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121-651: During its early years, as Örgöö (anglicized as Urga ), it became Mongolia's preeminent religious centre and seat of the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu , the spiritual head of the Gelug lineage of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia . Following the regulation of Qing-Russian trade by the Treaty of Kyakhta in 1727 , a caravan route between Beijing and Kyakhta opened up, along which the city was eventually settled. With

242-693: A Tibetan Buddhist temple for Mongols in 1744 and had an edict inscribed on a stele to commemorate it in Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Manchu, with most likely Qianlong having first wrote the Chinese version before the Manchu. The Khalkha nobles' power was deliberately undermined by Qianlong when he appointed the Tibetan Ishi-damba-nima of the Lithang royal family of the eastern Tibetans as

363-716: A chance to remain independent. The Khoshud in Qinghai were conquered in 1723/24. The Dzungars were finally destroyed, and their territory conquered, in 1756/57 during the Dzungar genocide . The last Mongols to join the empire were the returning Torgud Kalmyks at the Ili in 1771. After conquering the Ming , the Qing identified their state as Zhongguo (中國, the term for "China" in modern Chinese ), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in

484-594: A devoted communist, before the political situation changed. In 1922, he returned to Tashkent and was Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Turkestan republic until 1924, when the region was divided into four republics – Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan . In 1924, Ryskulov was transferred to the staff of Comintern and was posted in Ulaanbaatar as chief soviet adviser to

605-471: A given banner, which they could not legally leave without the permission of the banner princes, who assigned pasturage rights to his subjects as he saw fit, in proportion to the number of adult males rather than in proportion to the amount of livestock that to graze. By the end of the eighteenth century, Mongolian nomadism had significantly decayed. The old days of nomad power and independence were gone. Apart from China 's industrial and technical advantage over

726-651: A major degradation to the soil quality of the region. A group of Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty called "Mongol followers" immigrated to Inner Mongolia who worked as servants for Mongols and Mongol princes and married Mongol women. Their descendants continued to marry Mongol women and changed their ethnicity to Mongol as they assimilated into the Mongol people, an example of this were the ancestors of Li Shouxin . They distinguished themselves apart from "true Mongols" 真蒙古. In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there,

847-961: A mobile monastery-town, Örgöö was often moved to various places along the Selenge , Orkhon and Tuul rivers, as supply and other needs would demand. During the Dzungar wars of the late 17th century, it was even moved to Inner Mongolia . As the city grew, it moved less and less. The movements of the city can be detailed as follows: Shireet Tsagaan Nuur (1639), Khoshoo Tsaidam (1640), Khentii Mountains (1654), Ogoomor (1688), Inner Mongolia (1690), Tsetserlegiin Erdene Tolgoi (1700), Daagandel (1719), Usan Seer (1720), Ikh Tamir (1722), Jargalant (1723), Eeven Gol (1724), Khujirtbulan (1729), Burgaltai (1730), Sognogor (1732), Terelj (1733), Uliastai River (1734), Khui Mandal (1736), Khuntsal (1740), Udleg (1742), Ogoomor (1743), Selbe (1747), Uliastai River (1756), Selbe (1762), Khui Mandal (1772) and Selbe (1778). In 1778,

968-590: A monastic rule, Internal Rule of the Grand Monastery or Yeke Kuriyen-u Doto'adu Durem . For example, in 1797 a decree of the 4th Jebtsundamba forbade "singing, playing with archery, myagman, chess, usury and smoking"). Executions were forbidden where the holy temples of the Bogd Jebtsundama could be seen, so capital punishment took place away from the city. In 1839, the 5th Bogd Jebtsundamba moved his residence to Gandan Hill, an elevated position to

1089-479: A settlement of the "Mongolian question" along Qing-era lines, but before this settlement could be put into effect, Khüree was occupied by the troops of Chinese warlord Xu Shuzheng , who forced the Mongolian nobles and clergy to renounce autonomy completely. The city changed hands twice in 1921. First, on 4 February, a mixed Russian/Mongolian force led by White Russian warlord Roman von Ungern-Sternberg captured

1210-405: Is brought down by its cold winter temperatures even though it is significantly warm from late April to early October. The city lies in the zone of discontinuous permafrost , which means that building is difficult in sheltered locations that preclude thawing in the summer, but easier on more exposed ones where soils fully thaw. Suburban residents live in traditional yurts that do not protrude into

1331-417: Is much frequented by merchants from China and Russia, and other places. By Zanabazar's death in 1723, Urga was Mongolia's preeminent monastery in terms of religious authority. A council of seven of the highest-ranking lamas ( Khamba Nomon Khan , Ded Khamba and five Tsorj ) made most of the city's religious decisions. It had also become Outer Mongolia's commercial center. From 1733 to 1778, Urga moved around

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1452-578: Is sometimes translated in English as the "Court of Colonial Affairs" or the "Board for the Administration of Outlying Regions". This office reported to the Qing emperor and would eventually be responsible not only for the administration of Inner and Outer Mongolia, but also oversaw the appointments of Ambans in Tibet and Xinjiang , as well as Qing relations with Russia . Apart from day-to-day work,

1573-409: Is surrounded by Töv Province , whose capital Zuunmod lies 43 kilometres (27 mi) south of the city. With a population of just over 1.6 million as of December 2022, it contains almost half of the country's total population. As the country's primate city , it serves as its cultural, industrial and financial heart and the center of its transport network . The city at its establishment in 1639

1694-516: Is used here in the broader historical sense , and includes an area much larger than the modern-day state of Mongolia . By the early 1630s Ligdan Khan saw much of his power weakened due to the disunity of the Mongol tribes. He was subsequently defeated by the Later Jin dynasty and died soon afterwards. His son Ejei handed the Yuan imperial seal over to Hong Taiji in 1635, thus ending the rule of

1815-728: The Community of Democracies , and has also lent its name to the Ulaanbaatar Dialogue on Northeast Asian Security. Chinggis Khaan International Airport in Ulaanbataar was opened to the public on 4 July 2021. Since the 2010s Ulaanbaatar has seen a construction boom filling the city with high-rise offices and apartment blocks. Since 2013, a number of landmark buildings and structures have been demolished in Ulaanbaatar, despite considerable public outcry. This includes

1936-474: The Gobi Desert to Kalgan , and southeast over the mountains to Peking. Urga was also a collection point for goods coming from further west. These were either sent to China or shipped north to Russia via Kyakhta, because of legal restrictions and the lack of good trade routes to the west. By 1908, there was a Russian quarter with a few hundred merchants and a Russian club and informal Russian mayor. East of

2057-668: The Kangxi Emperor after they came under an invasion from the Oirat Mongol Dzungar Khanate under its leader Galdan . The three khans of Khalkha in Outer Mongolia had established close ties with the Qing dynasty since the reign of Hong Taiji, but had remained effectively self-governing. While Qing rulers had attempted to achieve control over this region, the Oyirods to the west of Khalkha under

2178-769: The Keraites , a Nestorian Christian monarch whom Marco Polo identified as the legendary Prester John , is said to have had his palace here (the Black Forest of the Tuul River) and forbade hunting in the holy mountain Bogd Uul. The palace is said to be where Genghis Khan stayed with Yesui Khatun before attacking the Tangut in 1226. During the Mongol Empire (1206–1368) and Northern Yuan dynasty (1368–1635)

2299-560: The Khutugtu 's subjects". In 1761, a second amban was appointed for the same purpose, a Manchu one. A quarter-century later, in 1786, a decree issued in Peking gave right to the Urga ambans to decide the administrative affairs of Tusheet Khan and Setsen Khan territories. With this, Urga became the highest civil authority in the country. Based on Urga's Mongol governor Sanzaidorj's petition,

2420-720: The Northern Yuan dynasty in Inner Mongolia. However, the Khalkha Mongols in Outer Mongolia continued to rule until they were overrun by the Dzungar Khanate in 1690, and they submitted to the Qing dynasty in 1691. The Qing dynasty ruled Inner and Outer Mongolia for over 200 years. During this period, Qing rulers established separate administrative structures to govern each region. While the empire maintained firm control in both Inner and Outer Mongolia,

2541-637: The Qianlong Emperor officially recognized an annual ceremony on Bogd Khan Mountain in 1778 and provided the annual imperial donations. The city was the seat of the Jebtsundamba Khutugtus, two Qing ambans, and a Chinese trade town grew "four trees" 4.24 km (2.63 mi) east of the city center at the confluence of the Uliastai and Tuul rivers. By 1778, Urga may have had as many as ten thousand monks, who were regulated by

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2662-455: The Siberian anticyclone , Ulaanbaatar is the coldest national capital in the world, with a monsoon -influenced, cold semi-arid climate ( Köppen BSk , USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 3b). Aside from precipitation and from a thermal standpoint, the city is on the boundary between humid continental ( Dwb ) and subarctic ( Dwc ). This is due to its 10 °C (50 °F) mean temperature for

2783-640: The Yonghe Temple in Beijing on a stele entitled "Lama Shuo" (on Lamas) in 1792, and he also said it was "merely in pursuance of Our policy of extending Our affection to the weak." which led him to patronize the Yellow Church. Mark Elliott concludes that these actions delivered political benefits but "meshed seamlessly with his personal faith." Qianlong turned the Palace of Harmony (Yonghegong) into

2904-481: The steppe , three main factors combined to reinforce the decline of the Mongol's once-glorious military power and the decay of the nomadic economy. The first was the administrative unit of the banners, which the Qing rulers employed to divide the Mongols and sever their traditional lines of tribal authority; no prince could expand and acquire predominant power, and each of the separate banners was directly responsible to

3025-588: The "inner" Han people, into "one family" united in the Qing state. The Manchu language version of the Convention of Kyakhta (1768), a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits, referred to people from the Qing as "people from the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)", and the usage of "Chinese" (Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) in the convention certainly referred to

3146-463: The 18th century, despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement onto Manchu and Mongol lands, the Qing decided to settle Han refugees escaping the famine, floods, and drought of northern China into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. Consequently, Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s. This settlement was partially enabled by

3267-472: The 1910s estimated the population of Urga at 60,000, based on Nikolay Przhevalsky 's study in the 1870s. The city's population swelled during the Naadam festival and major religious festivals to more than 100,000. In 1919, the number of monks had reached 20,000, up from 13,000 in 1810. In 1910, the amban Sando went to quell a major fight between Gandan lamas and Chinese traders started by an incident at

3388-479: The 1950s, with most of the old ger districts replaced by Soviet-style flats . In 1990, Ulaanbaatar was the site of large demonstrations that led to Mongolia's transition to democracy and a market economy . Since 1990, an influx of migrants from the rest of the country has led to an explosive growth in its population, a major portion of whom live in ger districts, which has led to harmful air pollution in winter. Governed as an independent municipality , Ulaanbaatar

3509-585: The 19th century saw the heyday of the Qing order. Both Inner and Outer Mongolia continued to supply the Qing armies with cavalry , although the government had tried to keep the Outer Mongols apart from the empire's wars in that century. Since the dynasty placed the Mongols well under its control, the government no longer feared of them. At the same time, as the ruling Manchus had become increasingly sinicized and population pressure in China proper emerged,

3630-592: The 2010s, a construction boom has been ongoing, leading to many high-rise apartment and office blocks in the inner core as well as new settlement areas. Sükhbaatar Square , in the government district, is the center of Ulaanbaatar and contains in the middle a statue of revolutionary hero Damdin Sükhbaatar on horseback; and in the north side a statue of Chinggis Khan . To the north is the Government Palace , while Peace Avenue ( Enkh Taivny Urgon Chuloo ),

3751-603: The 3rd reincarnated Jebtsundamba instead of the Khalkha Mongol which they wanted to be appointed. The decision was first protested against by the Outer Mongol Khalkha nobles and then the Khalkhas sought to have him placed at a distance from them at Dolonnor, but Qianlong snubbed both of their requests, sending the message that he was putting an end to Outer Mongolian autonomy. The decision to make Tibet

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3872-713: The Da Yi Yu shop in the Baruun Damnuurchin market district. He was unable to bring the lamas under control, and was forced to flee back to his quarters. In 1911, with the Qing dynasty in China headed for total collapse, Mongolian leaders in Ikh Khüree for Naadam met in secret on Mount Bogd Khan Uul and resolved to end 220 years of Manchu control of their country. On 29 December 1911, the 8th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu

3993-496: The Emperor. In return, they would receive imperial gifts intended to be at least equal in value to the tribute, and thus the Qing court did not consider the presentation of tribute to be an economic burden to the tributaries. The Mongolian commoners, on the other hand, were for the most part banner subjects who owed tax and service obligations to their banner princes as well as the Qing government. The banner subjects each belonged to

4114-514: The Khobdo frontier and the guard post zone along the Russian border where Qing administration exercised more direct control. Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia's original 24 Aimags were torn apart and replaced by 49 khoshuus (banners) which would later be organized into six chuulgans (leagues, assemblies). The eight Chakhar khoshuus and the two Tümed khoshuus around Guihua were directly administered by

4235-581: The Khorchin alliance with the Qing. During the course of the 17th and 18th centuries, most regions inhabited by ethnic Mongols, notably Outer and Inner Mongolia became part of the Qing Empire . Even before the dynasty began to take control of China proper in 1644, the escapades of Ligden Khan had driven a number of Mongol tribes to ally with the Later Jin. The Later Jin conquered a Mongol tribe in

4356-539: The Manchu language. When the Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759 , they proclaimed that the new land which formerly belonged to the Dzungar Mongols was now absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial. The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non- Han peoples like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols, Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with

4477-545: The Mongolian People's Party, in which capacity he assisted in the creation of Mongolian People's Republic . In 1926-37, he was deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian republic. Ryskulov was arrested during the Great Purge , on 21 May 1937. He was tried and sentenced to death on 8 February 1938, and was executed two days later. Ryskulov was ' rehabilitated ' on 8 December 1956, meaning that

4598-402: The Mongolian population was shrinking, the number of monasteries was growing. In both Inner and Outer Mongolia, about half of the male population became monks , which was even higher than Tibet where only about one third of male population were monks. The third factor in Mongolia's social and economic decline was an outgrowth of the previous factor. The building of monasteries had open Mongolia to

4719-416: The Mongolian traditions of leadership. The banners and other Manchu institutions are examples of productive hybridity, combining "pure" Mongolian elements (such as the script) and Han Chinese elements. Intermarriage with Mongolian noble families had significantly cemented the alliance between the two peoples. Hong Taiji further expanded the marriage alliance policy; he used the marriage ties to draw in more of

4840-453: The Mongols for political reasons. Nurhaci said to the Mongols that "The languages of the Han and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based in any real shared culture, rather it

4961-439: The Mongols had run up unpayable debts . The monasteries had taken over substantial grazing lands, and monasteries , merchants and banner princes had leased many pasture lands to Han Chinese as farmland , although there was also popular resentment against oppressive taxation, Han settlement, shrinkage of pasture, as well as debts and abuse of the banner princes' authority. Many impoverished Mongols also began to take up farming in

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5082-601: The Mongols in Outer Mongolia (which is further from the capital Beijing ) enjoyed a higher degree of autonomy, and also retained their own language and culture during this period. The Khorchin Mongols allied with Nurhaci and the Jurchens in 1626, submitting to his rule for protection against the Khalkha Mongols and Chahar Mongols. 7 Khorchin nobles died at the hands of Khalkha and Chahars in 1625. This started

5203-531: The Mongols to the empire and it was Qing policy to fuse Tibetan Buddhism with Chinese religious ideas insofar as Mongolian sentiment would allow. For example, the widely-respected Shu Han General known for his loyalty during the Three Kingdom period [220 A.D. to 280 A.D.] Guan Yu, the Guandi , was equated with a figure which had long been identified with the Tibetan and Mongolian folk hero Geser Khan . While

5324-657: The Mongols. In the Manchu official Tulisen 's Manchu language account of his meeting with the Torghut Mongol leader Ayuki Khan , it was mentioned that the Torghut Mongols were unlike the Russians but were instead like the "people of the Central Kingdom" (中國之人; Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) such as the Manchus. From the early years, the Manchus' relations with the neighboring Mongol tribes had been crucial in

5445-620: The Natural History Museum, and stated that the government planned to renovate them instead. Ulaanbaatar is located at about 1,350 metres (4,430 ft) above mean sea level , slightly east of the center of Mongolia, on the Tuul River , a sub- tributary of the Selenge , in a valley at the foot of the mountain Bogd Khan Uul . Bogd Khan Uul is a broad, heavily forested mountain rising 2,250 metres (7,380 ft) to

5566-515: The Outer Mongols or the Khalkhas were permitted to settle their differences in accordance with the traditional Khalkha Code. To the Manchus, the Mongol link was martial and military. Originally as "privileged subjects", the Mongols were obligated to assist the Qing court in conquest and suppression of rebellion throughout the empire. Indeed, during much of the dynasty the Qing military power structure drew heavily on Mongol forces to police and expand

5687-487: The Qing administration. If a banner prince made trouble, the Qing government had the power to dismiss him immediately without worrying about his lineage. The second important factor in the taming of the once powerful Mongols was the " Yellow Hat " school of the Tibetan Buddhism . The monasteries and lamas under the authority of the reincarnating lama resident in the capital Beijing were exempt from taxes and services and enjoyed many privileges. The Qing government wanted to tie

5808-445: The Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing 張文慶

5929-413: The Qing dynasty had put both Inner and Outer Mongolia under its control. The Oirat Khoshut Upper Mongols in Qinghai rebelled against the Qing during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor but were crushed and defeated. Khalkha Mongol rebels under Prince Chingünjav had plotted with the Dzungar leader Amursana and led a rebellion against the Qing at the same time as the Dzungars. The Qing crushed

6050-502: The Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners, and from crossing into neidi (the Han Chinese 18 provinces). Doing so would result in serious punishment, thereby keeping the Mongol clans isolated and disconnected, preventing the formation of united Khanate and maintaining Qing control in these regions. Mongol pilgrims wanting to leave their banner's borders for religious reasons such as pilgrimage had to apply for passports to give them permission. During

6171-560: The Qing government. Plus, followings were directly controlled by the Qing emperor. Outer Mongolia West Hetao Mongolia While the majority of the Mongolian population during this period was illiterate , the Mongols did produce some excellent literature . Literate Mongols in the 19th century produced many historical writings in both Mongolian and Tibetan and considerable work in philology . This period also saw many translations from Chinese and Tibetan fiction . During Qing era, Hüree (modern day Ulaanbaatar , capital of Mongolia)

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6292-432: The Red Army had taken Tashkent in 1920, he was appointed Chairman of the Central Executive Committee (ie 'Head of State') of the Turkestan soviet republic, which then included all of Russian-ruled Central Asia until he was replaced with Mukhammedzhan Biserov . Ryskulov proposed that Turkmenistan should be an independent republic ruled by a Turkic Communist Party, separate from the All-Russian Communist Party. This proposal

6413-445: The Tibetan language and studied Buddhist texts assiduously. His beliefs are reflected in the Tibetan Buddhist imagery of his tomb, perhaps the most personal and private expression of an emperor's life. He supported the Yellow Church (the Tibetan Buddhist Gelukpa sect) to "maintain peace among the Mongols" since the Mongols were followers of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama of the Yellow Church, and Qianlong had this explanation placed in

6534-434: The White Gate at Nisekh in September 2013, the Victims of Political Persecution Memorial Museum in October 2019, the Natural History Museum in December 2019, Buildings #3 and #6 of the National University of Mongolia , and the main building of the University of Finance and Economics in 2023. The 2019 Mongolian government budget originally included items for the demolition of a number of historic neoclassical buildings in

6655-436: The Yuan seal is also said to be handed in to latter, ending the Northern Yuan. Ejei Khan was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王). The surrendered Inner Mongols were divided into separate administrative banners. Soon afterwards the Manchus founded the Qing dynasty and became the ruler of China proper . Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he

6776-536: The anger of the monasteries and the laity for several reasons, the net effect of the monasteries' role was support for Chinese trade. Nevertheless, the empire did make various attempts to restrict the activities of these Han merchants such as the implementation of annual licensing, because it had been the Qing policy to keep the Mongols as a military reservoir, and it was considered that the Han Chinese trade penetration would undermine this objective, although in many cases such attempts had little effects. The first half of

6897-402: The bones of which are found abundantly around Ulaanbaatar. A number of Xiongnu -era royal tombs have been discovered around Ulaanbaatar, including the tombs of Belkh Gorge near Dambadarjaalin monastery and tombs of Songinokhairkhan. Located on the banks of the Tuul River , Ulaanbaatar has been well within the sphere of Turco-Mongol nomadic empires throughout history. Wang Khan , Toghrul of

7018-625: The city moved from Khui Mandal and settled for good at its current location, near the confluence of the Selbe and Tuul rivers, and beneath Bogd Khan Uul , at that time also on the caravan route from Beijing to Kyakhta . One of the earliest Western mentions of Urga is the account of the Scottish traveller John Bell in 1721: What they call the Urga is the court, or the place where the prince (Tusheet Khan) and high priest (Bogd Jebtsundamba Khutugtu) reside, who are always encamped at no great distance from one another. They have several thousand tents about them, which are removed from time to time. The Urga

7139-419: The city was 659 millimetres or 25.94 inches at the Khureltogoot Astronomical Observatory on Mount Bogd Khan Uul. Ulaanbaatar has an average annual temperature of 0.2 °C or 32.4 °F, making it the coldest capital in the world (almost as cold as Nuuk , Greenland , but Greenland is not independent). Nuuk has a tundra climate with consistent cold temperatures throughout the year. Ulaanbaatar's annual average

7260-475: The city was named Ulaanbaatar Khot ( lit.   ' Red-Hero City ' ). During the socialist period , especially following the Second World War , most of the old ger districts were replaced by Soviet-style blocks of flats , often financed by the Soviet Union. Urban planning began in the 1950s, and much of the city core today is a result of construction between 1960 and 1985. The Trans-Mongolian Railway , connecting Ulaanbaatar with Moscow and Beijing,

7381-457: The city, freeing the Bogd Khan from Chinese imprisonment and killing a part of the Chinese garrison. Baron Ungern's capture of Urga was followed by the clearing out of Mongolia's small gangs of demoralized Chinese soldiers and, at the same time, looting and murder of foreigners, including a vicious pogrom that killed off the Jewish community . On 22 February 1921, the Bogd Khan was once again elevated to Great Khan of Mongolia in Urga. However, at

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7502-411: The city. Much of these new arrivals settle in ger districts without plumbing, sanitation, central heating, and basic services. This rise in population, including the formation of new settlement areas, has not been accompanied with appropriate investment in infrastructure and services, hampering development and causing a myriad of problems. Ulaanbaatar was the scene of riots in 2008 after supporters of

7623-438: The collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the city was a focal point for independence efforts, leading to the proclamation of the Bogd Khanate in 1911 led by the 8th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, or Bogd Khan , and again during the communist revolution of 1921 . With the proclamation of the Mongolian People's Republic in 1924, the city was officially renamed Ulaanbaatar and declared the country's capital. Modern urban planning began in

7744-404: The control of Soviet Russia. On 29 October 1924, the town was renamed Ulaanbaatar . On the session of the 1st Great People's Khuraldaan of Mongolia in 1924, a majority of delegates had expressed their wish to change the capital city's name to Baatar Khot ( lit.   ' Hero City ' ). However, under pressure from Turar Ryskulov , a Kazakh Soviet activist of the Communist International ,

7865-474: The dynasty began to abandon its earlier attempts to block Han Chinese trade penetration and settlement in the steppe . After all, Han Chinese economic penetration served the dynasty's interests, because it not only provided support of the government's Mongolian administrative apparatus, but also bound the Mongols more tightly to the rest of empire. The Qing administrators, increasing in league with Han Chinese trading firms, solidly supported Chinese commerce . There

7986-526: The dynasty development. Nurhaci had exchanged wives and concubines with the Khalkha Mongols since 1594, and also received titles from them in the early 17th century. He also consolidated his relationship with portions of the Khorchin and Kharachin populations of eastern Mongols. They recognized Nurhaci as Khan , and in return leading lineages of those groups were titled by Nurhaci and married with his extended family. Nurhaci chose to variously emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with

8107-422: The empire. The Mongolian society consisted essentially of two classes, the nobles and the commoners . Every member of the Mongolian nobility held a rank in the Qing aristocracy, and there were ten ranks in total, while only the banner princes ruled with temporal power. In acknowledgement of their subordination to the Qing dynasty, the banner princes annually presented tributes consisting of specified items to

8228-420: The extensive borrowing of Mongol princes, who gave Banner lands to Han farmers as remittance for their debt to Han merchants. Accordingly, in 1791, the Qing government was petitioned by the Mongol prince of the Ghorlos Front Banner to legalize the Han settlers in the area. By the late 19th and early 20th century, Qing and Mongol nobles had sold the grassland of the Horqin region to Han Chinese farmers, resulting in

8349-414: The governor at Uliastai. While the military governor of Uliastai originally had direct jurisdiction over the region around Kobdo in westernmost Outer Mongolia, the region later became an independent administrative post. The Qing government administered both Inner and Outer Mongolia in accordance with the Collected Statutes of the Qing dynasty (Da Qing Hui Dian) and their precedents. Only in internal disputes

8470-417: The heart of Ulaanbaatar, including the Natural History Museum , Opera and Ballet House , Drama Theatre and National Library . The decision was met by a public outcry and criticism from the Union of Mongolian Architects, which demanded that the buildings be preserved and restored. In January 2020, culture minister Yondonperenlein Baatarbileg denied that the government intended to demolish buildings other than

8591-406: The imperial capital Karakorum) in what is now Burd sum , Övörkhangai , around 230 kilometres (143 miles) south-west from the present site of Ulaanbaatar, and was intended by the Mongol nobles to be the seat of Zanabazar , the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu . Zanabazar returned to Mongolia from Tibet in 1651, and founded seven aimags (monastic departments) in Urga, later establishing four more. As

8712-597: The jurisdiction of the military governor of Uliastai , a post only held by Qing bannermen, although in practice by the beginning of the 19th century the Amban at Urga had general supervision over the eastern part of the region, the tribal domains or aimags of the Tushiyetu Khan and Sechen Khan, in contrast to the domains of the Sayin Noyan Khan and Jasaghtu Khan located in the west, under the supervision of

8833-684: The lamas". The Manchu leaders themselves like Hung Taiji did not personally believe in Tibetan Buddhism and did not want to convert, in fact the words "incorrigibles" and liars" were used to describe the Lamas by Hung Taiji, however Hung Taiji patronized Buddhism in order to exploit the Tibetans and Mongols belief in the religion. According to the Manchu historian Jin Qicong , Buddhism was used by Qing rulers to control Mongolians and Tibetans; it

8954-546: The last Mongol khan Ligdan Khan , he took on more and more the trappings of a universal king, including the sponsorship of the Tibetan Buddhism that the Mongols believed in. In private however, he viewed the belief in the Buddhist faith by the Mongols with disdain and thought to be destructive to Mongol identity; he said "The Mongolian princes are abandoning the Mongolian language; their names are all in imitation of

9075-517: The latter. In the meantime Kangxi organized a congress of the rulers of Khalkha and Inner Mongolia in Duolun in 1691, at which the Khalkha khans formally declared allegiance to him. The war against Galdan essentially brought the Khalkhas to the empire, and the three khans of the Khalkha were formally inducted into the inner circles of the Qing aristocracy by 1694. Thus, by the end of the 17th century

9196-498: The leadership of Galdan were also actively making such attempts. After the end of the war against the Three Feudatories , the Kangxi Emperor was able to turn his attentions to this problem and tried diplomatic negotiations. But Galdan ended up with attacking the Khalkha lands, and Kangxi's responded by personally leading Eight Banner contingents with heavy guns into the field against Galdan's forces, eventually defeating

9317-523: The main thoroughfare through town, runs along the south side of the square. Mongolia under Qing rule Mongolia under Qing rule was the rule of the Manchu -led Qing dynasty of China over the Mongolian Plateau , including the four Outer Mongolian aimags ( a.k.a. "leagues" ) and the six Inner Mongolian aimags from the 17th century to the end of the dynasty. The term "Mongolia"

9438-478: The main town was the Russian consulate, built in 1863, with an Orthodox church, a post office and 20 Cossack guards. It was fortified in 1900 and briefly occupied by troops during the Boxer Rebellion . There was a telegraph line north to Kyakhta and southeast to Kalgan and weekly postal service along these routes. Beyond the Russian consulate was the Chinese trading post called Maimaicheng , and nearby

9559-528: The main, natural route from the capital region of Karakorum to the birthplace and tomb of the Khans in the Khentii mountain region ( Ikh Khorig ) passed through the area of Ulaanbaatar. The Tuul River naturally leads to the north-side of Bogd Khan Mountain, which stands out as a large island of forest positioned conspicuously at the south-western edge of the Khentii mountains. As the main gate and stopover point on

9680-589: The majority of delegates voted in favor of renaming the capital of Mongolia to Bator-khoto ("City of the Hero," or "City of the Hero," implicitly referring to the figure of Genghis Khan). Nevertheless, at the insistence of the Comintern representative, Soviet-Kazakhstan political figure T. R. Ryskulov , who previously had no connection to Mongolia, the city was named Ulan Bator Khoto ("City of the Red Hero") [14]. After

9801-425: The month of May. The city features brief, warm summers and long, bitterly cold and dry winters. The coldest January temperatures, usually at the time just before sunrise, are between −36 and −40 °C (−32.8 and −40.0 °F) with no wind, because of temperature inversion . Most of the annual precipitation of 267 millimetres (10.51 in) falls from May to September. The highest recorded annual precipitation in

9922-572: The name of " New Policies " or "New Administration" ( xinzheng ). After the invitation of the 3rd Dalai Lama to Mongolia and conversion of Altan Khan , king of the Tümed Mongols in 1578, nearly all Mongols had become Buddhist within 50 years, including tens of thousands of monks, almost all followers of the Gelug school and loyal to the Dalai Lama . During Hong Taiji 's campaign against

10043-612: The name of the city was spelled Ulaanbaatar koto during the decade in which Mongolia used the Latin alphabet . Human habitation at the site of Ulaanbaatar dates from the Lower Paleolithic , with a number of sites on the Bogd Khan , Buyant-Ukhaa and Songinokhairkhan mountains, revealing tools which date from 300,000 years ago to 40,000–12,000 years ago. These Upper Paleolithic people hunted mammoth and woolly rhinoceros ,

10164-417: The office also edited its own statutes and a code of law for Outer Mongolia. Unlike Tibet, Mongolia during the Qing period did not have any overall indigenous government. In Inner Mongolia, the empire maintained its presence through the Qing military forces based along Mongolia's southern and eastern frontiers, and the region was under tight control. In Outer Mongolia, the entire territory was technically under

10285-506: The only place where the reincarnation came from was intentional by the Qing to curtail the Mongols. The Bogda Khan Mountain had silk, candles, and incense sent to it from Urga by the two Qing ambans. The Jebtsundamba and Panchen Lama were referred to as bogda by the Mongols. Annually Mongol nobles had to pay a visit to the Qing Emperor who was referred to as "Bogda Khan", in Beijing. The term " Bogda Khan " (or "Bogda Khakan")

10406-417: The opposition parties disputed the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party 's claim of victory after the parliamentary elections . A four-day state of emergency was declared, the capital was placed under a curfew, and alcohol sales banned with no further riots taking place. This was the first deadly riot in modern Ulaanbaatar's history. In April 2013, Ulaanbaatar hosted the 7th Ministerial Conference of

10527-418: The palace of the Manchu viceroy. With the growth of Western trade at the Chinese ports, the tea trade to Russia declined, some Chinese merchants left, and wool became the main export. Manufactured goods still came from Russia, but most were now brought from Kalgan by caravan. The annual trade was estimated at 25 million rubles, nine-tenths in Chinese hands and one-tenth in Russian. The Moscow trade expedition of

10648-458: The penetration of Chinese trade . Previously Mongolia had little internal trade other than non-market exchanges on a relatively limited scale, and there was no Mongolian merchant class. The monasteries greatly aided the Han Chinese merchants to establish their commercial control throughout Mongolia and provided them with direct access to the steppe. While the Han merchants frequently provoked

10769-461: The position. This had the impact of weakening relations between different Mongol clans, while also increasing ties between Mongol culture and the Qing court. Additionally, the Banner structure heightened the influence of Chinese culture over the Mongol clans, especially within Inner Mongolia, where Mongol princes used Chinese architecture to build their palaces. Furthermore, Mongols were forbidden by

10890-485: The process of war against the Ming. Nurhaci's early relations with the Mongols tribes was mainly an alliance. After Ligden's defeat and death his son had to submit to the Later Jin, and when the Qing dynasty was founded the following year, most of what is now called Inner Mongolia already belonged to the new state. The Khalkha Mongols in Outer Mongolia joined in 1691 when their defeat by the Dzungars left them without

11011-477: The rebellion and executed Chingünjav and his entire family. Once brought under Qing control, the traditional clan structures of Inner and Outer Mongolia were replaced with the Manchu Banner system . This new administrative structure had drastic consequences for Mongolian culture, as the leader ( Jasagh ) of each banner was chosen by Qing authorities, although existing Mongol princes were often picked for

11132-474: The revolutionary steadfastness of the Mongolian people in their struggle for independence. In the Western world, Ulaanbaatar continued to be generally known as Urga or Khuree until 1924, and afterward as Ulan Bator Russian : Улан-Батор , romanized :  Ulan-Bator . This form was defined two decades before the Mongolian name got its current Cyrillic spelling and transliteration (1941–1950); however,

11253-471: The riverine forest of the Tuul River is composed of broad-leaved, deciduous poplars , elms and willows . Ulaanbaatar lies at roughly the same latitude as Vienna , Munich , Orléans and Seattle . It lies at roughly the same longitude as Chongqing , Hanoi and Jakarta . Owing to its high elevation, its relatively high latitude, its location hundreds of kilometres from any coast, and the effects of

11374-670: The route to and from the holy Khentii mountains, the Bogd Khan Mountain saw large amounts of traffic going past it and was protected from early times. Even after the Northern Yuan period it served as the location of the annual and triannual Assembly of Nobles ( Khan Uuliin Chuulgan ). Founded in 1639 as a yurt monastery as Örgöö ( lit.   ' palace- yurt ' ), the settlement was first located at Lake Shireet Tsagaan nuur (75 kilometres (47 miles) directly east of

11495-740: The same time that Baron Ungern was taking control of Urga, a Soviet-supported Communist Mongolian force led by Damdin Sükhbaatar was forming in Russia, and in March they crossed the border. Ungern and his men rode out in May to meet Red Russian and Red Mongolian troops, but suffered a disastrous defeat in June. In July 1921, the Communist Soviet-Mongolian army became the second conquering force in six months to enter Urga, and Mongolia came under

11616-435: The secular government and the Bogd Khan 's palace present, the city's name was changed to Niĭslel Khüree ( Mongolian : ᠨᠡᠶᠢᠰᠯᠡᠯ ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ ; Нийслэл Хүрээ , lit.   'Capital Khüree'). When the city became the capital of the new Mongolian People's Republic on 29 October 1924, its name was changed to Ulaanbaatar ( lit.   ' Red Hero ' ). At the meeting of the 1st Great People's Khural in 1924,

11737-709: The soil. Extreme temperatures in the city range from −43.9 °C (−47.0 °F) in January 1957 to 39.0 °C (102.2 °F) in July 1988. The city's inner core consists of a central district built in 1940s- and 1950s-style Soviet architecture, surrounded by and mingled with residential concrete towerblocks and large ger districts . Starting after the fall of communism, many of the towerblocks' ground floors were modified and upgraded to small shops, and many new buildings have been erected—some illegally, as some private companies erect buildings without legal licenses/permits. Since

11858-414: The south of Ulaanbaatar. It forms the boundary between the steppe zone to the south and the forest-steppe zone to the north. Traditionally, Ulaanbaatar is said to be surrounded by four peaks, clockwise from west: Songino Khairkhan, Chingeltei, Bayanzurkh, and finally Bogd Khan Uul. The forests of the mountains surrounding Ulaanbaatar are composed of evergreen pines, deciduous larches and birches , while

11979-471: The steppe, renting farmlands from their banner princes or from Han merchant landlords who had acquired them for agriculture as settlement for debts. Anyway, the Qing attitude towards Han Chinese colonization of Mongolian lands grew more and more favorable under pressure of events, particularly after the Amur Annexation by Russia in 1860. This would reach a peak during the early 20th century, under

12100-554: The twenty-one Inner Mongolian tribes that joined the alliance with the Manchus. Despite the growing intimacy of Manchu-Mongol ties, Ligdan Khan , the last Khan from the Chakhar , resolutely opposed the growing Manchu power and viewed himself as the legitimate representative of the Mongolian imperial tradition. But after his repeated losses in battle to the Manchus in the 1620s and early 1630s, as well as his own death in 1634, his son Ejei Khan eventually submitted to Hong Taiji in 1635 and

12221-735: The vicinity of its present location. In 1754, the Erdene Shanzodba Yam ^ of Urga was given authority to supervise the administrative affairs of the Bogd's subjects. It also served as the city's chief judicial court. In 1758, the Qianlong Emperor appointed the Khalkha Vice General Sanzaidorj as the first Mongol amban of Urga, with full authority to "oversee the Khuree and administer well all

12342-417: The vote, he gave a speech: Genghis Khan was a national hero, but he was a conqueror. Present-day People's Mongolia has no imperialistic goals; it wants to liberate itself and develop independently, along revolutionary lines. Therefore, the name Ulaanbaatar-Khoto will be a revolutionary name, and it will be understandable to everyone. The prefix Ulan ("red") gives this name a revolutionary character, symbolizing

12463-587: The way for the new constitution of 1992 and the dissolution of the Mongolian People's Republic . Since Mongolia's transition to a market economy in 1990, the city has experienced rapid growth. From a population of 535,000 in 1990, it had grown to 1 million inhabitants by 2007, and 1.5 million by 2021, or about half the entire country's population. Much of this rapid population rise is attributed to migration from rural areas, as herder families abandon their traditional lifestyles in search of opportunities in

12584-657: The west of the Baruun Damnuurchin markets. Part of the city was moved to nearby Tolgoit. In 1855, the part of the camp that moved to Tolgoit was brought back to its 1778 location, and the 7th Bogd Jebtsundamba returned to the Zuun Khuree. The Gandan Monastery flourished as a center of philosophical studies. Following the Treaty of Kyakhta in 1727, Urga (Ulaanbaatar) was a major point of the Kyakhta trade between Russia and China – mostly Siberian furs for Chinese cloth and later tea. The route ran south to Urga, southeast across

12705-881: Was a Soviet politician, the chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ie 'Head of State'). Ryskulov was born on 26 December 1894 in East-Talgar volost of Semirechensk Province (now Talgar District of Almaty Region ), in the family of a nomadic herder. He took part in the Central Asian revolt of 1916 and then in the Russian Revolution in Turkestan and Kyrgyzstan . After

12826-593: Was a major site of demonstrations that led to Mongolia's transition to democracy and market economy in 1990 . Starting on 10 December 1989, protesters outside the Youth Culture Center called for Mongolia to implement perestroika and glasnost in their full sense. After months of large-scale demonstrations and hunger strikes, the governing Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party resigned on 9 March 1990. The provisional government announced Mongolia's first free elections , which were held in July 1990, paving

12947-497: Was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy. The Khalkha Mongols were more reluctant to come under Qing rule, only submitting to

13068-416: Was completed in 1956, and cinemas, theaters, museums and other modern facilities were erected. Most of the temples and monasteries of pre-socialist Khüree were destroyed following the anti-religious purges of the late 1930s. The Gandan monastery was reopened in 1944 when the U.S. Vice President Henry Wallace asked to see a monastery during his visit to Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar and chiefly Sükhbaatar Square

13189-549: Was declared ruler of an independent Mongolia and assumed the title Bogd Khan. Khüree as the seat of the Jebtsundamba Khutugtu was the logical choice for the capital of the new state. However, following the tripartite Kyakhta agreement of 1915 , Mongolia's status was effectively reduced to mere autonomy. In 1919, Mongolian nobles, over the opposition of the Bogd Khan, agreed with the Chinese resident Chen Yi on

13310-519: Was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu 馬進祿 were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers. The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper. Inner Mongols and Khalkha Mongols rarely knew their ancestors past 4 generations and Mongol tribal society

13431-520: Was for pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism", when he said to the Mongols: "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages." As Nurhaci formally declared independence from the Ming dynasty and proclaimed the Later Jin in 1616, he gave himself a Mongolian-style title, consolidating his claim to

13552-606: Was home for rich culture. Hüree style songs constitute a large amount of the Mongolian traditional culture; some examples include "Alia Sender", "Arvan Tavnii Sar", "Tsagaan Sariin Shiniin Negen", "Zadgai Tsagaan Egule" and many more. Many books, including chronicles and poems, were written by the Mongols during the Qing period. Notable ones: Turar Ryskulov Turar Ryskululy Ryskulov ( Kazakh : Тұрар Рысқұлұлы Рысқұлов , Tūrar Rysqūlūly Rysqūlov ; Russian: Турар Рыскулович Рыскулов; 26 December 1894 – 10 February 1938)

13673-529: Was increasingly converted to agricultural use. Even during the 18th century growing number of Han settlers had already illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe and to lease land from monasteries and banner princes, slowing diminishing the grazing areas for the Mongols' livestock. While alienation of pasture in this way was largely illegal, the practice continued unchecked. By 1852, Han Chinese merchants had deeply penetrated Inner Mongolia, and

13794-398: Was little that ordinary Mongols, who remained in the banners and continued their lives as herdsmen, could do to protect themselves against the growing exactions that banner princes, monasteries, and Han creditors imposed upon them, and ordinary herdsmen had little resource against exorbitant taxation and levies. In the 19th century, agriculture had been spread in the steppe and pastureland

13915-530: Was not organized among patrilineal clans contrary to what was commonly thought, but included unrelated people at the base unit of organization. The Qing tried but failed to promote the Chinese Neo-Confucian ideology of organizing society along patrimonial clans among the Mongols. For the administration of Mongol regions, a bureau of Mongol affairs was founded, called Monggol jurgan in Manchu. By 1638 it had been renamed to Lifan Yuan , though it

14036-553: Was of little relevance to ordinary Manchus in the Qing dynasty. The Tibetan Buddhism was adored by the Qing court. The long association of the Manchu rulership with the Bodhisattva Manjusri and his own interest in Tibetan Buddhism gave credence to the Qianlong Emperor's patronage of Tibetan Buddhist art and patronage of translations of the Buddhist canon. The accounts in court records and Tibetan language sources affirm his personal commitment. He quickly learned to read

14157-545: Was overruled by Lenin , who summon Ryskulov to Moscow in May 1920 and persuaded him to abandon the idea. In 1921-22, Ryskulov was appointed Deputy People's Commissar for Nationalities, under Joseph Stalin , who was People's Commissar. In June 1923, Stalin accused him of ' pan-Turkism ' and of having been a supporter of Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev , the leader of the Tatar communists, who was under arrest. Ryskulov retorted by pointing out that Stalin had himself praised Sultan-Galiev as

14278-535: Was placed under house arrested in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai then bid his time and then he and his brother Lubuzung revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories , with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The Qing then crushed the rebels in a battle on April 20, 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title

14399-590: Was referred to as Örgöö ( Mongolian : ᠥᠷᠭᠦᠭᠡ ; Өргөө , lit.   'Palace'). This name was eventually adapted as Urga in the West. By 1651, it began to be referred to as Nomiĭn Khüree ( Mongolian : ᠨᠣᠮ ‍ᠤᠨ ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ ; Номын хүрээ , lit.   'Khüree of Wisdom'), and by 1706 it was referred to as Ikh Khüree ( Mongolian : ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ ; Их хүрээ , lit.   'Great Khüree'). The Chinese equivalent, Dà Kùlún ( Chinese : 大庫倫 , Mongolian : Да Хүрээ ),

14520-407: Was rendered into Western languages as Kulun or Kuren . Other names include Bogdiin Khuree ( Mongolian : ᠪᠣᠭᠳᠠ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ ; Богдын хүрээ , lit.   'The Bogd 's Khüree'), or simply Khüree ( Mongolian : ᠬᠦᠷᠢᠶᠡᠨ ; Хүрээ , romanized :  Küriye ), itself a term originally referring to an enclosure or settlement . Upon independence in 1911 , with both

14641-476: Was used by the Mongols to refer to the Emperor (Hwang-ti). Mongolia during Qing period was divided into two main parts: Inner (Manchu: Dorgi) Mongolia and Outer (Manchu: Tülergi) Mongolia. The division affected today's separation of modern Mongolia and Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China. In addition to the Outer Mongolian 4 aimags and Inner Mongolian 6 leagues, there were also large areas such as

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