In the Holy Land (1095–1291)
110-633: Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The Crusade of Varna was an unsuccessful military campaign mounted by several European leaders to check the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Central Europe , specifically the Balkans between 1443 and 1444. It was called by Pope Eugene IV on 1 January 1443 and led by King Władysław III of Poland , John Hunyadi , Voivode of Transylvania , and Duke Philip
220-425: A heretic on 25 June 1439. The business of electing a new pope was complicated by the fact that there was only one cardinal at Basel, Louis Aleman . The Council decided to appoint an electoral committee, composed of thirty-two electors, who were selected by a nominating committee. The conclave began on 30 October 1439. On 5 November, the council elected the ambitious Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy , as antipope under
330-453: A Last Voyage and two additional Holy Wars. These Voyages include the First through Eighth Crusades in current numbering. Shortly thereafter, French Jesuit Louis Maimbourg (1610–1686) published his Histoire des Croisades pour la délivrance de la Terre Sainte (1675), identify the First through Fifth Crusades. In his work The Crusades—An Encyclopedia, historian Alan V. Murray further explains
440-613: A Nicaean stronghold west of Constantinople. Crusade against the Mongols. The Crusade against the Mongols (1241) was led by Conrad IV of Germany and is also known as the Anti-Mongol Crusade of 1241. British historian Peter Jackson documented this crusade in his study Crusade against the Mongols (1241) . Seventh Crusade. The Seventh Crusade (1248–1254) is also known as the Crusade of Louis IX of France to
550-520: A community of Canons Regular of San Giorgio in Alga in his native city in 1400, and received papal approval in November 1404. On 30 December 1407, at the age of twenty-four, Gabriel was appointed Bishop of Siena by his maternal uncle, Pope Gregory XII . He was below the minimum age for consecration as a bishop, and therefore his uncle granted him a dispensation; next day, he was granted possession of
660-836: A crusade (as noted above). In the twelve Latin chronicles , the event is called, for example, the Deeds of the Franks or the Expedition to Jerusalem. Anna Komnene simply notes the arrival of the various armies in Constantinople, and Arabic historian ibn Athir calls it the Coming of the Franks. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 1 of the Holy Warre. It is unclear as to who first used the term, but it has been credited to Louis Maimbourg in his 1675 Histoire des Croisades. The term
770-738: A crusade against the Ottomans, and with the end of both the Hungarian civil war and a nearly simultaneous one in Byzantium , they were able to begin negotiations and planning realistically. The impetus required to turn the plans into action was provided by Hunyadi between 1441–1442. In 1441, he defeated a raid led by Ishak Pasha of Smederevo. He nearly annihilated Mezid Bey's army in Transylvania on 22 March 1442, and in September he defeated
880-674: A crusade or pilgrimage to the Holy Land c. 1275 and was captured by the Egyptians and held for 32 years. The only known reference to this is by Thomas Fuller in his Historie of the Holy Warre , where it is referred to as the Last Voyage. Siege of Acre. The Siege of Acre (1291) marked the loss of the Holy Land to the Mamluks, typically identifying the end of the traditional Crusades. The anonymous Les Gestes des Chiprois (Deeds of
990-427: A further edict " Sicut Dudum " that prohibited wars being waged against the islands and affirming the ban on enslavement. Eugene condemned the enslavement of the peoples of the newly colonized Canary Islands and, under pain of excommunication, ordered all such slaves to be immediately set free. Eugene went on to say that, "If this is not done when the fifteen days have passed, they incur the sentence of excommunication by
1100-647: A large tribute. Zeno and Pietro da Canale were accused by Francesco Dandolo with arranging an anti-Turkish alliance. By the end of the year the Holy League (also known as the Naval League) "a union, society and league for the discomfiture of the Turks and the defence of the true faith", had been formally constituted. In 1334, Zeno took command of the league's fleet and defeated the fleet of the Beylik of Karasi at
1210-415: A letter to Murad, stating that his ambassador, Stojka Gisdanić, was travelling to Edirne with full powers to negotiate on his behalf. He asked that, once an agreement was reached, Murad send his own ambassadors with the treaty and his sworn oath to Hungary, at which point Władysław could also swear. That same day, Władysław held a Diet at Buda , where he swore before Cardinal Julian Cesarini to lead
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#17327650945131320-542: A neutral position on territorial disputes between Portugal and Castile regarding rights claimed in Africa. Richard Raiswell interprets the bulls of Eugene as helping in some way the development of thought which perceived the enslavement of Africans by the Portuguese and later Europeans "as dealing a blow for Christendom". Joel S Panzer views Sicut Dudum as a significant condemnation of slavery, issued sixty years before
1430-588: A new expedition against the Ottomans in the summer. The strongest remaining supporter of Ladislaus the Posthumous' claim for the throne also agreed to a truce, thus removing the danger of another civil war. Between June and August 1444, negotiations for a treaty were carried out, first in Edirne , and then in Szeged . The crusaders were not entirely interested in peace, however, especially with Cesarini pushing for
1540-632: A serious contest with the powerful house of Colonna that nominally supported the local rights of Rome against the interests of the Papacy. A truce was soon arranged. By far the most important feature of Eugene IV's pontificate was the great struggle between the Pope and the Council of Basel (1431–1439), the final embodiment of the Conciliar movement . On 23 July 1431, his legate Giuliano Cesarini opened
1650-723: Is as follows. First Crusade. The First Crusade (1095–1099) refers to the activities from the Council of Clermont of 1095 through the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the battle of Ascalon in 1099. Sometimes segregated into the People's Crusade and the Princes' Crusade. Some accounts also include the Crusade of 1101 here. The original chroniclers of the First Crusade did not, of course, refer to it as such, or even as
1760-469: Is by a combination of dates and descriptive terminology relating to participation, goals, or both, and this is the solution that has been adopted [here]. However, the names of the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Crusades, which are at least unambiguous (if not accurate), have been retained, as they are now established by long tradition. The list of the Crusades to the Holy Land from 1095 through 1291
1870-578: Is regarded by some as an extension of the Eighth Crusade. Edward, later King of England, was accompanied by his wife Eleanor of Castile , who came to his aid after an assassination attempt. Discussed as part of the Eighth Crusade by Joseph François Michaud in Volume 3 of his seminal Histoire des Croisades (1812–1822). Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg. The Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg (1275). Henry I, Lord of Mecklenburg (died 1302) went on
1980-585: Is sometimes regarded as part of the Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) and sometimes as a separate expedition. This means that the term Sixth Crusade may refer either to Frederick II's crusade or to the first crusade of King Louis IX of France, which might also be called the Seventh Crusade. Consequently, each subsequent number after the fifth might refer to either of two different expeditions. The only absolutely clear method of designating individual crusades
2090-566: The Ayyubid dynasty . Crusade to the East of Philip of Flanders. The Crusade to the East (1177) was a crusade led by Philip I, Count of Flanders that intended to invade Egypt, instead only mounting an unsuccessful siege of Harim . Third Crusade. The Third Crusade (1189–1192). The Third Crusade was in response to the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 and had significant English participation, under Richard I of England , as well as by
2200-596: The Battle of Varna , on 11 November 1444. List of Crusades to Europe and the Holy Land#Later Crusades (1291-1578) The list of Crusades in Europe and to the Holy Land identifies those conflicts in the 11th through 16th centuries that are referred to as Crusades . These include the traditional numbered crusades and others that prominent historians have identified as crusades. The scope of
2310-411: The Battle of Varna . Cardinal Cesarini, the papal legate, perished in the rout. In Florence, on 18 December 1439, Pope Eugene held a consistory for the appointment of new cardinals, his third. Seventeen cardinals were named, and they received their titles on 8 January 1440. Pope Eugene decreed on 26 April 1441 that his Council was to be transferred from Florence to Rome. Eugene's rival Felix V in
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#17327650945132420-568: The Canary Islands , Eugene IV issued the bull " Creator Omnium ", rescinding any recognition of Portugal 's right to conquer those islands, rescinding any right to Christianize the natives of the island. He excommunicated anyone who enslaved newly converted Christians , the penalty to stand until the captives were restored to their liberty and possessions. In 1443, Eugene decided to take a neutral position on territorial disputes between Castile and Portugal and regarding rights claimed along
2530-693: The Colonna family . On 4 June 1434, disguised in the robes of a Benedictine monk , Eugene was rowed down the center of the Tiber , pelted by stones from either bank, to a Florentine vessel waiting to receive him at Ostia . Ferdinand Gregorovius remarks that "Eugenius having lost the authority of the State by his own ineptitude, resolved like so many of his predecessors, on flight." On 12 June, his ship reached Pisa, and in October he reached Florence. The city
2640-428: The Council of Mantua to recapture Constantinople from the Ottomans, the leaders who promised 80,000 soldiers to it reneged on their commitment. The Ottoman Empire was free, for several decades, from any further serious attempts to push it out of Europe. The end of the Crusade of Varna serves as the starting point for the grand strategy video game Europa Universalis IV by Paradox Development Studio , one day after
2750-826: The Holy See , acknowledged the council as ecumenical ; in the emended version, signed on 15 December 1433, he withheld his approval of the initial decrees of the Council that contained canons which exalted conciliar authority above that of the pope. These concessions also were due to the invasion of the Papal States by the former Papal condottiero Niccolò Fortebraccio and the troops of Filippo Maria Visconti led by Niccolò Piccinino in retaliation for Eugene's support of Florence and Venice against Milan (see also Wars in Lombardy ). This situation led also to establishment of an insurrectionary republic at Rome controlled by
2860-642: The Prefetti di Vico were destroyed, while the Colonna were reduced to obedience after the destruction of their stronghold in Palestrina in 1437. The massive fortress was preserved, however, until Lorenzo Colonna attempted to return in 1438, when it too was destroyed on orders from Vitelleschi. Poggio Bracciolini , the Tuscan humanist, wrote: "Seldom has the rule of any other pope produced equal devastation in
2970-819: The Serbian Despotate as a buffer state . After the war ended in 1430, the Ottomans returned to their earlier objective of controlling all lands south of the Danube . In 1432, Sultan Murad II began raiding into Transylvania . After King Sigismund died in 1437, the attacks intensified, with the Ottomans occupying Borač in 1438 and Zvornik and Srebrenica in 1439. At the end of 1439, Smederevo capitulated and Murad succeeded in making Serbia an Ottoman province. Đurađ Branković , Despot of Serbia, fled to his estates in Hungary. In 1440, Murad besieged Hungary's main border fortress, Belgrade . After failing to take
3080-930: The War of the Sicilian Vespers (the Almogavar) against the Anatolian beyliks . It concluded with the Catalan's taking control of the Duchy of Athens and Thebes . Hospitaller Crusade. The Hospitaller Crusade (1306–1310). A crusade known as the Hospitaller conquest of Rhodes that consolidated hold of the Knights Hospitaller on Rhodes. Documented by Hans Prutz in his Die Anfänge der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos, 1310–1355 (1908). Crusade against
3190-541: The Western Schism (1378–1417). This victory had been gained, however, by making concessions to the princes of Europe. Thereafter, the papacy had to depend more for its revenues on the Papal States. Eugene was dignified in demeanour, but inexperienced and vacillating in action and excitable in temper. Bitter in his hatred of heresy , he nevertheless displayed great kindness to the poor. He laboured to reform
3300-549: The battle of Adramyttion . Zeno later served as one of the leaders of the Smyrna Crusade of 1344. The Holy League of Clement VI. The Holy League of Clement VI (1343) was a crusade proclaimed by Clement VI in 1343 that resulted in a naval attack on Smyrna the next year. The Grand Counci of Venice elected Pietro Zeno as captain of the flotilla sent to assist the crusade against Aydinid-held Smyrna. Other crusader leaders included patriarch Henry of Asti , The crusade
3410-649: The harvest to pay taxes. Hunyadi's experience of winter campaigns from 1441–1442 added to the Hungarians' advantage. They also had better armor, often rendering the Ottoman weapons useless. Murad could not rely on the loyalty of his troops from Rumelia, and had difficulties countering Hungarian tactics. In the Battle of Nish the crusaders were victorious and forced Kasim Pasha of Rumelia and his co-commander Turahan Bey to flee to Sofia , Bulgaria to warn Murad of
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3520-524: The monastic orders, especially the Franciscans , and was never guilty of nepotism . Although austere in his private life, he was a sincere friend of art and learning, and in 1431 he re-established the university at Rome. He also consecrated Florence Cathedral on 25 March 1436. Eugene died in Rome on 23 February 1447, and was buried at Saint Peter's by the tomb of Pope Eugene III . Later his tomb
3630-407: The prelates assembled at Basel. On 14 January 1438, he moved the papal court to Ferrara, where he remained for a year. On 15 February 1438, he issued the bull "Cum In Sacro", declaring the council at Ferrara an ecumenical council, and commanding the prelates at Basel to appear at Ferrara within a month. King Charles VII of France had forbidden members of the clergy in his kingdom from attending
3740-620: The titular church of San Clemente . On 7 February 1420, Condulmer was named papal legate at Picenum in the March of Ancona. He was transferred to Bologna in August 1423. Pope Martin V named him Cardinal Priest of the Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere in 1427. Pope Martin V (Colonna) died of an apoplectic stroke on 20 February 1431. The conclave to elect his successor was held at
3850-533: The 19th century through such works as Heroes of the Crusades (1869) by Barbara Hutton. The references shown above for the First Crusade generally cover the People's Crusade as well. Crusade of 1101. The Crusade of 1101 (1101–1102) was also called the Crusade of the Faint-Hearted. Campaigns that followed the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 that were generally ignored by 18th and 19th century historians. Thomas Fuller nevertheless referred to it as Voyage 2 of
3960-501: The Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Among modern historians, René Grousset was among the first to discuss this crusade in his Histoire des croisades et du royaume franc de Jérusalem (1934-1936) Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 10 of the Holy Warre. Crusade of Richard of Cornwall. The Crusade of Richard of Cornwall (1240–1241) was also known as the Crusade of Richard of Cornwall and Simon of Montfort to Jaffa. Richard also held
4070-728: The Catalan Grand Company. The Crusade against the Catalan Grand Company (1330–1332) was also called the Anti-Catalan Crusade , waged by Walter VI, Count of Brienne , and titular Duke of Athens. In 1330, John XXII issued a papal bull and ordered prelates in Italy and Greece to preach for a crusade against the Catalan Grand Company . Shortly thereafter, Robert of Naples gave the crusade his support. The Venetians, however, renewed their treaty with
4180-629: The Catalans in 1331. By the summer, it was clear that the expedition had failed, and Walter returned to Brindisi , saddled with crippling debts. The Naval Crusade of the Holy League. The Naval Crusade of the Holy League (1332–1333) was short-lived crusade against the Aydinid Turkish fleet by Pietro Zeno , serving as balio of Negroponte . In 1332, a Turkish armada under Umur Bey attacked Negroponte, and Zeno bought them off with
4290-470: The Crusade against Conradin of 1268 (cf. Italian Crusades below). Crusade of James I of Aragon. The Crusade of James I of Aragon (1269–1270). James I of Aragon joined forces with Abaqa , Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate , to take a crusade to the Holy Land, but returned without engaging the Mamluks in light of their strength at Acre. Eighth Crusade. The Eighth Crusade (1270) was also known as
4400-536: The Crusade of Louis IX of France to Tunis. Accompanied by Jean de Joinville who wrote the biography Life of Saint Louis (1309) . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 31 of the Holy Warre. Lord Edward's Crusade. Lord Edward's Crusade (1271–1272) was led by the future Edward I of England , and is also known as the Crusade of Lord Edward of England, the Ninth Crusade, or the Last Crusade. It
4510-545: The Crusades in toto include Murray's Encyclopedia, Stephen Runciman's A History of the Crusades , 3 volumes (1951–1954), and the Wisconsin Collaborative History of the Crusades, 6 volumes (1969-1989). In the Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The conflicts that are usually associated with crusades in
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4620-666: The Cypriots) contains one of two eyewitness accounts of the siege. After the fall of Acre, the crusades continued in the Levant through the 16th century. Principal references on this subject are Kenneth Setton's History of the Crusades, Volume III. The Fourteenth and Fifteen Centuries (1975), and Norman Housley's The Later Crusades, 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (1992) and The Crusading Movement, 1274–1700 (1995). Barbara Tuchman's A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century (1978) provides an interesting perspective on both
4730-485: The Damascene atabeg Toghtekin . This marked a major victor for Baldwin II of Jerusalem prior to his second captivity in 1123. Crusade of 1129. The Crusade of 1129 , also known as the Damascus Crusade, was begun by Baldwin II of Jerusalem after his captivity. The crusade failed in its objective to capture Damascus and is described by Syriac historian Michael the Syrian in his Chronicle (after 1195). Second Crusade. The Second Crusade (1147–1150). After
4840-486: The East, or Louis IX's First Crusade. Early works on this crusade include Primat of Saint-Denis' Roman des rois (1274) and Jean de Joinville's Life of Saint Louis (1309) . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 12 of the Holy Warre. Grousset's Histoire des croisades... and Peter Jackson's Seventh Crusade, 1244–1254: Sources and Documents (2007) provide the necessary historical background. Crusade of Odo of Burgundy. The Crusade of Odo of Burgundy (1265–1266)
4950-425: The Europeans found the New World. Although his pontificate had been so stormy and unhappy that he is said to have regretted on his deathbed that he ever left his monastery, Eugene IV's victory over the Council of Basel and his efforts on behalf of church unity nevertheless contributed greatly to the breakdown of the conciliar movement and restored the papacy to a semblance of the dominant position it had held before
5060-514: The Fifth Crusade, it was an extension of that activity that involved little fighting. Jerusalem was nevertheless returned to Western hands by negotiation. Original sources include Chronica Majora (1259) by Matthew Paris and Flores Historiarum (1235) by Roger of Wendover , with Arabic sources that include Abu'l-Feda's Tarikh al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar (1329). Modern histories include Röhricht's Die Kreuzfahrt Kaiser Friedrich des Zweiten (1228–1229) (1872). Referred to it as Voyage 9 of
5170-413: The Good of Burgundy . The Crusade of Varna culminated in a decisive Ottoman victory over the crusader alliance at the Battle of Varna on 10 November 1444, during which Władysław and the expedition's papal legate Julian Cesarini were killed. In 1428, while the Ottoman Empire was fighting a war with the Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Hungary they achieved a temporary peace by establishing
5280-407: The Hermit , the first of what is known as the Popular Crusades . It is sometimes regarded as an integral part of the First Crusade, with the Princes' Crusade as the second part. A standard reference is Peter der Eremite. Ein kritischer Beitrag zur Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (1879) by pioneering German historian Heinrich Hagenmeyer (1834–1915). Peter and his crusade achieved a popular status in
5390-453: The Holy Land begin with the Council of Clermont in 1095 and end with the loss of Acre in 1291. These include the numbered Crusades (First through Eighth or Ninth) with numerous smaller crusades intermixed. One of the first to view the Crusades as a movement was English historian Thomas Fuller (1608–1661), whose Historie of the Holy Warre (1639) identified crusades as the Holy War consisting of "Voyages," numbering One through Thirteen, plus
5500-430: The Holy Land. First treated by R. Röhricht in his Die Kreuzzuge des Grafen Theobald von Navarra und Richard von Cornwallis nach dem heligen Landen . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyages 10 and 11 of the Holy Warre. Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre. The Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre (1239–1240) was a crusade led by Theobald I of Navarre , also referred to as Thibaut of Navarre or Theobald of Champagne. Part of
5610-444: The Holy Warre by Thomas Fuller in his 1639 Historie . See also references under the Crusade against Frederick II (1220–1241) below. Barons' Crusade. Barons' Crusade (1239–1241) was also referred to as the Crusade of 1239, or the Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre and the Crusade of Richard of Cornwall . Called for in 1234 by Gregory IX in his papal bull Rachel suum videns . Some successful expeditions recaptured portions of
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#17327650945135720-433: The Holy Warre whereas Jonathan Riley-Smith considered it part of the First Crusade in his The First Crusaders, 1095-1131 (1997). Norwegian Crusade. The Norwegian Crusade (1107–1110), also known as the Crusade of Sigurd Jorsalfar , king of Norway. More of a pilgrimage than a crusade, it did include the participation in military action, with the king's forces participation in the siege of Sidon . This crusade marks
5830-508: The Holy Warre, and Richard's portion as Voyage 5. The numbering of this crusade followed the same history as the first ones, with English histories such as David Hume's The History of England (1754–1761) and Charles Mills' History of the Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820) identifying it as the Third Crusade. The former only considers the follow-on crusades to the extent that England participated. Crusade of Emperor Henry VI. The Crusade of Henry VI (1197–1198)
5940-400: The Holy Warre. The Wendish Crusade of 1147 (one of the Northern Crusades) is usually associated with the Second Crusade. Crusader invasions of Egypt. The Crusader Invasions of Egypt (1154–1169) were attacks into Egypt by Amalric I of Jerusalem to take advantage of crises concerning the Fatimids . These activities eventually led to the fall of the Fatimids and the rise of Saladin and
6050-414: The Piazza Colonna he was greeted by the shouts of the crowd, "Long live the church! Down with the new taxes and those who invented them." His protests against the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges were ineffectual, but by means of the Concordat of the Princes , negotiated by Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini , the secretary of Frederick III, with the electors in February 1447, the whole of Germany declared against
6160-402: The Pope and ordered Eugene IV to appear at Basel. A compromise was arranged by the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund , who had been crowned emperor at Rome on 31 May 1433. The first version of Eugene's recognition of the legitimacy of the council was signed on 1 August 1433, and subscribed by three cardinals. By its terms, the Pope recalled his bull of dissolution, and, reserving all the rights of
6270-420: The Pope of most of his rights in the Empire (26 March 1439), and announced a new diet to meet in Frankfurt in 1440. The council of Ferrara was transferred to Florence on 10 January 1439, as a result of an outbreak of the plague. A union with the Eastern Orthodox Church was effected on 6 July 1439, with the bull "Laetentur caeli", which, as the result of political necessities, proved but a temporary bolster to
6380-425: The Portuguese to conquer any unconverted parts of the Canary Islands. According to Raiswell (1997), any Christian would be protected by the earlier edict, but the un-baptized were implicitly allowed to be enslaved. Following the arrival of the first African captives in Lisbon in 1441, Prince Henry asked Eugene to designate Portugal's raids along the West African coast as a crusade, a consequence of which would be
6490-572: The Posthumous was born while Hungary was in the midst of a civil war over the next monarch. On 17 July 1440, Władysław , king of Poland , was crowned despite continuing disputes. John Hunyadi aided Władysław's cause by pacifying the eastern counties, gaining him the position of Nádor of Transylvania and the corresponding responsibility of protecting Hungary's southern border. By the end of 1442, Władysław had secured his status in Hungary, and rejected an Ottoman proposal of peace in exchange for Belgrade. The Catholic Church had long been advocating for
6600-604: The Second Smyrna Crusade. Crusade against Francesco Ordelaffi . The Crusade against Francesco Ordelaffi (1355–1357) was a campaign by Innocent IV and Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz against Francesco II Ordelaffi in order to restore papal authority to central Italy. The pope's Angevin troops had some success against Ordelaffi through 1356, by mercenary troops sent by Bernabò Visconti allowed him to hold out until 1357. Pope Eugene IV Pope Eugene IV ( Latin : Eugenius IV ; Italian : Eugenio IV ; 1383 – 23 February 1447), born Gabriele Condulmer ,
6710-520: The Session. Several secular powers, seeing the advantage to their own interests in having a weak pope and an unsteady council at odds with each other, wrote to the council, advising them to go no further in their efforts to depose Eugene. Mandell Creighton remarks, "The quarrel of the Pope and the Council now ceased to attract the attention of Europe; it had degenerated into a squabble in which both parties were regarded with something approaching contempt." The Council of Basel then formally deposed Eugene as
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#17327650945136820-534: The Sultan and brother of the Grand Vizier Çandarlı Halil Pasha , was taken prisoner. Four days after this battle the Christian coalition reached Prokuplje . Branković proposed to Władysław and Hunyadi that they stay in Serbian fortified towns during the winter and continue their campaign against the Ottomans in Spring 1444. They rejected his proposal, and retreated. By the end of January 1444 forces of Władysław and Hunyadi reached Belgrade , and in February they arrived at Buda where they were greeted as heroes. While
6930-412: The act itself, from which they cannot be absolved, except at the point of death, even by the Holy See, or by any Spanish bishop, or by the aforementioned Ferdinand, unless they have first given freedom to these captive persons and restored their goods." Eugene tempered "Sicut Dudum" in September 1436 with the issuance of a papal bull in response to complaints made by King Edward of Portugal that allowed
7040-424: The antipope. This agreement was completed only after Eugene's death. Christianity had gained many converts in the Canary Islands by the early 1430s. However, the ownership of the lands had been the subject of dispute between the Crown of Castile and the Kingdom of Portugal . The lack of effective control had resulted in periodic raids on the islands to procure slaves. As early as the Council of Koblenz in 922,
7150-549: The area of Nicopolis. Murad, who had retired shortly after the treaty was completed, was called back to lead the Ottoman army. On 10 November 1444, the two armies clashed at the Battle of Varna (near the Black Sea fortress of Varna, Bulgaria ). The Ottomans won a decisive victory despite heavy losses, while the crusaders lost King Władysław and over 15,000 men. Many of the Crusaders were crippled by frostbite , many more died in smaller follow-up battles, and many Europeans were captured. Hungary fell back into civil war until Hunyadi
7260-433: The army's setbacks and Mahmud Bey's capture. Murad is believed to have had the greatest wish for peace. Among other things, his vizier's sister begged him to obtain her husband Mahmud's release, and his wife Mara , daughter of Đurađ Branković, added additional pressure. On 6 March 1444 Mara sent an envoy to Branković; their discussion started the peace negotiations with the Ottoman Empire. On 24 April 1444, Władysław sent
7370-458: The battle at Zlatitsa Pass had been a defeat, the ambush returned to the crusaders the impression of an overall Christian victory, and they returned triumphant. The King and Church were both anxious to maintain this impression, and gave instructions to spread word of the victories, but contradict anyone who mentioned the loss. Murad, meanwhile, returned angry and dejected by the unreliability of his forces, and imprisoned Turahan after blaming him for
7480-433: The capture of Christians as slaves by other Christians had been condemned. Acting on a complaint by Fernando Calvetos, bishop of the islands, Pope Eugene IV issued a papal bull, " Creator Omnium ", on 17 December 1434, annulling previous permission granted to Portugal to conquer those islands rescinding any right to Christianize the natives of the island. Eugene excommunicated anyone who enslaved newly converted Christians,
7590-429: The cardinals one-half of all the revenues of the Church and promised to consult with them on all questions of importance, both spiritual and temporal. Pope Eugene made his first appointments of cardinals on 19 September 1431. They were his nephew, the Venetian Francesco Condulmer , who was granted the titular church of San Clemente ; and the Roman Angelotto Fusco, the bishop of Cava and longtime friend of Eugene, who
7700-508: The church and convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva , and began on 1 March 1431. Fourteen cardinals, led by Giordano Orsini , Bishop of Albano, participated. Condulmer was quickly elected to succeed Martin V in the papal conclave of 1431 ; he chose the name Eugene IV. He was crowned on the steps of St. Peter's Basilica by Cardinal Alfonso Carrillo de Albornoz, on 11 March 1431. By a written agreement made before his election, and ratified on 12 March 1431 as pope, Eugene pledged to distribute to
7810-492: The coast of Africa . In 1444, he issued " Dudum ad nostram audientiam ", which was the legal basis for the creation of Jewish ghettos in Europe . Condulmer was born in Venice to a rich merchant family . His father, Angelo Condulmer, founded the Ospizio di Sant'Agnesina for orphaned girls in 1383. Gabriel is said to have received his earliest education under the supervision of his maternal uncle, Angelo Correr , Bishop of Castello (1380–1390). He and several friends established
7920-459: The collection Gesta Dei per Francos (God's Work through the Franks) (1611) by Jacques Bongars . A standard reference is Reinhold Röhricht's Studien zur Geschichte des fünften Kreuzzuges (1891). Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 8 of the Holy Warre. Sixth Crusade. The Sixth Crusade (1228–1229), was also known as the Crusade of Emperor Frederick II . Sometimes regarded as part of
8030-476: The council, which had been convoked by Martin V. Canon Beaupère of Besançon, who had been sent from Basel to Rome, gave the pope an unfavourable and exaggerated account of the temper of the people of Basel and its environs. Distrustful of its purposes and emboldened by the small attendance, the Pope issued a bull on 18 December 1431 that dissolved the council and called a new one to meet in eighteen months at Bologna . He gave as his reason that it would be easier for
8140-667: The counsel in Ferrara, and introduced the decrees of the Council of Basel, with slight changes, into France through the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (7 July 1438). The King of England and the Duke of Burgundy, who felt that the council was partial to France, decided not to recognize the council at Basel. Castile, Aragon, Milan, and Bavaria withdrew support. The Council of Basel, in its Session XXXI, suspended Pope Eugene on 24 January 1438; there were sixteen bishops present at
8250-671: The crusade and its aftermath. Voltaire did not call it a crusade in his Histoire des Croisades , instead calling it the Suite de la Prise de Constantinople par les Croisés. Jonathan Philips' The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (2004) is a standard reference today. Fifth Crusade. The Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) was a failed attempt to recapture Jerusalem by first conquering Cairo. Critical original sources include Historia Damiatina by Oliver of Paderborn (died 1227) and Chronica Hungarorum by Joannes de Thurocz , compiled in
8360-521: The crusade was against the Byzantine empire. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 7 of the Holy Warre. Charles du Cange , wrote the first serious study of the Fourth Crusade in his Histoire de l'empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs françois (1657). Geoffrey of Villehardouin was a knight and historian who wrote his eyewitness account De la Conquête de Constantinople (c. 1215) of
8470-702: The crusade's continuation. The Cardinal eventually found a solution that would allow for both the continuation of fighting and the ratification of the treaty, and on 15 August 1444 the Peace of Szeged was sworn into effect. Shortly after all the short-term requirements of the treaty were fulfilled, the Hungarians and their allies resumed the crusade. King Władysław gathered an army composed mostly of Hungarian regular troops, and forces from Poland, Transylvania, Croatia , Bosnia , heavy cavalry units from western Europe, and mercenaries from eastern Europe. The combined armies numbered 16,000, and were joined by 4,000 Wallachians in
8580-433: The crusades and the general history of the era. A nineteenth-century reference often cited is Joseph François Michaud's Histoire des Croisades (1812–1822), translation by William Robson . Crusade against Frederick III. The Crusade against Frederick III of Sicily (1298, 1299, 1302). The final round of the War of the Sicilian Vespers in which pope Boniface VIII attempted to dislodge Frederick. Frederick's position
8690-513: The delegates from the eastern churches to assemble there with the European prelates. The council resisted this expression of papal prerogative. Eugene IV's action gave some weight to the contention that the Curia was opposed to any authentic measures of reform. The council refused to dissolve; instead they renewed the resolutions by which the Council of Constance had declared a council superior to
8800-483: The diocese, even before the necessary bulls had been prepared. In Siena , the political leaders objected to a bishop who was not only young but also a foreigner. Therefore, in 1408 he resigned the appointment, becoming instead a cleric of the Apostolic Camera (Treasury) and a protonotary apostolic . He was named a cardinal by Pope Gregory XII in the consistory of 9 May 1408, and appointed Cardinal Priest of
8910-818: The disastrous siege of Edessa in 1144, the Western powers launched the Second Crusade, which accomplished little. Principal chroniclers of the event were Odo of Deuil , chaplin to Louis VII of France , who wrote his account De profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem and Otto of Freising who wrote Gesta Friderici imperatoris concerning the emperor Frederick Barbarosso . Referred to as the Second Crusade in Maimbourg's Histoire des Croisades. .. as well as Georg Müller's De Expedition Cruciatis Vulgo Von Kreutz Fahrten (1709). Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 3 of
9020-844: The emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Philip II of France . To the English, it was known as the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi , the Itinerary of king Richard, and to the Germans as the expedition of Frederick, as described in Historia Peregrinorum (History of the Pilgrims). Thomas Andrew Archer's The Crusade of Richard I, 1189–1192 (1889) provides a comprehensive look at the crusade and its sources. Thomas Fuller referred to Frederick's portion as Voyage 4 of
9130-519: The first time a European king visited the Holy Land. This crusade is described in Heimskringla by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson . Venetian Crusade. The Venetian Crusade (1122–1124), also known as the Crusade of Calixtus II . The Western participants from the Republic of Venice were regarded by Riley-Smith as First Crusaders, and the actions resulted in the capture of Tyre from
9240-475: The fortress, he was forced to return to Anatolia to stop attacks by the Karamanids . Meanwhile, Sigismund's successor Albert had died in October 1439, shortly after signing a law to "restore the ancient laws and customs of the realm". The law restricted the royal authority by requiring the participation of landed nobility in political decisions. Four months after Albert's death, his only son Ladislaus
9350-570: The harbour and the citadel but not the acropolis. Sometimes considered as part of the Holy League of Clement VI. Crusade of Humbert II of Viennois. The Crusade of Humbert II of Viennois (1346) was the second of the Smyrniote Crusades . A second expedition under the command of Humbert II of Viennois with little to show other than a victory over the Turks at Mytilene . Described in the Book of Chivalry by Geoffroi de Charny. Also called
9460-534: The invasion. However, the two burned all the villages in their path in an attempt to wear down the crusaders with a scorched earth tactic. When they arrived in Sofia, they advised the Sultan to burn the city and retreat to the mountain passes beyond, where the Ottoman's smaller army would not be such a disadvantage. Shortly after, bitter cold set in, and the next encounter, fought at Zlatitsa Pass on 12 December 1443,
9570-400: The last important support in Italy from the Council of Basel. In 1442 Eugene, Alfonso and Visconti sent Niccolò Piccinino to reconquer the March of Ancona from Francesco Sforza; but the defeat of the allied army at the Battle of Montolmo pushed the Pope to reconcile with Sforza. So enabled, Eugene IV made a formal entry into Rome on 28 September 1443, after an exile of nearly ten years. At
9680-514: The legitimization of enslavement for captives taken during the crusade. On 19 December 1442, Eugene replied by issuing the bull Illius qui se pro divini , in which he granted full remission of sins to members of the Order of Christ and those enrolled under their banner who took part in any expeditions against the Saracens and enemies of Christianity. In 1443, in the bull "Rex regum", the Pope took
9790-500: The meantime obtained scant recognition, even in the Empire. Eventually Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III moved toward acceptance of Eugene. One of the king's ablest advisers, the humanist Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, who was later to be Pope Pius II , made peace with Eugene in 1442. The Pope's recognition of the claim to Naples of King Alfonso V of Aragon (in the treaty of Terracina , approved by Eugene at Siena somewhat later) withdrew
9900-420: The name of Felix V . The Diet of Mainz was summoned by the new Emperor Frederick III to hear the claims of both Eugene and Felix. Eugene was represented by Nicholas of Cusa and Juan de Torquemada . The diet was not impressed by the ecclesiastical claims of either party, and announced that it would support whichever party would summon a new general council to enact much needed reforms in the church; it deprived
10010-725: The papacy's prestige. This union was followed by others of even less stability. Eugene IV signed an agreement with the Armenians on 22 November 1439, and with a part of the Jacobites of Syria in 1443, and in 1445 he received some of the Nestorians and the Maronites . He did his best to stem the Turkish advance, pledging one-fifth of the papal income to a crusade which set out in 1443, but which met with overwhelming defeat at
10120-469: The penalty to stand until the captives were restored to their liberty and possessions. In 1434, Eugene issued the bull Regimini Gregis Dominici , forbidding the enslavement of Christian Canarians, and followed this with an order to suspend further conquest in order to allow the Franciscans to continue their work peacefully. Portuguese soldiers continued to raid the islands in 1435, and Eugene issued
10230-524: The pope and the curia to return to Rome, and promising obedience and quiet. The Pope, however, rejected their overture. On 25 March 1436, Pope Eugenius consecrated the cathedral of Florence , and then, in April 1436, moved to Bologna, which had recently been conquered for the papacy. His condottieri Francesco I Sforza and Vitelleschi in the meantime reconquered much of the Papal States with extreme violence and destructive force. Traditional Papal enemies such as
10340-612: The provinces of the Roman Church. The country scourged by war, the depopulated and ruined towns, the devastated fields, the roads infested by robbers, more than fifty places partly destroyed, partly sacked by soldiery, have suffered from every species of revenge." Meanwhile, the struggle with the council sitting at Basel broke out anew. Eugene IV at length convened a rival council at Ferrara on 8 January 1438, through his legate Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, Bishop of Bologna, with forty prelates in attendance. The pope also excommunicated
10450-455: The revenge attack of Şihabeddin Pasha , governor-general of Rumelia . Branković, hoping to liberate Serbia, also lent his support after Novo Brdo , the last major Serbian city, fell to the Ottomans in 1441. On 1 January 1443, Pope Eugene IV published a crusading bull . In early May, it was reported "that the Turks were in a bad state and that it would be easy to expel them from Europe". War
10560-505: The term crusade first referred to military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to the Holy Land. The conflicts to which the term is applied has been extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church against pagans, heretics or for alleged religious ends. This list first discusses the traditional numbered crusades, with
10670-503: The title King of the Romans, and had a noteworthy biography written by Noël Denholm-Young . Usually referred to as part of the Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 11 of the Holy Warre. Crusade to Tzurulum. The Crusade to Tzurulum (1239) led by future Latin emperor Baldwin of Courtenay was conducted concurrently with the Barons' Crusade. In the military action, Baldwin besieged and captured Tzurulum ,
10780-437: The traditional numbering of crusades: It was in the eighteenth century that historians evidently first allocated numbers to individual crusades, from the first to the ninth. However, these numbers are neither consistent nor accurate. Of the identity of the First Crusade (1096—1099) there can be no doubt, but there is no consensus about numbering after the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204). The Crusade of Emperor Frederick II (1227–1229)
10890-586: The various lesser-known crusades interspersed. The later crusades in the Levant through the 16th century are then listed. This is followed by lists of the crusades against the Byzantine empire, crusades that may have been pilgrimages, popular crusades, crusades against heretics and schismatics, political crusades, the Northern Crusades, crusades in the Iberian peninsula, Italian crusades and planned crusades that were never executed. Comprehensive studies of
11000-436: Was a naval success and Smyrna was taken. Zeno was killed by Umur Bey's forces in an ambush while he and other crusaderswere attempting to celebrate mass in the no-man's-land between the battle lines. Smyrna Crusade. The Smyrna Crusade (1344) was the first of the Smyrniote Crusades (1343–1351). The Smyrna Crusade began in 1344 with the naval victory of the battle of Pallene and ended with an assault on Smyrna, capturing
11110-670: Was also known as the Crusade of 1197 or the German Crusade. A crusade led by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI as a follow-up to the Third Crusade. Although Henry died before the crusade began, it was modestly successful with the recapture of Beirut. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 6 of the Holy Warre. Fourth Crusade. The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) was also known as the Unholy Crusade. A major component of
11220-534: Was an expedition of Odo, Count of Nevers , who led 50 knights to protect Acre from Mamluk sultan Baibars . Crusade of 1267. The Crusade of 1267 was an expedition from the Upper Rhine to counter the threat posed by Baibars. Crusade of Charles of Anjou. The Crusade of Charles of Anjou against Lucera (1268) refers to the attack made by Charles I of Anjou on the Muslims at Lucera in conjunction with
11330-582: Was certainly in common use by the 18th century as seen in Voltaire's Histoire des Croisades (1750–1751) and Edward Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789). Thomas Asbridge's The First Crusade: A New History (2004) is among the standard references used today. People's Crusade. The People's Crusade (1096) was a prelude to the First Crusade led by Peter
11440-638: Was elected Regent for the infant Ladislaus in June 1446. Branković retained control over Serbia. The Ottoman victory in Varna, followed by their victory in the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448, deterred the European states from sending substantial military assistance to the Byzantines during the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Although Pius II officially declared a three-year crusade at
11550-426: Was fought in the snow. Until the Battle of Zlatitsa the crusaders did not meet a major Ottoman army, but only town garrisons along their route toward Adrianople . Finally, at Zlatitsa they met strong and well positioned defence forces of the Ottoman army. The crusaders were defeated. As they marched home, however, they ambushed and defeated a pursuing force in the Battle of Kunovica , where Mahmud Bey , son-in-law of
11660-410: Was granted the title of San Marco . He was described as tall, thin, with a winning countenance, although many of his troubles were owing to his own want of tact, which alienated parties from him. Upon assuming the papal chair, Eugene IV took violent measures against the numerous Colonna relatives of his predecessor Martin V, who had rewarded them with castles and lands. This at once involved him in
11770-542: Was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 March 1431 to his death, in February 1447. Condulmer was a Venetian , and a nephew of Pope Gregory XII . In 1431, he was elected pope . His tenure was marked by conflict first with the Colonna , relatives of his predecessor Pope Martin V , and later with the Conciliar movement . In 1434, due to a complaint by Fernando Calvetos, bishop of
11880-490: Was proclaimed against Sultan Murad II at the diet of Buda on Palm Sunday 1443, and with an army of 40,000 men, mostly Magyars, the young monarch, with Hunyadi commanding under him, crossed the Danube and took Nish and Sofia . The crusaders, led by Władysław, Hunyadi, and Branković, attacked in mid-October. They correctly expected that Murad would not be able quickly to mobilize his army, which consisted mainly of fief -holding cavalrymen ( timariots ) who needed to collect
11990-473: Was restored to obedience by Giovanni Vitelleschi , the militant Bishop of Recanati , in October 1434. In August 1435 a peace treaty was signed at Ferrara by the various belligerents. Pope Eugenius made Vitelleschi archbishop of Florence on 12 October 1435. Vitelleschi held the post until Eugenius made him a cardinal on 9 August 1437. The people of Rome sent a delegation to Florence in January 1436, begging
12100-612: Was solidified by the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, after which the crusaders were unable to dislodge him. Crusade against the Colonna Cardinals. The Crusade against the Colonna Cardinals (1298) was a crusade of Boniface VIII against the Colonna family . Expedition of the Almogavars. The Expedition of the Almogavars (1301–1311) consisted of campaigns of the Catalan Company , formed by veterans of
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