Terracina is an Italian city and comune of the province of Latina , located on the coast 56 km (35 mi) southeast of Rome on the Via Appia (76 km (47 mi) by rail). The site has been continuously occupied since antiquity.
132-722: Terracina appears in ancient sources with two names: the Latin Tarracina and the Volscian Anxur . The latter is the name of Jupiter himself as a youth ( Iuppiter Anxur or Anxurus ), and was the tutelary god of the city, venerated on the Mons Neptunius (current Monte S. Angelo), where a temple dedicated to him still exists (see below ). The name Tarracina has been instead pointed out variously as pre- Indo-European origin (Ταρρακινή in ancient Greek), or as Etruscan ( Tarchna or Tarchuna ,
264-519: A direct bandgap , and can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to convert electrical energy directly into light. After World War I , the United States built a stockpile of 20,000 tons of weaponized lewisite (ClCH=CHAsCl 2 ), an organoarsenic vesicant (blister agent) and lung irritant. The stockpile was neutralized with bleach and dumped into the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s. During
396-568: A tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to each of the other three atoms by a single bond. This unstable allotrope, being molecular, is the most volatile, least dense, and most toxic. Solid yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling of arsenic vapor, As 4 . It is rapidly transformed into grey arsenic by light. The yellow form has a density of 1.97 g/cm . Black arsenic is similar in structure to black phosphorus . Black arsenic can also be formed by cooling vapor at around 100–220 °C and by crystallization of amorphous arsenic in
528-554: A wood preservative . In the 1930s, a process of treating wood with chromated copper arsenate (also known as CCA or Tanalith ) was invented, and for decades, this treatment was the most extensive industrial use of arsenic. An increased appreciation of the toxicity of arsenic led to a ban of CCA in consumer products in 2004, initiated by the European Union and United States. However, CCA remains in heavy use in other countries (such as on Malaysian rubber plantations). Arsenic
660-525: A classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet
792-490: A distorted octahedral complex, with the three atoms in the same double-layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 5.73 g/cm . Grey arsenic is a semimetal , but becomes a semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.2–1.4 eV if amorphized . Grey arsenic is also the most stable form. Yellow arsenic is soft and waxy, and somewhat similar to tetraphosphorus ( P 4 ). Both have four atoms arranged in
924-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After
1056-743: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before
1188-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in
1320-458: A large new quarter developing towards the Via Appia and alongside the coast north to Monte S. Angelo. This is Borgo Marino, the "Marine Quarter". The municipality borders with Fondi , Monte San Biagio , Pontinia , Sabaudia , San Felice Circeo and Sonnino . It counts the hamlets ( frazioni ) of Borgo Hermada, Frasso (shared with Sonnino), La Fiora and San Vito. The modern town occupies
1452-517: A major source of arsenic contamination of groundwater in regions with high levels of naturally-occurring arsenic minerals. Synthetic arsenates include Scheele's Green (cupric hydrogen arsenate, acidic copper arsenate), calcium arsenate , and lead hydrogen arsenate . These three have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons . The protonation steps between the arsenate and arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and phosphoric acid . Unlike phosphorous acid , arsenous acid
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#17327727835431584-577: A program of draining the marshes and added a new quarter next to the channel-port. During the Napoleonic occupation Terracina was at first annexed to the Circeo département, but revolted in 1798: the riot was suppressed by French and Polish troops, led by general Étienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexandre MacDonald . After the end of the Napoleonic Wars , the position of Terracina at the border between
1716-567: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through
1848-532: A role in human metabolism. However, arsenic poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed. Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that affects millions of people across the world. The United States' Environmental Protection Agency states that all forms of arsenic are a serious risk to human health. The United States' Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ranked arsenic number 1 in its 2001 prioritized list of hazardous substances at Superfund sites. Arsenic
1980-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to
2112-583: A shuttle rail connection to Terracina, which is discontinued since September 20, 2012 due to a landslide by which the rail was damaged. Terracina can be reached by car from Rome by the old Via Appia, or by the more modern Via Pontina. The Via Flacca connects the city to Sperlonga and Gaeta to the south coast. A fast road link leads to the Frosinone exit of the A1 Milan-Rome-Naples motorway . Ferries connect Terracina to Ponza Terracina
2244-629: A small harbour. During the 600s BC, it joined the Etruscan League of twelve cities. In 509 BC Terracina was already under Roman supremacy as reported in the 1st treaty between Rome and Carthage . It was soon re-occupied by the Volsci and was not included in the list of the Latin league of 499 BC. In 406 it was recaptured by the Romans then lost in 402 and recovered in 400, unsuccessfully attacked by
2376-709: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross
2508-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be
2640-631: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite
2772-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as
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#17327727835432904-591: A subsidiary of Pfizer Inc., which produces roxarsone, voluntarily suspended sales of the drug in response to studies showing elevated levels of inorganic arsenic, a carcinogen, in treated chickens. A successor to Alpharma, Zoetis , continued to sell nitarsone until 2015, primarily for use in turkeys. During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds were used as medicines, including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich ) and arsenic trioxide (by Thomas Fowler ), for treating diseases such as cancer or psoriasis . Arsphenamine, as well as neosalvarsan ,
3036-587: A temple of Roma and Augustus , part of the side wall of which, with engaged columns, is still visible. The edifice was consecrated in 1074, and renovated in the 12th and 18th centuries. The Cosmatesque -inlaid vestibule is preceded by an eighteen-step staircase, and supported by ten ancient columns resting upon recumbent lions, with a mosaic frieze upon them, made by 12th century Sicilian-Norman artists. The brick campanile , in Gothic - Romanesque -style, has small columns with little pointed arches and Islamic majolica in
3168-693: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than
3300-415: A version of photosynthesis in the absence of oxygen with arsenites as electron donors , producing arsenates (just as ordinary photosynthesis uses water as electron donor, producing molecular oxygen). Researchers conjecture that, over the course of history, these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenate-reducing bacteria to thrive. One strain , PHS-1, has been isolated and
3432-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,
3564-626: Is twinned with: Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of
3696-432: Is a chemical element with the symbol As and the atomic number 33. It is a metalloid and one of the pnictogens , and therefore shares many properties with its group 15 neighbors phosphorus and antimony . Arsenic is a notoriously toxic heavy metal . It occurs naturally in many minerals , usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal . It has various allotropes , but only
3828-640: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In
3960-520: Is a well-preserved stretch of the ancient Via Appia. Above the town are several massive terrace platforms for supporting buildings; these may well belong to the Roman period, and the latter even to the Empire. The summit of the promontory, elevation 227 metres (745 ft), is reached by the old line of the Via Appia, which is flanked by tombs and by remains of an ancient defensive wall with circular towers,
4092-458: Is classified as a Group-A carcinogen . The three most common arsenic allotropes are grey, yellow, and black arsenic, with grey being the most common. Grey arsenic (α-As, space group R 3 m No. 166) adopts a double-layered structure consisting of many interlocked, ruffled, six-membered rings. Because of weak bonding between the layers, grey arsenic is brittle and has a relatively low Mohs hardness of 3.5. Nearest and next-nearest neighbors form
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4224-650: Is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced
4356-606: Is estimated that approximately 57 million people in the Bengal basin are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above the World Health Organization 's standard of 10 parts per billion (ppb). However, a study of cancer rates in Taiwan suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at levels above 150 ppb. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and
4488-552: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from
4620-514: Is genuinely tribasic, with the formula As(OH) 3 . A broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are known. Orpiment ( As 2 S 3 ) and realgar ( As 4 S 4 ) are somewhat abundant and were formerly used as painting pigments. In As 4 S 10 , arsenic has a formal oxidation state of +2 in As 4 S 4 which features As-As bonds so that the total covalency of As is still 3. Both orpiment and realgar, as well as As 4 S 3 , have selenium analogs;
4752-589: Is in alloying with lead. Lead components in car batteries are strengthened by the presence of a very small percentage of arsenic. Dezincification of brass (a copper-zinc alloy) is greatly reduced by the addition of arsenic. "Phosphorus Deoxidized Arsenical Copper" with an arsenic content of 0.3% has an increased corrosion stability in certain environments. Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits . Circuits made from GaAs are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made from silicon . Unlike silicon, GaAs has
4884-647: Is inhalation of atmospheric gases and dusts. During the Victorian era , arsenic was widely used in home decor, especially wallpapers. In Europe, an analysis based on 20,000 soil samples across all 28 countries show that 98% of sampled soils have concentrations less than 20 mg kg-1. In addition, the As hotspots are related to frequent fertilization and close distance to mining activities. Extensive arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh and neighboring countries. It
5016-427: Is little danger in eating fish because this arsenic compound is nearly non-toxic. Naturally occurring sources of human exposure include volcanic ash , weathering of minerals and ores, and mineralized groundwater. Arsenic is also found in food, water, soil, and air. Arsenic is absorbed by all plants, but is more concentrated in leafy vegetables, rice, apple and grape juice, and seafood. An additional route of exposure
5148-689: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and
5280-492: Is now visible, and its site is mainly occupied by a new quarter built by Pope Pius VI . Of the ancient harbour constructed by Antoninus Pius insignificant remains exist, and it is largely silted up. Close to it is the small modern port. In 1838, a marble bust of Sophocles was found near the amphitheatre. It is now in the Lateran Museum , Rome. The commune of Terracina includes a considerable extent of territory towards
5412-433: Is recovered primarily from copper refinement dust. On roasting arsenopyrite in air, arsenic sublimes as arsenic(III) oxide leaving iron oxides, while roasting without air results in the production of gray arsenic. Further purification from sulfur and other chalcogens is achieved by sublimation in vacuum, in a hydrogen atmosphere, or by distillation from molten lead-arsenic mixture. The word arsenic has its origin in
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5544-561: Is related to the gammaproteobacterium Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii . The mechanism is unknown, but an encoded Arr enzyme may function in reverse to its known homologues . In 2011, it was postulated that the Halomonadaceae strain GFAJ-1 could be grown in the absence of phosphorus if that element were substituted with arsenic, exploiting the fact that the arsenate and phosphate anions are similar structurally. The study
5676-467: Is released from the sediment into the groundwater, caused by the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater was used after local and western NGOs and the Bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacteria-contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for arsenic in
5808-474: Is resistant to all-trans retinoic acid . A 2008 paper reports success in locating tumors using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter). This isotope produces clearer PET scan images than the previous radioactive agent, iodine -124, because the body tends to transport iodine to the thyroid gland producing signal noise. Nanoparticles of arsenic have shown ability to kill cancer cells with lesser cytotoxicity than other arsenic formulations. The main use of arsenic
5940-494: Is stable only below −50 °C, at which temperature it decomposes to the trichloride, releasing chlorine gas. ) Arsenic is used as the group 5 element in the III-V semiconductors gallium arsenide , indium arsenide , and aluminium arsenide . The valence electron count of GaAs is the same as a pair of Si atoms, but the band structure is completely different which results in distinct bulk properties. Other arsenic alloys include
6072-1011: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it
6204-490: Is the 22nd most abundant element in seawater and ranks 41st in abundance in the universe. Minerals with the formula MAsS and MAs 2 (M = Fe , Ni , Co ) are the dominant commercial sources of arsenic, together with realgar (an arsenic sulfide mineral) and native (elemental) arsenic. An illustrative mineral is arsenopyrite ( Fe As S ), which is structurally related to iron pyrite . Many minor As-containing minerals are known. Arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in
6336-485: Is therefore called a monoisotopic element . As of 2024, at least 32 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 64 to 95. The most stable of these is As with a half-life of 80.30 days. All other isotopes have half-lives of under one day, with the exception of As ( t 1/2 =65.30 hours), As ( t 1/2 =26.0 hours), As ( t 1/2 =17.77 days), As ( t 1/2 =26.26 hours), and As ( t 1/2 =38.83 hours). Isotopes that are lighter than
6468-496: Is typically pyramidal owing to the influence of the lone pair of electrons . One of the simplest arsenic compounds is the trihydride, the highly toxic, flammable, pyrophoric arsine (AsH 3 ). This compound is generally regarded as stable, since at room temperature it decomposes only slowly. At temperatures of 250–300 °C decomposition to arsenic and hydrogen is rapid. Several factors, such as humidity , presence of light and certain catalysts (namely aluminium) facilitate
6600-455: Is used to detect precise levels of intracellular arsenic and other arsenic bases involved in epigenetic modification of DNA. Studies investigating arsenic as an epigenetic factor can be used to develop precise biomarkers of exposure and susceptibility. The Chinese brake fern ( Pteris vittata ) hyperaccumulates arsenic from the soil into its leaves and has a proposed use in phytoremediation . Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering
6732-543: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In
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#17327727835436864-837: The English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to the English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As
6996-528: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are
7128-596: The Lombards had conquered part of Italy in the late 6th century, Terracina remained an important military stronghold of the Eastern Roman Empire , and later became part of the Duchy of Naples . It was one of the northernmost outposts of Byzantine authority in the south. A monument bearing the name of Duke George of Naples stood there at the turn of the 20th century. In 872, Pope John VIII brought it under
7260-569: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by
7392-653: The Renaissance era . During the Bronze Age , arsenic was melted with copper to make arsenical bronze . Jabir ibn Hayyan described the isolation of arsenic before 815 AD. Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1193–1280) later isolated the element from a compound in 1250, by heating soap together with arsenic trisulfide . In 1649, Johann Schröder published two ways of preparing arsenic. Crystals of elemental (native) arsenic are found in nature, although rarely. Cadet's fuming liquid (impure cacodyl ), often claimed as
7524-597: The Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to the less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and
7656-569: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it
7788-551: The Samnites defeated the Romans with losses in 315 BC. The natural environment and scenery of the promontory, with its luxuriant flora and views, had caused it to be frequented by the Romans as early as 200 BC. Terracina became an important centre for the development of the fertile valley lying to the west, and started to grow new settlements at the foot of the hill which turned into a sanctuary area with some patrician mansions. New public edifices were erected starting from
7920-539: The Syriac word ܙܪܢܝܟܐ zarnika , from Arabic al-zarnīḵ الزرنيخ 'the orpiment ', based on Persian zar ("gold") from the word زرنيخ zarnikh , meaning "yellow" (literally "gold-colored") and hence "(yellow) orpiment". It was adopted into Greek (using folk etymology ) as arsenikon ( ἀρσενικόν ) – a neuter form of the Greek adjective arsenikos ( ἀρσενικός ), meaning "male", "virile". Latin -speakers adopted
8052-631: The Vietnam War , the United States used Agent Blue , a mixture of sodium cacodylate and its acid form, as one of the rainbow herbicides to deprive North Vietnamese soldiers of foliage cover and rice. Some species of bacteria obtain their energy in the absence of oxygen by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite. Under oxidative environmental conditions some bacteria use arsenite as fuel, which they oxidize to arsenate. The enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases (Arr). In 2008, bacteria were discovered that employ
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#17327727835438184-592: The Volsci in 397, and finally secured by the establishment of a colony of Roman citizens in 329 BC as Colonia Anxurnas . As a colonia maritima the town frequently appears in history. The construction of the Via Appia in 312 BC added to its importance: the road at first crossed the hill at the back of the promontory by a steep ascent and descent. An attempt was made in 184 BC to get round it (by censor Lucius Valerius Flaccus ) on an embankment thrown out into
8316-636: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which
8448-490: The food chain , are progressively metabolized through a process of methylation . For example, the mold Scopulariopsis brevicaulis produces trimethylarsine if inorganic arsenic is present. The organic compound arsenobetaine is found in some marine foods such as fish and algae, and also in mushrooms in larger concentrations. The average person's intake is about 10–50 μg/day. Values about 1000 μg are not unusual following consumption of fish or mushrooms, but there
8580-457: The nonmetals . Though stable in dry air, arsenic forms a golden-bronze tarnish upon exposure to humidity which eventually becomes a black surface layer. When heated in air, arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide ; the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling garlic. This odor can be detected on striking arsenide minerals such as arsenopyrite with a hammer. It burns in oxygen to form arsenic trioxide and arsenic pentoxide , which have
8712-542: The 20th century. A 2006 study of the remains of the Australian racehorse Phar Lap determined that its 1932 death was caused by a massive overdose of arsenic. Sydney veterinarian Percy Sykes stated, "In those days, arsenic was quite a common tonic, usually given in the form of a solution ( Fowler's Solution ) ... It was so common that I'd reckon 90 per cent of the horses had arsenic in their system." The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria, and fungi led to its use as
8844-478: The 5th century AD. The nearby mineral springs by the coast, known to the Romans as Neptuniae aquae and later renamed Acqua Magnesia , are still in use, except one containing arsenic which was blocked up both by the ancients and again in 1839 as a precaution. Terracina is mentioned in the history of the Gothic War , and Theodoric is said to have had a palace here. It was sacked in 409 and 595. After
8976-521: The As ion as the formation of such an anion would be highly endothermic and even the group 1 arsenides have properties of intermetallic compounds. Like germanium , selenium , and bromine , which like arsenic succeed the 3d transition series , arsenic is much less stable in the +5 oxidation state than its vertical neighbors phosphorus and antimony , and hence arsenic pentoxide and arsenic acid are potent oxidizers . Compounds of arsenic resemble, in some respects, those of phosphorus , which occupies
9108-574: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto
9240-444: The Greek term as arsenicum , which in French ultimately became arsenic , whence the English word "arsenic". Arsenic sulfides (orpiment, realgar ) and oxides have been known and used since ancient times. Zosimos ( c. 300 AD ) describes roasting sandarach (realgar) to obtain cloud of arsenic ( arsenic trioxide ), which he then reduces to gray arsenic. As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning are not very specific,
9372-416: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,
9504-486: The II-V semiconductor cadmium arsenide . A large variety of organoarsenic compounds are known. Several were developed as chemical warfare agents during World War I, including vesicants such as lewisite and vomiting agents such as adamsite . Cacodylic acid , which is of historic and practical interest, arises from the methylation of arsenic trioxide, a reaction that has no analogy in phosphorus chemistry. Cacodyl
9636-608: The Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples was officially set by the Concordat signed by Pope Pius VII and Ferdinand I of Two Sicilies in 1818. In 1839 and 1843 Gregory XVI visited the city, in which he instituted works for a new port. In 1934 the city was removed from the province of Rome and added to that of Latina. After the end of World War II , in which it suffered heavy damage, Terracina developed greatly, with
9768-476: The Savio, Garzoni, Gottifredi, de' Romanis and others. In the 17th century the popes began a program of repopulation of Terracina through the resettlement of families from the country nearby lured by tax exemptions. In this period the churches of St. John (formerly St. Lawrence) and Madonna delle Grazie were both rebuilt. In the two following centuries Terracina assumed its current appearance. Pope Pius VI started
9900-430: The United States by 2013 in all agricultural activities except cotton farming. The biogeochemistry of arsenic is complex and includes various adsorption and desorption processes. The toxicity of arsenic is connected to its solubility and is affected by pH. Arsenite ( AsO 3− 3 ) is more soluble than arsenate ( AsO 3− 4 ) and is more toxic; however, at a lower pH, arsenate becomes more mobile and toxic. It
10032-467: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from
10164-563: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as
10296-470: The Via Appia through the marshes ended. Along these three km of the Via Appia are numerous ancient tombs, and the fertile valley to the northeast was thickly populated in Roman days, before the intrusion of malaria. The Terracina railway station is not on the main Rome-Naples railway line. The nearest stops are the station of Priverno-Fossanova or that of Monte San Biagio -Terracina Mare: the former has
10428-593: The Volscian and Roman curtain wall, in "polygonal" style similar to those of Constantinople . Beyond a three-way crossing, next to Porta Nuova , is the Frangipane Castle or Rocca Traversa , which in 1202 became the symbol of the communal freedom of Terracina. It was damaged by Allied bombs on September 4, 1943. Other churches are those of the Annunziata (13th century, with a decorated architrave over
10560-438: The analogous As 2 Te 3 is known as the mineral kalgoorlieite , and the anion As 2 Te is known as a ligand in cobalt complexes. All trihalides of arsenic(III) are well known except the astatide, which is unknown. Arsenic pentafluoride (AsF 5 ) is the only important pentahalide, reflecting the lower stability of the +5 oxidation state; even so, it is a very strong fluorinating and oxidizing agent. (The pentachloride
10692-503: The attribution of the temple to Jupiter has been put under discussion, due to the discovery of inscriptions dedicated to Venus . At the external of the temple is the "oracle", a kind of quadrilateral base with a hole from which, standing in a cave, the priests communicated the answers to the questions of the faithful. To the left of this great construction is the Small Temple, probably a civil edifice to be dated somewhat earlier than
10824-497: The author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in the large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into
10956-431: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Arsenic Arsenic
11088-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin
11220-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name
11352-426: The city's internal struggles. The 16th century saw the communal freedoms steadily eroded, due both to the general decline of Terracina (aggravated by malaria in the increasingly marshy surrounding land) and the devastating attacks by pirates coming from North Africa. A malaria plague in 1520 contributed to this process. However, in this period the first Renaissance mansions began to be built by noble families like
11484-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as
11616-465: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for
11748-503: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains
11880-561: The domination of the Holy See. However, after the crisis of papal authority in the following century, Terracina came to be ruled by local or Roman families (like that of Crescenzi , who built a massive castle, or the Frangipani , who occupied it from 1153 to 1202). In 1088 it was the seat of the first conclave held outside Rome. In the 11th and 12th centuries Terracina had a notable spurt of growth, and two new suburbs were built next to
12012-406: The early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as a native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed
12144-589: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin
12276-620: The environment. In 2014, China was the top producer of white arsenic with almost 70% world share, followed by Morocco, Russia, and Belgium, according to the British Geological Survey and the United States Geological Survey . Most arsenic refinement operations in the US and Europe have closed over environmental concerns. Arsenic is found in the smelter dust from copper, gold, and lead smelters, and
12408-591: The fields). The accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which resulted in 21 deaths. From the late-18th century wallpaper production began to use dyes made from arsenic, which was thought to increase the pigment's brightness. One account of the illness and 1821 death of Napoleon I implicates arsenic poisoning involving wallpaper. Two arsenic pigments have been widely used since their discovery – Paris Green in 1814 and Scheele's Green in 1775. After
12540-399: The first synthetic organometallic compound , was synthesized in 1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt through the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide . In the Victorian era , women would eat "arsenic" (" white arsenic " or arsenic trioxide) mixed with vinegar and chalk to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin paler (to show they did not work in
12672-572: The former one. The remains of another temple, the Capitolium , 16.5 by 16 metres (54 by 52 ft), with cells 9.5 by 4.5 metres (31 by 15 ft), lie on the street starting from Palazzo Venditti. Built in the mid-1st century BCE, it was dedicated to the Capitoline Triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva . Of the lower town by the harbour, which had buildings of some importance of the imperial period (amphitheatre, baths, etc.), little
12804-570: The grey form, which has a metallic appearance, is important to industry. The primary use of arsenic is in alloys of lead (for example, in car batteries and ammunition ). Arsenic is a common n-type dopant in semiconductor electronic devices. It is also a component of the III–V compound semiconductor gallium arsenide . Arsenic and its compounds, especially the trioxide, are used in the production of pesticides , treated wood products, herbicides , and insecticides . These applications are declining with
12936-613: The groundwater. Many other countries and districts in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia , have geological environments that produce groundwater with a high arsenic content. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat , Thailand, in 1987, and the Chao Phraya River probably contains high levels of naturally occurring dissolved arsenic without being a public health problem because much of
13068-456: The increasing recognition of the toxicity of arsenic and its compounds. Arsenic has been known since ancient times to be poisonous to humans. However, a few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites . Trace quantities of arsenic have been proposed to be an essential dietary element in rats, hamsters, goats, and chickens. Research has not been conducted to determine whether small amounts of arsenic may play
13200-703: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How
13332-704: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of
13464-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became
13596-587: The more important buildings of the imperial period were erected on the low ground near the small harbour. The construction of the coast road, the Via Severiana , from Ostia to Terracina, added to the importance of the place. The Via Appia and the Via Severiana met some few miles east of Terracina, and the Via Appia then traversed the pass of Lautulae , between the mountains and the Lake of Fondi , where
13728-716: The name of the Tarquinii family): in this view, it would precede the Volscian conquest. Terracina occupied a position of notable strategic importance: it is located at the point where the Volscian Hills (an extension of the Lepini Mountains ) reach the coast, leaving no space for passage between them and the sea, on a site commanding the Pontine Marshes ( urbs prona in paludes , "a city surrounded by marshes", as Livy called it) and also possessing
13860-479: The northwest with much undergrowth ( macchia ) valuable for charcoal burning, and a considerable extent of pasture and arable land. The ancient aqueduct, bringing water some 55 kilometres (34 mi) from the slopes of the Volscian Hills, has been repaired and is in use. About 5 kilometres (3 mi) to the northwest, at the foot of Monte Leano, was the shrine of the nymph Feronia , where the canal following
13992-413: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there
14124-668: The portal by a Master Andrew of Priverno ), San Domenico (erected in the first decades of the 13th century, and enlarged in 1298) and San Francesco (1222), which follows the Gothic Cistercian style of the Abbey of Fossanova . Many Roman ruins were brought to light only after the World War II bombings. These include a quadrifrons arch, which served as entrance to the forum. Two sides can be still seen in good condition, 6.4 by 6.34 metres (21.0 by 20.8 ft) wide. Under it
14256-408: The presence of mercury vapors. It is glassy and brittle. Black arsenic is also a poor electrical conductor. Arsenic sublimes upon heating at atmospheric pressure , converting directly to a gaseous form without an intervening liquid state at 887 K (614 °C). The triple point is at 3.63 MPa and 1,090 K (820 °C). Arsenic occurs in nature as one stable isotope , As, and
14388-938: The public uses bottled water . In Pakistan, more than 60 million people are exposed to arsenic polluted drinking water indicated by a 2017 report in Science . Podgorski's team investigated more than 1200 samples and more than 66% exceeded the WHO minimum contamination level. Since the 1980s, residents of the Ba Men region of Inner Mongolia, China have been chronically exposed to arsenic through drinking water from contaminated wells. A 2009 research study observed an elevated presence of skin lesions among residents with well water arsenic concentrations between 5 and 10 μg/L, suggesting that arsenic induced toxicity may occur at relatively low concentrations with chronic exposure. Overall, 20 of China's 34 provinces have high arsenic concentrations in
14520-444: The rate of decomposition. It oxidises readily in air to form arsenic trioxide and water, and analogous reactions take place with sulfur and selenium instead of oxygen . Arsenic forms colorless, odorless, crystalline oxides As 2 O 3 (" white arsenic ") and As 2 O 5 which are hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form acidic solutions. Arsenic(V) acid is a weak acid and its salts, known as arsenates , are
14652-406: The same group (column) of the periodic table . The most common oxidation states for arsenic are: −3 in the arsenides , which are alloy-like intermetallic compounds, +3 in the arsenites , and +5 in the arsenates and most organoarsenic compounds. Arsenic also bonds readily to itself as seen in the square As 3− 4 ions in the mineral skutterudite . In the +3 oxidation state , arsenic
14784-443: The same structure as the more well-known phosphorus compounds, and in fluorine to give arsenic pentafluoride . Arsenic makes arsenic acid with concentrated nitric acid , arsenous acid with dilute nitric acid, and arsenic trioxide with concentrated sulfuric acid ; however, it does not react with water, alkalis, or non-oxidising acids. Arsenic reacts with metals to form arsenides , though these are not ionic compounds containing
14916-498: The sea: but it was probably not until early in Trajan 's time (98-117 AD) that a cut in the rocks at the foot of the promontory ( Pisco Montano ) finally solved the problem. The depth of the cut is indicated by marks on the vertical wall at intervals of 10 Roman feet; the lowest mark, about 1 m above the present road, is CXX , corresponding to 36 metres (118 feet). It was probably in consequence of this road cut that some of
15048-417: The site of the old one. The present piazza is the ancient Roman forum, and the Roman pavement of slabs of travertine with the inscription A. AEMILIUS A. F. in letters once filled in with bronze, is well preserved. The paving is supported by massive arched substructures , which extend under the surrounding houses. Terracina Cathedral ( Cattedrale dei SS. Pietro e Cesareo ) ( Duomo ) is ensconced within
15180-672: The so-called Cinta Sillana (once attributed to Theodoric , but dating from the first decades of the 1st century BCE). The summit is occupied by a large terrace, supported by arcades of fine opus incertum (traditionally, but wrongly, called the "palace of Theodoric") on all sides except the east, with views seaward over the coast and over the Pontine Marshes. On the terrace stood the Corinthian-order temple traditionally attributed to Jupiter Anxur (1st century BCE), about 35 by 20 metres (115 by 66 ft). The cella
15312-476: The stable As tend to decay by β decay , and those that are heavier tend to decay by β decay , with some exceptions. At least 10 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 66 to 84. The most stable of arsenic's isomers is As with a half-life of 111 seconds. Arsenic has a similar electronegativity and ionization energies to its lighter pnictogen congener phosphorus and therefore readily forms covalent molecules with most of
15444-575: The substance was frequently used for murder until the advent in the 1830s of the Marsh test , a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch test .) Owing to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the "poison of kings" and the "king of poisons". Arsenic became known as "the inheritance powder" due to its use in killing family members in
15576-522: The time of Sulla including a new theatre and forum, while the sanctuary was renovated. Marcus Favonius , the imitator of Cato the Younger , was born in Terracina, as was the emperor Galba (in 3 BC); both Galba and Domitian possessed villas in the area. The port was built under Trajan and Antoninus Pius in the 2nd century AD. The last Roman construction was that of a new line of walls during
15708-456: The toxicity of arsenic became widely known, these chemicals were used less often as pigments and more often as insecticides. In the 1860s, an arsenic byproduct of dye production, London Purple, was widely used. This was a solid mixture of arsenic trioxide, aniline, lime, and ferrous oxide, insoluble in water and very toxic by inhalation or ingestion But it was later replaced with Paris Green , another arsenic-based dye. With better understanding of
15840-451: The toxicology mechanism, two other compounds were used starting in the 1890s. Arsenite of lime and arsenate of lead were used widely as insecticides until the discovery of DDT in 1942. In small doses, soluble arsenic compounds act as stimulants , and were once popular as medicine by people in the mid-18th to 19th centuries; this use was especially prevalent for sport animals such as race horses or work dogs and continued into
15972-429: The two walled gates of Porta Maggio ("Cipollata"), Porta Albina, Porta St. Gregory and Porta Romana. A free commune was also instituted. In 1217 Pope Honorius III united its diocese to those of Sezze and Priverno . The 1357 Costituzioni Egiziane ("Egyptian Constitutions") marked the beginning of a stronger papal authority, which however did not impede the growth of the king of Naples 's influence, nor did it stop
16104-733: The walls. The interior has a Cosmatesque pulpit supported by ancient columns resting on lions, a Paschal candlestick of 1245, and a pavement of the same period with beasts and dragons. To the right of the Duomo is the Gothic Palazzo Venditti , from the first half of the 14th century. Nearby is also the Torre Frumentaria ("Wheat Tower", 13th century), which now houses the Museo Pio Capponi. The town walls consist of Byzantine and medieval towers erected along
16236-489: Was also used in various agricultural insecticides and poisons. For example, lead hydrogen arsenate was a common insecticide on fruit trees , but contact with the compound sometimes resulted in brain damage among those working the sprayers. In the second half of the 20th century, monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA) and disodium methyl arsenate (DSMA) – less toxic organic forms of arsenic – replaced lead arsenate in agriculture. These organic arsenicals were in turn phased out in
16368-500: Was decorated internally with engaged half-columns, and contained the pedestal for the statue of the Jupiter, who would have been venerated here as a child-god: this attribution is confirmed by the discovery of numerous leaden votive figures, like those later made for dolls' houses, in the favissae on the east of the temple. The interior cell measures 13 by 14 metres (43 by 46 ft) with 6 half-columns per side. However, recently
16500-451: Was found that addition of sulfur, phosphorus, and iron oxides to high-arsenite soils greatly reduces arsenic phytotoxicity. Arsenic is used as a feed additive in poultry and swine production , in particular it was used in the U.S. until 2015 to increase weight gain, improve feed efficiency , and prevent disease. An example is roxarsone , which had been used as a broiler starter by about 70% of U.S. broiler growers. In 2011, Alpharma,
16632-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at
16764-495: Was indicated for syphilis , but has been superseded by modern antibiotics . However, arsenicals such as melarsoprol are still used for the treatment of trypanosomiasis , since although these drugs have the disadvantage of severe toxicity, the disease is almost uniformly fatal if untreated. In 2000 the US Food and Drug Administration approved arsenic trioxide for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that
16896-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and
17028-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in
17160-482: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include
17292-583: Was the first organometallic compound known (even though arsenic is not a true metal) and was named from the Greek κακωδία "stink" for its offensive, garlic-like odor; it is very toxic. Arsenic is the 53rd most abundant element in the Earth's crust , comprising about 1.5 parts per million (0.00015%). Typical background concentrations of arsenic do not exceed 3 ng/m in the atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 400 μg/kg in vegetation; 10 μg/L in freshwater and 1.5 μg/L in seawater. Arsenic
17424-1020: Was widely criticised and subsequently refuted by independent researcher groups. Arsenic may be an essential trace mineral in birds, involved in the synthesis of methionine metabolites, with feeding recommendations being between 0.012 and 0.050 mg/kg. Some evidence indicates that arsenic is an essential trace mineral in mammals. However, the biological function is not known. Arsenic has been linked to epigenetic changes , heritable changes in gene expression that occur without changes in DNA sequence . These include DNA methylation, histone modification, and RNA interference. Toxic levels of arsenic cause significant DNA hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes p16 and p53 , thus increasing risk of carcinogenesis . These epigenetic events have been studied in vitro using human kidney cells and in vivo using rat liver cells and peripheral blood leukocytes in humans. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
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