Battle of Toba–Fushimi when pro-shogunate forces were defeated. Frictions with foreign shipping led Japan to take defensive actions from the beginning of the 19th century. Western ships were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling activities and

4134-424: The price of food drastically. Incidents occurred between brash foreigners and the Japanese. Japan's monetary system, based on Tokugawa coinage , also broke down. Traditionally, Japan's exchange rate between gold and silver was 1:5, whereas international rates were of the order of 1:15. This led to massive purchases of gold by foreigners, and ultimately forced the Japanese authorities to devalue their currency. There

4212-407: The prospective location for a US consulate, some construed the natural disasters as demonstration of the displeasure of the gods. As the earthquakes were blamed by many Japanese on a giant catfish ( Namazu ) thrashing about, Ukiyo-e prints depicting namazu became very popular during this time. Following the nomination of Townsend Harris as the U.S. Consul in 1856 and two years of negotiation,

4290-494: The ranks obtained by the children. The highest rank in the system was the first rank (一位 ichi-i ), proceeding downwards to the eighth rank (八位 hachi-i ), held by menials in the court. Below this, an initial rank called so-i (初位) existed, but offered few rights. The top six ranks were considered true aristocracy (貴 ki ), and were subdivided into "senior" (正 shō ) and "junior" (従 ju ) ranks (e.g. senior third-rank [正三位 shō san-mi ], junior second-rank [従二位 ju ni-i ]). Below

4368-421: The reign of Emperor Suinin . There are archaeological indications that Wakasa was under control of the Yamato state from the mid-4th century. The province of Wakasa was formally established with the creation of the Ritsuryō provincial system around 701 AD, and initially consisted of the two districts of Onyū and Mikata . In 825 AD, Ōi was separated from Onyū. During the Nara and Heian periods , Wakasa

4446-416: The resignation of himself, and thus suddenly embroiled Kyoto and the emperor in Japan's internal politics for the first time in many centuries. When the shōgun died without an heir , Nariaki appealed to the court for support of his own son, Tokugawa Yoshinobu (or Keiki), for shōgun , a reformist candidate favored by the shinpan and tozama daimyōs . The fudai won the power struggle, however, installing

4524-455: The revolt, which ended with the surrender of the rebels on 14 January 1865. In the Kinmon Incident on 20 August 1864, troops from Chōshū Domain attempted to take control of Kyoto and the Imperial Palace in order to pursue the objective of Sonnō Jōi . This also led to a punitive expedition by the Tokugawa government, the First Chōshū expedition . As the Bakufu proved incapable to pay the $ 3,000,000 indemnity demanded by foreign nations for

4602-534: The senior councillors, Abe Masahiro , was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat to national security , Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors, who wanted to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor, who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of the feudal daimyō rulers, who wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe compromised by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854,

4680-500: The severest and most merited chastisement American influence, which had been of high importance in the beginning, waned after 1861 due to the advent of the American Civil War (1861–1865) that monopolized all available U.S. resources. This influence would be replaced by that of the British, the Dutch and the French. The two ringleaders of the opposition to the bakufu were from the Satsuma (present day Kagoshima prefecture) and Chōshū (present-day Yamaguchi prefecture) provinces, two of

4758-424: The shogunate was thrown into turmoil. Commodore Perry was fully prepared for hostilities if his negotiations with the Japanese failed, and threatened to open fire if the Japanese refused to negotiate. He gave them two white flags, telling them to hoist the flags when they wished a bombardment from his fleet to cease and to surrender. To demonstrate his weapons, Perry ordered his ships to attack several buildings around

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4836-402: The shogunate, Mōri ordered his forces to fire without warning on all foreign ships traversing Shimonoseki Strait . Under pressure from the Emperor, the Shogun was also forced to issue a declaration promulgating the end of relations with foreigners. The order was forwarded to foreign legations by Ogasawara Zusho no Kami on June 24, 1863: The orders of the Tycoon , received from Kyoto , are to

4914-508: The strongest tozama anti-shogunate domains in Edo-period Japan. Satsuma military leaders Saigō Takamori and Okubo Toshimichi were brought together with Katsura Kogoro of Chōshū, notably through the efforts of Sakamoto Ryōma . As the former happened to be directly involved in the murder of Richardson, and the latter in the attacks on foreign shipping in Shimonoseki, and as the bakufu declared itself unable to placate them, Allied forces decided to mount direct military expeditions. In

4992-409: The third rank, a further subdivision between "upper" (上 jō ) and "lower" (下 ge ) existed, allowing for ranks such as “junior fourth rank lower” (従四位下 ju shi-i no ge ) or “senior sixth rank upper” (正六位上 shō roku-i no jō ). Promotion in ranks was often a very gradual, bureaucratic process, and in the early days of the Codes, one could not advance beyond sixth rank except by rare exception, thus causing

5070-493: The trade with China . They were hoping for Japan to become a base for supply or at least a place where shipwrecks could receive assistance. The incident in Nagasaki Harbour where the Royal Navy frigate HMS Phaeton demanded supplies from the harbour chief in 1808 shocked the Tokugawa government, who ordered the ports to be even more tightly guarded. In 1825, the Edict to expel foreigners at all cost ( 異国船無二念打払令 , Ikokusen Muninen Uchiharairei , "Don't think twice" policy)

5148-448: Was a massive outflow of gold from Japan, as foreigners rushed to exchange their silver for "token" silver Japanese coinage and again exchange these against gold, giving a 200% profit to the transaction. In 1860, about 4 million ryōs thus left Japan, that is about 70 tons of gold. This effectively destroyed Japan's gold standard system, and forced it to return to weight-based system with International rates. The Bakufu instead responded to

5226-443: Was already torn by its own civil war . Following these successes against the imperial movement in Japan, the shogunate was able to reassert a certain level of primacy at the end of 1864. The traditional policy of sankin-kōtai was reinstated, and remnants of the rebellions of 1863–64 as well as the Shishi movement were brutally suppressed throughout the land. The military interventions by foreign powers also proved that Japan

5304-416: Was an important source of sea products (salt, fish and konbu ) to the aristocracy of the capital, so much so that the province was nicknamed Miketsu Province ( 御食国 , Miketsu-no-kuni ) . Salt production was especially and important industry. Wakasa was also a strategically important province due to its seaport on the Sea of Japan and was the closest ocean harbour to Kyoto . The exact location of

5382-505: Was divided in two castes, Ryōmin (良民) (furthermore divided into 4 sub-castes ) and Senmin (賤民) (divided into 5 sub-castes), the latter being close to slaves. Citizens wore different colors according to their caste. Several modifications were added over time. In order to promote cultivation, a law allowing the ownership for three generations of newly arable fields was promulgated in 723 (三世一身の法, Sanze-isshin Law ) and then without limits in 743 (墾田永年私財法, Konden Einen Shizai Law ). This led to

5460-454: Was established at Edo. In 1857, it acquired its first screw-driven steam warship, the Kanrin Maru . Scientific knowledge grew swiftly from the existing foundation of Western learning ( rangaku ("Dutch learning") ). Opposition to Abe increased within fudai circles, which opposed opening shogunate councils to the tozama daimyō , and he was replaced in 1855 as chairman of the senior councilors by Hotta Masayoshi (1810–1864). At

5538-407: Was introduced with over 30 ranks (位 i , 位階 ikai ), regulating strictly which posts could be accessed by which rank. Ranking was supposed to be mostly merit-based, the children of high-ranking public officials were nonetheless granted a minimal rank. This provision (蔭位の制 on'i no sei ) existed in the Tang law, however under the Japanese ritsuryo ranks for which it was applied were higher as well as

5616-694: Was issued by the shogunate, prohibiting any contacts with foreigners; it remained in place until 1842. Meanwhile, Japan endeavoured to learn about foreign sciences through rangaku ("Western studies"). To reinforce Japan's capability to carry on the orders to repel Westerners, some such as the Nagasaki -based Takashima Shūhan managed to obtain weapons through the Dutch at Dejima , such as field guns, mortars and firearms . Domains sent students to learn from Takashima in Nagasaki, from Satsuma Domain after

5694-468: Was killed every month. The Richardson Affair occurred in September 1862, forcing foreign nations to take decisive action in order to protect foreigners and guarantee the implementation of Treaty provisions. In May 1863, the US legation in Edo was torched. During the 1860s, peasant uprisings and urban disturbances multiplied. A "World renewal" movement appeared, as well as religious festivals and protests such as

5772-415: Was less and less strictly enforced. Some Ryōmin would wed Senmin to avoid taxation, and Senmin/Ryōmin children would become Ryōmin. At the end of the 9th century / beginning of the 10th, the caste system was practically void of its substance. Hereditary high-ranks for public posts led to the monopoly of occupation of the most important posts by a limited number of families, in effect a nobility, amongst which

5850-532: Was no military match against the Allies. The sonnō jōi movement thus lost its initial impetus. The structural weaknesses of the Bakufu however remained an issue, and the focus of opposition would then shift to creating a strong government under a single authority. On 2 May 1864, the Mito rebellion erupted against the power of the shogunate in the name of the sonnō jōi . The Shogunate managed to send an army to quell

5928-506: Was not a solution for Japan. As the Bakufu continued its modernization efforts, Western daimyōs (especially from Satsuma and Chōshū) also continued to modernize intensively in order to build a stronger Japan and to establish a more legitimate government under Imperial power. The shogunate led a second punitive expedition against Chōshū from June 1866, but the shogunate was defeated by the more modern and better organized troops of Chōshū. The new shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu managed to negotiate

6006-469: Was put in charge of establishing the defense of Tokyo Bay against Western intrusions in 1839. After the humiliating defeat suffered by Qing China in the First and Second Opium Wars , many Japanese officials realized that their traditional methods would be no match for western powers. To deal with Western powers on equal terms, Western guns were studied and demonstrations made in 1841 by Takashima Shūhan to

6084-403: Was the briefly held by Niwa Nagahide , and under the rule of Toyotomi Hideyoshi by Yamauchi Kazutoyo . Following the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, the victorious Tokugawa Ieyasu assigned the province to Kyōgoku Takatsugu , as daimyō of the 92,000 koku Obama Domain . Kyōgoku Takatsugu began the construction of Obama Castle and rebuilt the ancient port town as a jōkamachi and

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