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103-544: The Georgian National Opera and Ballet Theater of Tbilisi ( Georgian : თბილისის ოპერისა და ბალეტის სახელმწიფო აკადემიური თეატრი , romanized : tbilisis op'erisa da balet'is sakhelmts'ipo ak'ademiuri teat'ri ), formerly known as the Tiflis Imperial Theater , is an opera house situated on Rustaveli Avenue in Tbilisi , Georgia . Founded in 1851, Tbilisi Opera is the main opera house of Georgia and

206-457: A vigesimal numeric system like Basque and (partially) French . Numbers greater than 20 and less than 100 are described as the sum of the greatest possible multiple of 20 plus the remainder. For example, "93" literally translates as 'four times twenty plus thirteen' ( ოთხმოცდაცამეტი , otkhmotsdatsamet’i ). One of the most important Georgian dictionaries is the Explanatory dictionary of

309-569: A Roman grammarian from the 2nd century AD. The first direct attestations of the language are inscriptions and palimpsests dating to the 5th century, and the oldest surviving literary work is the 5th century Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik by Iakob Tsurtaveli . The emergence of Georgian as a written language appears to have been the result of the Christianization of Georgia in the mid-4th century, which led to

412-665: A capital-like effect called Mtavruli for titles and inscriptions. Georgian is an agglutinative language with a complex verb structure that can include up to eight morphemes , exhibiting polypersonalism . The language has seven noun cases and employs a left-branching structure with adjectives preceding nouns and postpositions instead of prepositions. Georgian lacks grammatical gender and articles, with definite meanings established through context. Georgian's rich derivation system allows for extensive noun and verb formation from roots, with many words featuring initial consonant clusters. The Georgian writing system has evolved from ancient scripts to

515-556: A large scale. Despite this, the city grew rapidly by filling the void of those left with new migrants from rural Ukraine and industrial professionals invited from all over the Soviet Union. As a part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, the city preserved and somewhat reinforced its unique cosmopolitan mix of Russian/Ukrainian/Jewish culture and a predominantly Russophone environment with

618-537: A mixture of different styles, including Art Nouveau , Renaissance and Classicist . Odesa is a warm-water port . The city of Odesa hosts both the Port of Odesa and Port Pivdennyi , a significant oil terminal situated in the city's suburbs. Another notable port, Chornomorsk , is located in the same oblast , to the south-west of Odesa. Together they represent a major transport hub integrating with railways. Odesa's oil and chemical processing facilities are connected to

721-416: A plan that would end up being the city's plan. However, adjacent to the new official locality, a Moldavian colony already existed, which by the end of the 18th century was an independent settlement named Moldavanka . Some local historians consider that the settlement predates Odesa by about thirty years and assert that the locality was founded by Moldavians who came to build the fortress of Yeni Dunia for

824-490: A ri means 'friend'; megobrebi ( megob Ø rebi ) means 'friends', with the loss of a in the last syllable of the word stem. Georgian has seven noun cases: nominative , ergative , dative , genitive , instrumental , adverbial and vocative . An interesting feature of Georgian is that, while the subject of a sentence is generally in the nominative case and the object is in the accusative case (or dative), one can find this reversed in many situations (this depends mainly on

927-399: A row, as may be seen in words like გვფრცქვნ ი gvprtskvni 'you peel us' and მწვრთნ ელი mts’vrtneli 'trainer'. Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have creaky voice and suggests this may be one cue distinguishing ejectives from their aspirated and voiced counterparts. Georgian has been written in a variety of scripts over its history. Currently

1030-700: A trade settlement established by the Greek city of Histria . Whether the Bay of Odesa is the ancient "Port of the Histrians" cannot yet be considered a settled question based on the available evidence. Archaeological artifacts confirm extensive links between the Odesa area and the eastern Mediterranean . In the Middle Ages successive rulers of the Odesa region included various nomadic tribes ( Petchenegs , Cumans ),

1133-589: A word. Georgian vowels in non-initial syllables are pronounced with a shorter duration compared to vowels in initial syllables. long polysyllabic words may have a secondary stress on their third or fourth syllable. Georgian contains many "harmonic clusters" involving two consonants of a similar type (voiced, aspirated, or ejective) that are pronounced with only a single release; e.g. ბგ ერა bgera 'sound', ცხ ოვრება tskhovreba 'life', and წყ ალი ts’q’ali 'water'. There are also frequent consonant clusters , sometimes involving more than six consonants in

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1236-705: Is also a Ukrainian naval base and home to a fishing fleet . It is known for its large outdoor market – the Seventh-Kilometer Market , the largest of its kind in Europe. Odesa was a contender for hosting Euro 2012 football matches in, but lost the competition to other cities in Ukraine. The city saw violence in the 2014 pro-Russian conflict in Ukraine during the 2014 Odesa clashes . The 2 May 2014 Odesa clashes between pro-Ukrainian and pro-Russian protestors killed 42 people. Four were killed during

1339-480: Is among the oldest opera houses in Eastern Europe . Since 1896, the theater has resided in an exotic neo-Moorish edifice originally constructed by Victor Johann Gottlieb Schröter , a prominent architect of Baltic German origin. Although definitively Oriental in its decorations and style, the building's layout, foyers and the main hall are that of a typical European opera house. Since its foundation,

1442-537: Is because syllables in the language often begin with two consonants. Recordings are available on the relevant Wiktionary entries, linked to below. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights : Odessa Odesa (also spelled Odessa ) is the third most populous city and municipality in Ukraine and a major seaport and transport hub located in the south-west of the country, on

1545-427: Is commemorated by a bronze statue , unveiled in 1828 to a design by Ivan Martos . His contributions to the city are mentioned by Mark Twain in his travelogue Innocents Abroad : "I mention this statue and this stairway because they have their story. Richelieu founded Odessa – watched over it with paternal care – labored with a fertile brain and a wise understanding for its best interests – spent his fortune freely to

1648-520: Is most closely related to the Zan languages ( Megrelian and Laz ) and more distantly to Svan . Georgian has various dialects , with standard Georgian based on the Kartlian dialect, and all dialects are mutually intelligible. The history of Georgian spans from Early Old Georgian in the 5th century, to Modern Georgian today. Its development as a written language began with the Christianization of Georgia in

1751-1003: Is rather light, and in fact Georgian transliterates the tenuis stops in foreign words and names with the ejectives. The coronal occlusives ( /tʰ tʼ d n/ , not necessarily affricates) are variously described as apical dental, laminal alveolar, and "dental". Per Canepari, the main realizations of the vowels are [ i ], [ e̞ ], [ ä ], [ o̞ ], [ u ]. Aronson describes their realizations as [ i̞ ], [ e̞ ], [ ä ] (but "slightly fronted"), [ o̞ ], [ u̞ ]. Shosted transcribed one speaker's pronunciation more-or-less consistently with [ i ], [ ɛ ], [ ɑ ], [ ɔ ], [ u ]. Allophonically, [ ə ] may be inserted to break up consonant clusters, as in /dɡas/ [dəɡäs] . In casual speech, /iV, Vi/ sequences can be realized phonetically as [jV~i̯V, Vj~Vi̯]. Phrase-final unstressed vowels may sometimes be partially reduced. Prosody in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm. Stress

1854-415: Is the most widely spoken Kartvelian language ; it serves as the literary language or lingua franca for speakers of related languages. It is the official language of Georgia and the native or primary language of 88% of its population. Its speakers today amount to approximately 3.8 million. Georgian is written with its own unique Georgian scripts , alphabetical systems of unclear origin. Georgian

1957-401: Is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words. Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of pitch accents on the first syllable of a word and near the end of a phrase. According to Borise, Georgian has fixed initial word-level stress cued primarily by greater syllable duration and intensity of the initial syllable of

2060-458: The Dittionario giorgiano e italiano . These were meant to help western Catholic missionaries learn Georgian for evangelical purposes. On the left are IPA symbols, and on the right are the corresponding letters of the modern Georgian alphabet, which is essentially phonemic. Former /qʰ/ ( ჴ ) has merged with /x/ ( ხ ), leaving only the latter. The glottalization of the ejectives

2163-499: The Mkhedruli script is almost completely dominant; the others are used mostly in religious documents and architecture. Mkhedruli has 33 letters in common use; a half dozen more are obsolete in Georgian, though still used in other alphabets, like Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan. The letters of Mkhedruli correspond closely to the phonemes of the Georgian language. According to the traditional account written down by Leonti Mroveli in

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2266-790: The Brest-Litovsk Treaty all Bolshevik forces were driven out by 13 March 1918 by the combined armed forces of the Austro-Hungarian Army , providing support to the Ukrainian People's Republic . With the end of the World War I and the withdrawal of armies of Central Powers, the Soviet forces fought for control over the country with the army of the Ukrainian People's Republic. A few months later

2369-574: The Duc de Richelieu , appointed by Tsar Alexander I as Governor of Odesa in 1803. Richelieu played a role during Ottoman plague epidemic which hit Odesa in the autumn 1812. Dismissive of any attempt to forge a compromise between quarantine requirements and free trade, Prince Kuriakin (the Saint Petersburg-based High Commissioner for Sanitation) countermanded Richelieu's orders. In the period from 1795 to 1814,

2472-654: The Georgian Military Highway , before arriving in Tiflis on 9 October 1851. One month later, the first theatrical season officially opened in Tiflis with Lucia di Lammermoor by Gaetano Donizetti . After the spectacle, which had a great success, the hosts led Barbieri and the company to the left bank of the Kura River for a public feast, where people celebrated on boats for the whole night. The Italians performed 12 different opera performances over

2575-516: The Georgian Orthodox Church and together are called Khutsuri 'priest alphabet'. In Mkhedruli , there is no case. Sometimes, however, a capital-like effect, called Mtavruli ('title' or 'heading'), is achieved by modifying the letters so that their vertical sizes are identical and they rest on the baseline with no descenders. These capital-like letters are often used in page headings, chapter titles, monumental inscriptions, and

2678-719: The Golden Horde , the Crimean Khanate , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , and the Ottoman Empire . Yedisan Crimean Tatars traded there in the 14th century. Since the middle of the 13th century the city's territory belonged to the Golden Horde domain. On Italian navigational maps of 14th century on the place of Odesa is indicated the castle of Ginestra, at the time the center of a Gazarian colony of

2781-457: The Kartlian dialect. Over the centuries, it has exerted a strong influence on the other dialects. As a result, they are all, generally, mutually intelligible with standard Georgian, and with one another. The history of the Georgian language is conventionally divided into the following phases: The earliest extant references to Georgian are found in the writings of Marcus Cornelius Fronto ,

2884-678: The Odesa massacre . Most of the atrocities were committed during the first six months of the occupation which officially began on 17 October 1941, when 80% of the 210,000 Jews in the region were killed, compared to Jews in Romania proper where the majority survived. After the Nazi forces began to lose ground on the Eastern Front, the Romanian administration changed its policy, refusing to deport

2987-788: The Republic of Genoa . During the reign of Khan Hacı I Giray of Crimea (1441–1466), the Khanate was endangered by the Golden Horde and the Ottoman Turks and, in search of allies, the khan agreed to cede the area to Lithuania. The site of present-day Odesa was then a fortress known as Khadjibey (named for Hacı I Giray, and also spelled Kocibey in English , Hacıbey or Hocabey in Turkish , and Hacıbey in Crimean Tatar ). Khadjibey

3090-519: The Saint Nino Women's College. Several months later, the popular Parisian newspaper L'Illustration (issue 25 October 1851) printed a large article by Edmond de Bares with two pictures of the interior of the theater. The author wrote, "This is the only theatre in the city, the interior of which is totally Moorish in style, and is doubtless one of the most elegant, beautiful and fascinating theatrical constructions, conceived by man." In

3193-790: The UN Group of Experts on Geographical Names in 2012, and adopted by the BGN/PCGN in 2019. This spelling appears in Encyclopædia Britannica and in dictionaries as the spelling for the Ukrainian city. As noted by the Christian Science Monitor , many in the English-language media outlets historically spelled the city Odessa , even after changing the spelling of Kiev to Kyiv, but since

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3296-623: The Varangians who established Kievan Rus' in the 9th century, as well as various Italian colonies after the Mongol invasion of Europe . Under Catherine the Great, Russia gained, via the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , the lands where Mariupol , Kherson , and Mykolaiv would be founded. However, they were all handicapped in various ways relative to how much commercial interest there was. For example,

3399-492: The uniquely accented dialect of Russian spoken in the city . The city's unique identity has been formed largely thanks to its varied demography; all the city's communities have influenced aspects of Odesan life in some way or form. In the 1991 Ukrainian independence referendum 85.38% of Odesa Oblast voted for independence. Odesa is a city of more than 1 million people. The city's industries include shipbuilding, oil refining , chemicals, metalworking, and food processing. Odesa

3502-466: The " Potemkin Steps "), in one of the most famous scenes in motion picture history. At the top of the steps, which lead down to the port, stands a statue of the Duc de Richelieu . The actual massacre took place in streets nearby, not on the steps themselves, but the film caused many to visit Odesa to see the site of the "slaughter". The "Odesa Steps" continue to be a tourist attraction in Odesa. The film

3605-457: The 11th century, the first Georgian script was created by the first ruler of the Kingdom of Iberia , Pharnavaz , in the 3rd century BC. The first examples of a Georgian script date from the 5th century AD. There are now three Georgian scripts, called Asomtavruli 'capitals', Nuskhuri 'small letters', and Mkhedruli . The first two are used together as upper and lower case in the writings of

3708-400: The 1917–21 Revolution [REDACTED] USSR 1922–41 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Romania 1941–44 [REDACTED] USSR 1944–91 [REDACTED] Ukraine 1991–present Odesa was the site of a large Greek settlement no later than the middle of the 6th century BC (a necropolis from the 5th–3rd centuries BC has long been known in this area). Some scholars believe it to have been

3811-679: The 1990s affected the Tbilisi opera theater, as it did many others in the country. The government could not provide sufficient resources for the theater to function: this prevented the creation of new scenery or costumes, the recruitment of artists, and maintenance of the already vulnerable building. Following the Rose Revolution , however, the newly elected government improved the situation in opera as part of its cultural reforms. Georgian language Georgian ( ქართული ენა , kartuli ena , pronounced [ˈkʰartʰuli ˈena] )

3914-548: The 4th century. Georgian phonology features a rich consonant system, including aspirated, voiced, and ejective stops , affricates , and fricatives . Its vowel system consists of five vowels with varying realizations. Georgian prosody involves weak stress, with disagreements among linguists on its placement. The language's phonotactics include complex consonant clusters and harmonic clusters. The Mkhedruli script , dominant in modern usage, corresponds closely to Georgian phonemes and has no case distinction, though it employs

4017-568: The Georgian language ( ქართული ენის განმარტებითი ლექსიკონი ). It consists of eight volumes and about 115,000 words. It was produced between 1950 and 1964, by a team of linguists under the direction of Arnold Chikobava . Georgian has a word derivation system, which allows the derivation of nouns from verb roots both with prefixes and suffixes, for example: It is also possible to derive verbs from nouns: Likewise, verbs can be derived from adjectives, for example: In Georgian many nouns and adjectives begin with two or more contiguous consonants. This

4120-513: The Georgian national composer whose name the institution has carried since 1937. The Opera and Ballet Theater also houses the State Ballet of Georgia under the leadership of internationally renowned Georgian ballerina Nina Ananiashvili . In recent years it has hosted opera stars such as Montserrat Caballé and José Carreras , while also serving as a traditional venue for national celebrations and presidential inaugurations. The foundation of

4223-614: The Moldavians owned relatively small plots on which they built village-style houses and cultivated vineyards and gardens. What became Mykhailovsky Square was the center of this settlement and the site of its first Orthodox church , the Church of the Dormition, built in 1821 close to the seashore, as well as a cemetery. Nearby stood the military barracks and the country houses ( dacha ) of the city's wealthy residents, including that of

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4326-582: The Ottomans and eventually settled in the area in the late 1760s, right next to the settlement of Khadjibey , on what later became the Primorsky Boulevard. Another version posits that the settlement appeared after Odesa itself was founded, as a settlement of Moldavians, Greeks, and Albanians fleeing the Ottoman yoke. Under Paul I of Russia , construction of Odesa was stopped, Franz de Voland

4429-752: The Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, as well as the demise of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, allowed Russia to start to fully exploit the ancient Black Sea trade across the coastal area through the steppe across southern and eastern Ukraine, into the hinterland of East Central Europe . Stable commercial activity in this region in practice in the past required both security through the overland routes, and knowledge of where products could go overseas. In antiquity, various Greek colonies had taken this role, followed by

4532-929: The Russian and other European networks by strategic pipelines . In 2000, the Quarantine Pier at Odesa Commercial Sea Port was declared a free port and free economic zone for a period of 25 years. Odesa is sometimes called the Pearl by the Sea, the Southern Capital, Odesa-mama and the Humour Capital , as well as Southern Palmyra . In 1795 the city was named Odessa in accordance with the Greek Plan of Empress Catherine II. Catherine's Secretary of State Adrian Gribovsky claimed in his memoirs that

4635-457: The Soviet authorities had been able to evacuate 200,000 people as well as weaponry and industrial equipment. A day later, Odesa was made the capital of Transnistria . Partisan fighting continued, however, in the city's catacombs . Following the siege, and the Axis occupation, approximately 25,000 Odesans were murdered in the outskirts of the city and over 35,000 deported; this came to be known as

4738-475: The Soviet official view that the period was exclusively a time of hardship, deprivation, oppression and suffering – claims embodied in public monuments and disseminated through the media to this day. Subsequent Soviet policies imprisoned and executed numerous Odesans (and deported most of the German population) on account of collaboration with the occupiers. During the 1960s and 1970s, the city grew. Nevertheless,

4841-604: The Tiflis Imperial Opera was closely intertwined with the turbulent political processes in Georgia following the country's annexation by the Russian Empire in 1801. Georgia remained an uneasy and inadequately integrated part of the empire in the first half of the 19th century. Unhappy with Russian policies, the Georgian aristocracy plotted to overthrow the local Russian government in 1832. When their scheme

4944-745: The Turkish fortress of Khadjibey was located. The newly acquired Ochakov Oblast was promised to the Cossacks by the Russian government for resettlement. On permission of the Archbishop of Yekaterinoslav Amvrosiy, the Black Sea Kosh Host, that was located around the area between Bender and Ochakiv , built second after Sucleia wooden church of Saint Nicholas. By the Highest rescript of 17 June 1792 addressed to General Kakhovsky it

5047-406: The artwork for the theater and its first stage curtain. The second curtain was designed by Sergo Kobuladze in the 1950s. Vorontsov appointed writer Vladimir Sollogub as the theater's first director. On 12 April 1851, the theater held its grand opening, attended by the high society of Tiflis. As the theater stage was not yet complete, the theater instead held a masked ball and charity fundraiser for

5150-774: The beginning of Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine more outlets and style guides have been shifting away from Russian transliterations. [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Lithuania 1415–84 [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire 1484–1789 [REDACTED] Russian Empire 1789–1917 Beginning of 1917–21 Revolution [REDACTED] Russian Provisional Government 1917 [REDACTED] UPR Dec. 1917–Nov. 1918 [REDACTED] OSR Jan.–March 1918 [REDACTED] Ukrainian State March–Dec. 1918 [REDACTED] AFSR Dec. 1918–April 1919 [REDACTED] PWPGU / [REDACTED] UkSSR April–Aug. 1919 [REDACTED] AFSR Aug. 1919–Feb. 1920 [REDACTED] / [REDACTED] / [REDACTED] UkSSR Feb. 1920–Dec. 1922 End of

5253-403: The character of the verb). This is called the dative construction . In the past tense of the transitive verbs, and in the present tense of the verb "to know", the subject is in the ergative case. Georgian has a rich word-derivation system. By using a root, and adding some definite prefixes and suffixes, one can derive many nouns and adjectives from the root. For example, from the root - kart -,

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5356-867: The city was occupied by the French Army and the Greek Army that supported the Russian White Army in its struggle with the Bolsheviks. The Ukrainian general Nykyfor Hryhoriv who sided with Bolsheviks managed to drive the Triple Entente forces out of the city, but Odesa was soon retaken by the Russian White Army. By 1920 the Soviet Red Army managed to overpower both the Ukrainian and Russian White Army and secure

5459-411: The city's Euromaidan Coordination Center and a cargo train car were (non-lethally) bombed. Until 18 July 2020, Odesa was incorporated as a city of oblast significance . In July 2020, as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Odesa Oblast to seven, the city of Odesa was merged into newly established Odesa Raion. In the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine ,

5562-406: The city's map, for example Frantsuzky (French) and Italiansky (Italian) Boulevards, Grecheskaya (Greek), Yevreyskaya (Jewish), Arnautskaya (Albanian) Streets). The Filiki Eteria , a Greek freemasonry -style society that was to play an important role in the Greek War of Independence , was founded in Odesa in 1814 before relocating to Constantinople in 1818. Odesa's cosmopolitan nature

5665-435: The city. The people of Odesa suffered badly from a famine that resulted from the Russian Civil War in 1921–1922 due to the Soviet policies of prodrazverstka . In 1937, around 1,000 Poles were executed in Odesa during the Polish Operation of the NKVD . During World War II , Odesa was attacked by Romanian and German troops in August 1941. The defense of Odesa started on 5 August 1941 and lasted for 73 days. The defense

5768-443: The course of three months. As a consequence, the orchestra was enriched with new instruments and musical scores . Foreign orchestra performers came to Tiflis and some settled there. On 11 October 1874, a fire began before a performance of Vincenzo Bellini 's Norma . Though the fire brigade was across the street, the firefighters did not respond at first and did not bring ladders when they did, leading to outrage and accusations of

5871-399: The current Mkhedruli, used for most purposes. The language has a robust grammatical framework with unique features such as syncope in morphophonology and a left-branching syntax. Georgian's vocabulary is highly derivational, allowing for diverse word formations, while its numeric system is vigesimal. No claimed genetic links between the Kartvelian languages and any other language family in

5974-407: The end of the 5th and beginning of the 4th centuries BC (the first one, identified with modern Varna in Bulgaria, is the older of the two, founded c. 610 BC). The exact location of this ancient Odessos is unknown, but modern efforts have attempted to localize it 40 km northeast of Odesa, near the village of Koshary , Odesa Oblast., near the Tylihul Estuary . Odessa , the transliteration of

6077-400: The establishment of the Voznesensk Governorate on 27 January 1795, the Vorstadt was named Tiraspol . The Flemish engineer working for the Russian Empress Catherine the Great , José de Ribas's collaborator Franz de Voland recommended the area of Khadjibey fortress as the site for the region's basic port: it had an ice-free harbor, breakwaters could be cheaply constructed that would render

6180-446: The ethnic connotations of origin. They disappeared completely by World War II . In 1905, Odesa was the site of a workers' uprising supported by the crew of the Russian battleship Potemkin and the Menshevik 's Iskra . Sergei Eisenstein 's famous motion picture The Battleship Potemkin commemorated the uprising and included a scene where hundreds of Odesan citizens were murdered on the great stone staircase (now popularly known as

6283-473: The fire being intentional. The theater was completely destroyed, including the rich musical library, costumes, scenery, props and all of Gagarin's paintings. Plans were made to rebuild the opera house. The theater decided to continue its season from the "Summer Theater", and returned 27 December with its production of Norma . The city held a contest for a new architectural design. Viktor Schröter , an architect of German origin from Saint Petersburg , submitted

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6386-498: The following words can be derived: Kart veli ('a Georgian person'), Kart uli ('the Georgian language') and Sa kart velo ('the country of Georgia'). Most Georgian surnames end in - dze 'son' (Western Georgia), - shvili 'child' (Eastern Georgia), - ia (Western Georgia, Samegrelo ), - ani (Western Georgia, Svaneti ), - uri (Eastern Georgia), etc. The ending - eli is a particle of nobility, comparable to French de , Dutch van , German von or Polish - ski . Georgian has

6489-453: The growth in trade made Odesa Russia's largest grain-exporting port. In 1866, the city was linked by rail with Kyiv and Kharkiv as well as with Iaşi in Romania. The city became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to comprise some 37% of the population. The community, however, was repeatedly subjected to anti-Semitism and anti-Jewish agitation from almost all Christian segments of

6592-445: The harbor safe and it would have the capacity to accommodate large fleets. The Namestnik of Yekaterinoslav and Voznesensk, Platon Zubov (one of Catherine's favorites), supported this proposal. In 1794 Catherine issued a Rescript to José de Ribas: "Considering favorable Khadjibey location... I order to establish here a navy harbor and trading pierce..." and invested the first money (26.000 rubles) in construction. Franz de Voland drew up

6695-454: The infrastructure in the 1780s. During the Russian-Turkish War of 1787–1792 , on 25 September 1789, a detachment of Russian forces , including Zaporozhian Cossacks under Alexander Suvorov and Ivan Gudovich , took Khadjibey and Yeni Dünya for the Russian Empire . One section of the troops came under command of a Spaniard in Russian service, Irishman Major General José de Ribas (known in Russia as Osip Mikhailovich Deribas); today,

6798-416: The latter two cities were situated in lowlands near marshes, which provided for poor sanitary conditions in the technology available at that time. The sleepy fishing village of Odesa had witnessed a sea-change in its fortunes when the wealthy magnate and future Voivode of Kiev (1791), Antoni Protazy Potocki , established trade routes through the port for the Polish Black Sea Trading Company and set up

6901-498: The like. This is the Georgian standard keyboard layout. The standard Windows keyboard is essentially that of manual typewriters . Georgian is an agglutinative language . Certain prefixes and suffixes can be joined in order to build a verb. In some cases, one verb can have up to eight different morphemes in it at the same time. An example is ageshenebinat ('you [all] should've built [it]'). The verb can be broken down to parts: a-g-e-shen-eb-in-a-t . Each morpheme here contributes to

7004-475: The local Georgian aristocracy into the Imperial social life, thereby distracting them from any further anti-Russian conspiracies. To satisfy Georgians, Vorontsov went on to patronize Georgian-language theater performances and did everything Saint Petersburg would permit to win over locals. These types of efforts were particularly relevant in light of the ongoing Shamil's rebellion in the North Caucasus , which prompted some Russians to see Georgian aristocrats as

7107-402: The main street in Odesa, Deribasivska Street , is named after him. Russia formally gained possession of the Sanjak of Özi (Ochakiv Oblast) as a result of the Treaty of Jassy (Iaşi) in 1792 and it became a part of Yekaterinoslav Viceroyalty . The Russian Empire took full control of Crimea, as well as land between the Southern Bug and the Dniester , including the Khadzhibey Estuary where

7210-403: The majority of Odesa's Jews emigrated to Israel , the United States and other Western countries between the 1970s and 1990s. Many ended up in the Brooklyn neighborhood of Brighton Beach , sometimes known as "Little Odesa". Domestic migration of the Odesan middle and upper classes to Moscow and Leningrad , cities that offered even greater opportunities for career advancement, also occurred on

7313-472: The meaning of the verb tense or the person who has performed the verb. The verb conjugation also exhibits polypersonalism ; a verb may potentially include morphemes representing both the subject and the object. In Georgian morphophonology , syncope is a common phenomenon. When a suffix (especially the plural suffix - eb -) is attached to a word that has either of the vowels a or e in the last syllable, this vowel is, in most words, lost. For example, megob

7416-485: The name from Russian, was the traditional English spelling of the city's name favoured before Ukraine's independence in 1991 (similarly to the spelling of Kyiv versus Kiev). Odesa became the internationally standardized Latin-alphabet transliteration of the Ukrainian name according to the Ukrainian National romanization system , which was adopted for official use by Ukraine's cabinet in 2010, approved by

7519-469: The name was his suggestion. Some expressed doubts about this claim, while others noted the reputation of Gribovsky as an honest and modest man. Odesa is located between the ancient Greek cities of Tyras and Olbia and it was named using a Slavic feminine form for the ancient Greek city of Odessos ( Ancient Greek : Ὀδησσός ; in Roman times, Odessus). This refers to the second ancient Odessos, founded between

7622-814: The northwestern shore of the Black Sea . The city is also the administrative centre of the Odesa Raion and Odesa Oblast , as well as a multiethnic cultural centre. As of January 2021, Odesa's population was approximately 1,010,537. On 25 January 2023, its historic city centre was declared a World Heritage Site and added to the List of World Heritage in Danger by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee in recognition of its multiculturality and 19th-century urban planning. The declaration

7725-549: The official architects who designed buildings in Odesa's central district, such as the Italians Francesco Carlo Boffo and Giovanni Torricelli (see Italians of Odesa ), Moldovanka was included in the general city plan, though the original grid-like plan of Moldovankan streets, lanes, and squares remained unchanged. The new city quickly became a major success although initially, it received little state funding and privileges. Its early growth owed much to

7828-426: The only bulwark protecting Russia's southern imperial borders. Vorontsov's conciliatory efforts were not without controversy, as not all Russians were enthusiastic about non-Russian contributions to the city's cultural development; some objected to Georgian-language productions and had them moved to different days, rather than precede regular opera performances as it was done up to that point. At Vorontsov's initiative,

7931-593: The original theater site was chosen on Rustaveli Avenue in Erivansky Square , an area the administration correctly envisioned would be the center of the expanding city. The land was given free of charge from the governor of the Tiflis Governorate , provided the theater would belong to the city. The foundations of The Tiflis Imperial Theater were laid down on 15 April 1847. Italian architect Giovanni Scudieri , who had come to Tiflis from Odessa ,

8034-419: The population of Odesa increased 15 times over and reached almost 20 thousand people. The first city plan was designed by the engineer F. Devollan in the late 18th century. Colonists of various ethnicities settled mainly in the area of the former colony, outside of the official boundaries, and as a consequence, in the first third of the 19th century, Moldavanka emerged as the dominant settlement. After planning by

8137-535: The population. Pogroms were carried out in 1821, 1859, 1871, 1881 and 1905 . Many Odesan Jews fled abroad after 1882, particularly to the Ottoman region that became Palestine , and the city became an important base of support for Zionism . Until the 1870s, Odesa's Italian population grew steadily. From the following decade this growth stopped, and the decline of the Italian community in Odesa began. The reason

8240-764: The protests, and at least 32 trade unionists were killed after a trade union building was set on fire after Molotov cocktails exchange between sides. Polls conducted from September to December 2014 found no support for joining Russia. Odesa was struck by three bomb blasts in December 2014, one of which killed one person (the injuries sustained by the victim indicated that he had dealt with explosives). Internal Affairs Ministry advisor Zorian Shkiryak said on 25 December that Odesa and Kharkiv had become "cities which are being used to escalate tensions" in Ukraine. Shkiryak said that he suspected that these cities were singled out because of their "geographic position". On 5 January 2015

8343-535: The remaining Jewish population to extermination camps in German occupied Poland , and allowing Jews to work as hired labourers. As a result, despite the events of 1941, the survival of the Jewish population in this area was higher than in other areas of occupied eastern Europe. A Soviet medal , "For the Defence of Odesa" , was established on 22 December 1942. It was one of the first four Soviet cities to be awarded

8446-640: The replacement of Aramaic as the literary language . By the 11th century, Old Georgian had developed into Middle Georgian. The most famous work of this period is the epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin , written by Shota Rustaveli in the 12th century. In 1629, a certain Nikoloz Cholokashvili authored the first printed books written (partially) in Georgian, the Alphabetum Ibericum sive Georgianum cum Oratione and

8549-563: The same end – endowed it with a sound prosperity, and one which will yet make it one of the great cities of the Old World". In 1819, Odesa became a free port, a status it retained until 1859. Odesa became home to an extremely diverse population of Albanians, Armenians, Azeris, Bulgarians, Crimean Tatars, Frenchmen, Germans (including Mennonites), Greeks, Italians, Jews, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Turks, Ukrainians, and traders representing many other nationalities (hence numerous "ethnic" names on

8652-585: The spring of 1851, the theater director invited an Italian opera troupe, which had been touring the Russian Empire under the conductorship of Francisco Asenjo Barbieri , to perform in Tiflis. The Italians traveled by carriage from Novocherkassk , but became ill and exhausted as they made their way into the Caucasus Mountains . By the time they reached Stavropol in southern Russia, they had lost all patience and refused to continue to Tiflis. Finally, they resumed, pausing often to rest as they traveled via

8755-477: The theater has been damaged by several fires and underwent major rehabilitation works under Soviet and Georgian leadership; the most recent restoration effort concluded in January 2016, having taken six years and costing approximately 40 million U.S. dollars , donated by a Georgian business foundation. The opera house is one of the centers of cultural life in Tbilisi and was once home to Zacharia Paliashvili ,

8858-536: The title of " Hero City " in 1945. (The others were Leningrad , Stalingrad , and Sevastopol ). The city suffered severe damage and sustained many casualties over the course of the war. Many parts of Odesa were damaged during both its siege and recapture on 10 April 1944 , when the city was finally liberated by the Red Army . Some of the Odesans had a more favourable view of the Romanian occupation, in contrast with

8961-496: The winning design. Construction of the new theater took years to get underway. There were repeated delays throughout the project, with the design not officially approved by Governor Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich until 1880. Even after the construction began, it would sometimes come to a complete halt. The theater finally reopened in 1896. In 1937, the theater was renamed in honour of Zacharia Paliashvili , one of Georgia's national composers. Unrest and destabilization in Georgia in

9064-608: The work of the Duc de Richelieu , who served as the city's governor between 1803 and 1814. Having fled the French Revolution , he had served in Catherine's army against the Turks. He is credited with designing the city and organizing its amenities and infrastructure, and is considered one of the founding fathers of Odesa, together with another Frenchman, Count Andrault de Langeron , who succeeded him in office. Richelieu

9167-458: The world are accepted in mainstream linguistics. Among the Kartvelian languages, Georgian is most closely related to the so-called Zan languages ( Megrelian and Laz ); glottochronological studies indicate that it split from the latter approximately 2700 years ago. Svan is a more distant relative that split off much earlier, perhaps 4000 years ago. Standard Georgian is largely based on

9270-528: Was discovered, it led to numerous arrests and repressions in the years that followed. Anxious to reconcile the Georgian opinion in view of these lingering difficulties, the new Viceroy of the Caucasus , Count Mikhail Vorontsov , implemented a number of cultural initiatives, one of which was the foundation of the opera. The declared purpose of its establishment was to benefit the "public well-being" but it also served an important political goal of fully integrating

9373-514: Was documented by the great Russian poet Alexander Pushkin , who lived in internal exile in Odesa between 1823 and 1824. In his letters, he wrote that Odesa was a city where "the air is filled with all Europe, French is spoken and there are European papers and magazines to read". Odesa's growth was interrupted by the Crimean War of 1853–1856, during which it was bombarded by British and Imperial French naval forces. It soon recovered and

9476-507: Was first mentioned in 1415 in Polish chronicles by Jan Długosz , when a ship with grain sailed from there to Constantinople. By the middle of the 15th century, the settlement was depopulated. Khadjibey came under direct control of the Ottoman Empire after 1529. In the mid-18th century, the Ottomans rebuilt the fortress at Khadjibey (also known as Hocabey), which was named Yeni Dünya (literally "New World"). A series of wars between

9579-555: Was hired to oversee the project. The construction was completed in 1851. The interior of the theater was decorated by a Parisian designer, using colored velvet, gold and silver details, and expensive silks. A massive chandelier weighing 1,218 kilograms (2,685 lb), unassembled in 12 large boxes, was shipped by a steamer from Marseille to Kulevi on the Black Sea coast. Buffalo pulled the chandelier more than 300 kilometres (190 mi) to Tiflis. Russian painter Grigory Gagarin created

9682-628: Was issued to establish a navy harbor and trading place in Khadjibey , which was named Odessa soon after. From 1819 to 1858, Odesa was a free port . During the Soviet period , it was an important trading port and a naval base . During the 19th century, Odesa was the fourth largest city of the Russian Empire, after Moscow , Saint Petersburg and Warsaw . Its historical architecture is more Mediterranean than Russian, having been heavily influenced by French and Italian styles. Some buildings are built in

9785-481: Was located in the area. The first census that was conducted in Odesa was in 1797 which accounted for 3,455 people. Since 1795, the city had its own city magistrate, and since 1796 a city council of six members and the Odesa Commodity Exchange. In 1801, in Odesa had opened the first commercial bank. In 1803, the city accounted for 9,000 people. In their settlement, also known as Novaya Slobodka,

9888-543: Was made at Odesa's Cinema Factory , one of the oldest cinema studios in the former Soviet Union . Following the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 during Ukrainian-Soviet War , Odesa saw two Bolshevik armed insurgencies, the second of which succeeded in establishing their control over the city; for the following months, the city became a center of the Odesa Soviet Republic . After signing of

9991-547: Was made in response to the bombing of Odesa during the Russian invasion of Ukraine , which has damaged or destroyed buildings across the city. In classical antiquity a large Greek settlement existed at its location no later than the middle of the 6th century BC. It has been researched as a possible site of the ancient Greek settlement of Histria . The first chronicle mention of the Slavic settlement-port of Kotsiubijiv , which

10094-424: Was mainly one, namely the gradual integration into the Slavic population of Odesa, i.e. Russians and Ukrainians. Surnames began to be Russianized and Ukrainianized . The revolution of 1917 sent many of them to Italy, or to other cities in Europe. In Soviet times , only a few dozen Italians remained in Odesa, most of whom no longer knew their own language. Over time they merged with the local population, losing

10197-630: Was ordered to establish the Dniester Border Line of fortresses. The commander of the land forces in Ochakiv Oblast was appointed Graf (Count) Suvorov-Rymnikskiy . The main fortress was built near Sucleia at the mouth of river Botna as the Head Dniester Fortress by Engineer-Major de Wollant . Near the new fortress saw the formation of a new "Vorstadt" (suburb) where people moved from Sucleia and Parkan. With

10300-449: Was organized inside the city itself. Lyudmila Pavlichenko , the famous female sniper, took part in the battle for Odesa. She recorded 187 confirmed kills during the defense of Odesa. Pavlichenko's confirmed kills during World War II totaled 309 (including 36 enemy snipers). The city fell to the Axis on 16 October 1941, and it was henceforth subject to Romanian administration. By that time,

10403-402: Was organized on three lines with emplacements consisting of trenches, anti-tank ditches and pillboxes. The first line was 80 kilometres (50 miles) long and situated some 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 miles) from the city. The second and main line of defense was situated 6 to 8 kilometres (3.7 to 5.0 miles) from the city and was about 30 kilometres (19 miles) long. The third and last line of defense

10506-543: Was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , dates back to 1415, when a ship was sent from here to Constantinople by sea. After the Grand Duchy lost control, the port and its surroundings became part of the domain of the Ottoman Empire in 1529, under the name Hacibey , and remained in it until the Ottomans' defeat in the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792) . In 1794, a decree of the Russian empress Catherine II

10609-487: Was removed from the project, and José de Ribas was implicated in a plot to assassinate the Emperor. After Paul's assassination in 1801, the city resumed construction, and used a plan largely from de Voland's work. It was thus one of the few master planned cities in the Russian Empire. In 1795, Khadjibey was officially renamed with the feminine name " Одесса ( Odessa )" after a Greek colony of Odessos that supposedly

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