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182-599: Vyborg ( / ˈ v iː b ɔːr ɡ / ; Russian : Выборг , IPA: [ˈvɨbərk] ; Finnish : Viipuri , IPA: [ˈʋiːpuri] ; Swedish : Viborg , IPA: [ˈvǐːbɔrj] ) is a town and the administrative center of Vyborgsky District in Leningrad Oblast , Russia. It lies on the Karelian Isthmus near the head of Vyborg Bay , 130 km (81 miles) northwest of St. Petersburg , 245 km (152 miles) east of

364-674: A constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language. According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%. Starting in 2019, instruction in Russian will be gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, and in general instruction in Latvian public high schools. On 29 September 2022, Saeima passed in

546-448: A contract called a ryad ( Russian : ряд ), which protected the interests of Novgorodian boyars and laid out the prince's rights and responsibilities. The ryads that have been preserved in archives describe the relationship of Novgorod with twelve invited princes: five of them from Tver, four from Moscow, and three from Lithuania. First and foremost among the prince's functions, he was a military leader. He also patronized churches in

728-519: A new education law which requires all schools to teach at least partially in Ukrainian, with provisions while allow indigenous languages and languages of national minorities to be used alongside the national language. The law faced criticism from officials in Russia and Hungary. The 2019 Law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" gives priority to

910-478: A stepennoy posadnik . Posadniks were almost invariably boyars – the city's highest aristocracy. The precise makeup of the veche is also uncertain, although it appears to have comprised members of the urban population, as well as of the free rural population. Whether it was a democratic institution or one controlled by the boyars has been hotly debated. The posadniks, tysiatskys, and even the bishops and archbishops of Novgorod, were often elected or at least approved by

1092-558: A bid to appease Suzdal, accepted some Suzdalians as rulers of Novgorod. Despite these events, Suzdal still blocked off trade to Novgorod twice and intercepted Novgorod's tributes. In 1228, there was a failed Novgorodian campaign against the Tavastians in present-day southern Finland , as reported in the Novgorod First Chronicle (NPL). The Novgorodian troops were disaffected by prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich ,

1274-522: A campaign to Chernigov against his rival Michael. In 1232, there were anti-Yaroslav rebellions in Novgorod and Pskov, but only the latter was successful in chasing the Suzdalians out of town. In 1233, Boris Negochevich and other Novgorodian nobles joined forces with Yaroslav Vladimirovich (pretender-prince of Pskov) and some Sword Brothers, occupying Izborsk in 1233, but they were soon expelled by

1456-464: A cousin of Ivan III, to be accepted. According to tradition, Marfa Boretskaya , the wife of the posadnik Isak Boretsky, was the main proponent of an alliance with Poland–Lithuania to save the republic. According to this legend, Boretskaya invited the Lithuanian princeling Mikhailo Olelkovich and asked him to become her husband and the ruler of Novgorod. She also concluded an alliance with Casimir ,

1638-599: A critical conflict took place between Moscow and Novgorod, when Moscow annexed the Dvina Lands along the course of the Northern Dvina . These lands were crucial to Novgorod's well-being since much of the city's furs came from there. This territory was returned to Novgorod the following year. In the 12th to 15th centuries, the Novgorod Republic expanded east and northeast. The Novgorodians explored

1820-537: A focal point of transports of all industries on the Karelian Isthmus , Ladoga Karelia and southeastern Finland. Trams in Vyborg started in 1912. The Bolshevik revolutionary Vladimir Lenin lived in the town for a period between the February Revolution and October Revolution of 1917. In June 1917, Viipuri hosted a convention of ethnic Polish military men stationed throughout Finland, at which it

2002-623: A foothold in Karelia . On August 12, 1323, Sweden and Novgorod signed the Treaty of Nöteborg , regulating their border for the first time. The Novgorod Republic was saved from the direct impact of the Mongol invasions as it was not conquered by the Mongols. In 1259, Mongol tax-collectors and census-takers arrived in the city, leading to political disturbances and forcing Alexander Nevsky to punish

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2184-515: A formula with V standing for the nucleus (vowel) and C for each consonant, the maximal structure can be described as follows: (C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) Novgorod Republic Novgorod won its independence in 1136 after the Novgorodians deposed their prince and the Novgorod veche began to elect and dismiss princes at its own will. The veche also elected the posadnik , who was

2366-558: A hard or soft counterpart, and the distinction is a prominent feature of the language, which is usually shown in writing not by a change of the consonant but rather by changing the following vowel. Another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels . Stress , which is often unpredictable, is not normally indicated orthographically , though an optional acute accent may be used to mark stress – such as to distinguish between homographic words (e.g. замо́к [ zamók , 'lock'] and за́мок [ zámok , 'castle']), or to indicate

2548-484: A language that "belongs to the European cultural space". The financing of Russian-language content by the state will cease, which the concept says create a "unified information space". However, one inevitable consequence would be the closure of public media broadcasts in Russian on LTV and Latvian Radio, as well as the closure of LSM's Russian-language service. In Lithuania , Russian has no official or legal status, but

2730-463: A large measure of democratic participation far in advance of the rest of Europe, but that share several similarities with the democratic traditions of Scandinavian peasant republics . The people had the power to elect city officials and they even had the power to elect and remove the prince. The Chronicle writer then goes on to describe a "town meeting" where these decisions would have been made, which included people from all social classes ranging from

2912-588: A lesser extent the languages to the south and the east: Uralic , Turkic , Persian , Arabic , and Hebrew . According to the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California , Russian is classified as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers, requiring approximately 1,100 hours of immersion instruction to achieve intermediate fluency. Feudal divisions and conflicts created obstacles between

3094-622: A minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities . 30% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 2% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. In Azerbaijan , Russian has no official status, but is a lingua franca of the country. 26% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 5% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. In Georgia , Russian has no official status, but it

3276-447: A number of pro-Lithuanian boyars and confiscating their lands. In 1478, Ivan III sent his army to take direct control of the city. He destroyed the veche , tore down the veche bell, the ancient symbol of participatory governance, civil society, and legal rights, and destroyed the library and archives , thus ending the independence of Novgorod. After the takeover, Ivan took more than four-fifths of Novgorod's land: half for himself and

3458-467: A period of five years. Per the results of the elections on 11 October 2009, all 20 seats were occupied by members of the United Russia party. The Council of Deputies is headed by the head of the municipality, who is elected by deputies from among its members, also for a period of five years. On 20 October 2009, Gennady Alekseyevich Orlov was elected as head of the municipality. Since September 2014,

3640-508: A protracted series of wars with Moscow beginning in the late 14th century in order to keep these lands. Losing them meant economic and cultural decline for the city and its inhabitants. The ultimate failure of the Novgorodians to win these wars led to the downfall of the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod supported Dmitry Shemyaka against Vasily Vasilievich in the Muscovite War of Succession (1425–1453). After Vasily II returned to throne,

3822-526: A qualitatively new entity can be said to emerge—the general language of the working class... capitalism has the tendency of creating the general urban language of a given society. In 2010, there were 259.8 million speakers of Russian in the world: in Russia – 137.5 million, in the CIS and Baltic countries – 93.7 million, in Eastern Europe – 12.9 million, Western Europe – 7.3 million, Asia – 2.7 million, in

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4004-476: A quarrel broke out within the army and the troops refused to fight. In the same year, Yaroslav tried to militarily overrun the rebellious town of Pskov (possibly because its throne was vacant ), but the Pskovians closed their gates in time and denied him entry. Yaroslav retreated to Novgorod, claimed no ill will towards Pskov, but raised another army supposedly for the purpose of attacking Riga (a stronghold of

4186-581: A reference point in the history of modern architecture. There are also Russian fortifications of Annenkrone , completed by 1740, as well as the monuments to Peter the Great (1910) and Torkel Knutsson . Tourists can also visit the house where the founder of the Soviet state Vladimir Lenin prepared the Bolshevik revolution during his stay in Vyborg from 24 September to 7 October 1917. The main street in Vyborg

4368-569: A repudiation of the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy (1456), and went to war against the city. The army of Moscow won a decisive victory in the Battle of Shelon River in July 1471, which severely limited Novgorod's freedom to act thereafter, although the city maintained its formal independence. For the next six years, pro-Moscow and anti-Moscow factions in Novgorod competed with one another. Ivan III visited Novgorod several times during this period, persecuting

4550-483: A struggle with Novgorod for the Russian fur trade , and thus, an economic rivalry for fur, land and trade ports. Some Novgorodian boyars were opposed to Moscow as a result, while others pursued a pro-Muscovite policy in the hopes that good relations with Moscow would reduce disruption in Novgorod's trade ; Novgorod was also dependent on the Russian lands to its southwest for important imports such as grain. Some Novgorodians were also attracted to Moscow due to it being

4732-547: A total of 19,986 inhabitants in the rural areas of Vyborg and in Uura, which was located outside the borders of Vyborg but was included in the census, and so the total population of the census area was 72,239. Of the total inhabitants in the census area, 67,609 spoke Finnish, 2,103 Swedish, 1,807 Russian and 439 German. In 1939, the population was slightly less than 75,000 and was Finland's second-largest (Population Register) or fourth-largest (Church and Civil Register) city, depending on

4914-408: A war between Moscow and Novgorod took place, which ended after the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy was signed in 1456. The treaty marked the beginning of the fall of Novgorod's independence as it lost certain freedoms. Moscow began to gradually seize land in the northern territories that were formerly under Novgorod's control for the next decade and half due to a desire for luxury furs in the area. This led to

5096-669: A year under the Baltic Sea to Lubmin , Germany. [REDACTED] Sweden 1293–1710 [REDACTED] Tsardom of Russia 1710–1721 [REDACTED] Russian Empire 1721–1812 [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Finland 1812–1917 [REDACTED] Finland 1917–1918 [REDACTED] Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic 1918 [REDACTED]   Finland 1918–1940 [REDACTED]   Soviet Union 1940–1941 [REDACTED]   Finland 1941–1944 [REDACTED]   Soviet Union 1944–1991 [REDACTED]   Russia 1991–present According to archeological research,

5278-539: Is Belarusian, among ethnic Belarusians this share is 28.5%; the highest share of those who speak Belarusian at home is among ethnic Poles — 46.0%. In Estonia , Russian is spoken by 29.6% of the population, according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook, and is officially considered a foreign language. School education in the Russian language is a very contentious point in Estonian politics, and in 2022,

5460-481: Is a co-official language per article 5 of the Constitution of Kyrgyzstan . The 2009 census states that 482,200 people speak Russian as a native language, or 8.99% of the population. Additionally, 1,854,700 residents of Kyrgyzstan aged 15 and above fluently speak Russian as a second language, or 49.6% of the population in the age group. In Tajikistan , Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication under

5642-401: Is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian , and a moderate degree of it in all modern Slavic languages, at least at the conversational level. Russian is written using a Cyrillic alphabet. The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The following table gives their forms, along with IPA values for each letter's typical sound: Older letters of

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5824-610: Is a post-posed definite article -to , -ta , -te similar to that existing in Bulgarian and Macedonian. In the Southern Russian dialects , instances of unstressed /e/ and /a/ following palatalized consonants and preceding a stressed syllable are not reduced to [ɪ] (as occurs in the Moscow dialect), being instead pronounced [a] in such positions (e.g. несл и is pronounced [nʲaˈslʲi] , not [nʲɪsˈlʲi] ) – this

6006-673: Is an East Slavic language belonging to the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family . It is one of the four extant East Slavic languages, and is the native language of the Russians . It was the de facto and de jure official language of the former Soviet Union . Russian has remained an official language of the Russian Federation , Belarus , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , and Tajikistan , and

6188-488: Is being used less frequently by Russian-speaking typists in favor of the extension of Unicode character encoding , which fully incorporates the Russian alphabet. Free programs are available offering this Unicode extension, which allow users to type Russian characters, even on Western 'QWERTY' keyboards. The Russian language was first introduced to computing after the M-1 , and MESM models were produced in 1951. According to

6370-588: Is called Prospekt Lenina ( Russian : проспект Ленина ; literally "Lenin Avenue"), formerly also known as Torkkelinkatu, and along it, there is popular Lenin Park  [ ru ] . Sprawling along the heights adjacent to the Gulf of Finland is Monrepos Park , one of the most spacious English landscape gardens in Eastern Europe. The garden was laid out on behest of its owner, Baron Ludwig Heinrich von Nicolay , at

6552-624: Is called yakanye ( яканье ). Consonants include a fricative /ɣ/ , a semivowel /w⁓u̯/ and /x⁓xv⁓xw/ , whereas the Standard and Northern dialects have the consonants /ɡ/ , /v/ , and final /l/ and /f/ , respectively. The morphology features a palatalized final /tʲ/ in 3rd person forms of verbs (this is unpalatalized in the Standard and Northern dialects). During the Proto-Slavic (Common Slavic) times all Slavs spoke one mutually intelligible language or group of dialects. There

6734-614: Is incorporated within Vyborgsky District as Vyborgskoye Settlement Municipal Formation . As a municipal division , Vyborgskoye Settlement Municipal Formation is incorporated within Vyborg Municipal District as Vyborgskoye Urban Settlement . The town lies on the Karelian Isthmus near the head of Vyborg Bay, 130 km (81 miles) northwest of St. Petersburg, 245 km (152 miles) east of

6916-550: Is its Swedish-built castle , founded in the 13th century and extensively reconstructed in 1891–1894. The Round Tower and the Rathaus Tower date from the mid-16th century and are parts of the medieval Vyborg town wall . Many of the buildings in the historic old town of Vyborg are still in poor condition today. The Viipuri Library by Finnish architect Alvar Aalto and the Hermitage-Vyborg Center are

7098-573: Is more spoken than English. Sizable Russian-speaking communities also exist in North America, especially in large urban centers of the US and Canada, such as New York City , Philadelphia , Boston , Los Angeles , Nashville , San Francisco , Seattle , Spokane , Toronto , Calgary , Baltimore , Miami , Portland , Chicago , Denver , and Cleveland . In a number of locations they issue their own newspapers, and live in ethnic enclaves (especially

7280-427: Is not definitely known; the country was divided into several tysyachi ( Russian : тысячи , lit.   'thousands') in the core lands of the country, and volosti ( Russian : волости ) in lands in the east and north that were being colonized or just paid tribute. The city of Novgorod and its vicinity, as well as a few other towns, were not part of any of those. Pskov achieved autonomy from Novgorod in

7462-564: Is odd") – чу́дно ( chúdno – "this is marvellous"), молоде́ц ( molodéts – "well done!") – мо́лодец ( mólodets – "fine young man"), узна́ю ( uznáyu – "I shall learn it") – узнаю́ ( uznayú – "I recognize it"), отреза́ть ( otrezát – "to be cutting") – отре́зать ( otrézat – "to have cut"); to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words, especially personal and family names, like афе́ра ( aféra , "scandal, affair"), гу́ру ( gúru , "guru"), Гарси́я ( García ), Оле́ша ( Olésha ), Фе́рми ( Fermi ), and to show which

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7644-402: Is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities . Russian is the language of 9% of the population according to the World Factbook. Ethnologue cites Russian as the country's de facto working language. In China , Russian has no official status, but it is spoken by the small Russian communities in the northeastern Heilongjiang and

7826-569: Is sometimes considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. Also, Russian has notable lexical similarities with Bulgarian due to a common Church Slavonic influence on both languages, but because of later interaction in the 19th and 20th centuries, Bulgarian grammar differs markedly from Russian. Over the course of centuries, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central European languages such as Greek, Latin , Polish , Dutch , German, French, Italian, and English, and to

8008-585: Is spoken by 14.2% of the population according to an undated estimate from the World Factbook. In 2005, Russian was the most widely taught foreign language in Mongolia, and was compulsory in Year 7 onward as a second foreign language in 2006. Around 1.5 million Israelis spoke Russian as of 2017. The Israeli press and websites regularly publish material in Russian and there are Russian newspapers, television stations, schools, and social media outlets based in

8190-677: Is still commonly used as a lingua franca in Ukraine , Moldova , the Caucasus , Central Asia , and to a lesser extent in the Baltic states and Israel . Russian has over 258 million total speakers worldwide. It is the most spoken native language in Europe , the most spoken Slavic language , as well as the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia . It is the world's seventh-most spoken language by number of native speakers , and

8372-604: Is the municipal formation "City of Vyborg" of the Vyborg district of the Leningrad region; the abbreviated name is the municipal entity "City of Vyborg". Local self-government is carried out on the basis of the charter, which was adopted by the decision of the Council of Deputies of Vyborg dated 16 June 2010 No. 63. The representative body of local self-government is the Council of Deputies, consisting of 20 deputies elected in municipal elections in single-member constituencies for

8554-518: Is the stressed word in a sentence, for example Ты́ съел печенье? ( Tý syel pechenye? – "Was it you who ate the cookie?") – Ты съе́л печенье? ( Ty syél pechenye? – "Did you eat the cookie?) – Ты съел пече́нье? ( Ty syel pechénye? "Was it the cookie you ate?"). Stress marks are mandatory in lexical dictionaries and books for children or Russian learners. The Russian syllable structure can be quite complex, with both initial and final consonant clusters of up to four consecutive sounds. Using

8736-420: Is unclear. Many were between various boyar factions or, if a revolt did involve the peasants or tradesmen against the boyars, it did not consist of the peasants wanting to overthrow the existing social order, but was more often than not a demand for better rule on the part of the ruling class. There did not seem to be a sense that the office of prince should be abolished or that the peasants should be allowed to run

8918-565: The Life of Alexander Nevsky . Novgorod was also spared by the Mongol armies during the Mongol invasions after Alexander Nevsky agreed to pay tribute. Historians such as J. L. I. Fennell have called the proportions of Nevsky's victories as having been overblown; he also argued that there was no existence of a unified Western scheme of aggression against Russia and that Nevsky appeased the Mongols, while many Russian historians have argued that Nevsky

9100-526: The ushkuyniki , who contributed to the expansion of Novgorod's trade and colonies in the north of European Russia . By the 14th century, the prince of Moscow (who was almost always the grand prince of Vladimir ) was usually the prince of Novgorod as well. As Moscow grew in power in the 15th century, Novgorod began to lose its autonomy. In a 1471 peace treaty with Moscow following the Battle of Shelon , Novgorod pledged allegiance to Moscow, with its system of government temporarily left intact. The end of

9282-470: The 2011 Lithuanian census , Russian was the native language for 7.2% of the population. In Moldova , Russian was considered to be the language of interethnic communication under a Soviet-era law. On 21 January 2021, the Constitutional Court of Moldova declared the law unconstitutional and deprived Russian of the status of the language of interethnic communication. 50% of the population

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9464-1000: The Apollo–Soyuz mission, which first flew in 1975. In March 2013, Russian was found to be the second-most used language on websites after English. Russian was the language of 5.9% of all websites, slightly ahead of German and far behind English (54.7%). Russian was used not only on 89.8% of .ru sites, but also on 88.7% of sites with the former Soviet Union domain .su . Websites in former Soviet Union member states also used high levels of Russian: 79.0% in Ukraine, 86.9% in Belarus, 84.0% in Kazakhstan, 79.6% in Uzbekistan, 75.9% in Kyrgyzstan and 81.8% in Tajikistan. However, Russian

9646-456: The Baltic - Volga - Caspian trade route, not only for trading but also for bringing food from the fertile Oka region to their city. In 1136, the Novgorodians dismissed their prince Vsevolod Mstislavich , and over the next century and half, were able to invite in and dismiss a number of princes. However, these invitations or dismissals were often based on who was the dominant prince in Rus' at

9828-497: The Chamber of Facets after 1433). The executives of Novgorod, at least nominally, were always the princes of Novgorod, invited by Novgorodians from neighboring states, even though their power waned in the 13th and early 14th centuries. It is unclear if the archbishop of Novgorod was the true head of state or chief executive of the Novgorod Republic, but in any case, he remained an important town official. In addition to overseeing

10010-413: The Constitution of Tajikistan and is permitted in official documentation. 28% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 7% used it as the main language with family, friends or at work. The World Factbook notes that Russian is widely used in government and business. In Turkmenistan , Russian lost its status as the official lingua franca in 1996. Among 12% of the population who grew up in

10192-586: The East–West Schism , Novgorod struggled from the beginning of the 13th century against Swedish, Danish, and German crusaders. During the Swedish–Novgorodian Wars , the Swedes invaded lands where some of the population had earlier paid tribute to Novgorod. The Germans had been trying to conquer the Baltic region since the late 12th century. Novgorod went to war 26 times with Sweden and 11 times with

10374-518: The Gulf Stream . The beginning of spring is generally sunny and rather low in precipitation. Summer is moderately warm. Autumn is generally cloudy and rainy. On average, daytime insolation on a horizontal surface is 2.79 kW/m². The most dominant are the south-west and south winds. Vyborg continues to be an important industrial producer of paper . Tourism is increasingly important, and the Russian film festival Window to Europe takes place in

10556-591: The Livonian Brothers of the Sword ). But the Pskovians distrusted him and allied with Riga instead, while the troop raising caused food prices in Novgorod to spike, stoking civil discontent against prince Yaroslav as well; opposition to the Suzdalian dynasty's power grew amongst citizens of both Pskov and Novgorod. As they rejected support for his campaign against Riga, suspecting a ploy to seize Pskov along

10738-514: The Livonian Brothers of the Sword . The German knights , along with Danish and Swedish feudal lords, launched a series of uncoordinated attacks in 1240–1242. Russian sources mention that a Swedish army was defeated in the Battle of the Neva in 1240. The Baltic German campaigns ended in failure after the Battle on the Ice in 1242. After the foundation of the castle of Vyborg in 1293 the Swedes gained

10920-684: The Northern Crusades , the Novgorodian prince Alexander Yaroslavich defeated the Swedes at the Battle of the Neva in July 1240, from which he received the sobriquet Nevsky ("of the Neva"). Alexander then defeated German crusaders at the Battle on the Ice in 1242, after the forces of the exiled prince of Pskov and men from the Bishopric of Dorpat attacked Pskov Land and Votia , a tributary of Novgorod. This later led to him being depicted as an ideal ruler in chronicles such as

11102-714: The Pan-Scandinavian King Eric of Pomerania in 1403. It withstood a prolonged siege by Daniil Shchenya during the Russo-Swedish War of 1496–1497 . Under Swedish rule, Vyborg was closely associated with the noble family of Bååt , originally from Småland . The late-medieval commanders and fief holders of Vyborg were (almost always) descended from or married to the Bååt family. In practice, though not having this as their formal title, they functioned as Margraves , had feudal privileges, and kept all

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11284-584: The Ukrainian language in more than 30 spheres of public life: in particular in public administration , media, education, science, culture, advertising, services . The law does not regulate private communication. A poll conducted in March 2022 by RATING in the territory controlled by Ukraine found that 83% of the respondents believe that Ukrainian should be the only state language of Ukraine. This opinion dominates in all macro-regions, age and language groups. On

11466-507: The United States Census , in 2007 Russian was the primary language spoken in the homes of over 850,000 individuals living in the United States. Russian is one of the official languages (or has similar status and interpretation must be provided into Russian) of the following: The Russian language is also one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station – NASA astronauts who serve alongside Russian cosmonauts usually take Russian language courses. This practice goes back to

11648-451: The northwest and north of European Russia , as well as the eastern part of Finland . To the east, it was bordered by the Principality of Tver and to the west, it was bordered by Lithuania as well as various Baltic powers, including the Teutonic Order and the bishoprics of Dorpat and Courland as well as the Hanseatic cities of Riga and Reval . The economy of the Novgorod Republic included farming and animal husbandry (e.g.,

11830-413: The posadniki (burgomaster), to the chernye liudi ( lit.   ' black folks ' ) or the lowest free class. The precise constitution of the medieval Novgorodian republic is uncertain, although traditional histories have created the image of a highly institutionalized network of veches (public assemblies) and a government of posadniki (burgomaster), tysyatskys ("thousandmen"; originally

12012-424: The 12th century, while most are from after 1262. Thus it is difficult to determine Novgorod's political structure due to the paucity of sources. The prince, while his status in Novgorod was not inheritable and his power was much reduced, remained an important figure in Novgorodian life. Of around 100 princes of Novgorod, many, if not most, were invited in or dismissed by the Novgorodians. At least some of them signed

12194-424: The 13th century; its independence was confirmed by the Treaty of Bolotovo in 1348. Several other towns had special status as they were owned jointly by Novgorod and one of the neighbouring states. The Novgorod Republic was the largest of the Russian states in terms of area until it was surpassed by Moscow following its annexation of other independent principalities in the 15th century. The Novgorod Republic occupied

12376-476: The 15th century. Novgorod Land and Novgorod volost usually referred to the land belonging to Novgorod. Novgorod Republic ( Russian : Новгородская республика , romanized :  Novgorodskaya respublika ) itself is a much later term, although the polity was described as a republic as early as in the beginning of the 16th century. Soviet historians frequently used the terms Novgorod Feudal Republic and Novgorod Boyar Republic . The area of Novgorod

12558-405: The 20th century, Russian was a mandatory language taught in the schools of the members of the old Warsaw Pact and in other countries that used to be satellites of the USSR. According to the Eurobarometer 2005 survey, fluency in Russian remains fairly high (20–40%) in some countries, in particular former Warsaw Pact countries. In Armenia , Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as

12740-464: The Baltic trade network established by the Hanseatic League . From Novgorod's northeastern lands ("The Lands Beyond the Portages" as they were called in the chronicles), the area stretching north of Lakes Ladoga and Onega up to the White Sea and east to the Ural Mountains had so much fur that medieval travel accounts tell of furry animals raining from the sky. The Novgorodian merchants traded with Swedish, German, and Danish cities. In early years,

12922-412: The Belarusian society the Russian language prevails, so according to the 2019 census 6,718,557 people (71.4% of the total population) stated that they speak Russian at home, for ethnic Belarusians this share is 61.4%, for Russians — 97.2%, for Ukrainians — 89.0%, for Poles — 52.4%, and for Jews — 96.6%; 2,447,764 people (26.0% of the total population) stated that the language they usually speak at home

13104-510: The Catholic faith: Thus did Great Prince Ivan advance with all his host against his domain of Novgorod because of the rebellious spirit of its people, their pride and conversion to Latinism. With a great and overwhelming force did he occupy the entire territory of Novgorod from frontier to frontier, inflicting on every part of it the dread powers of his fire and sword. The city-state of Novgorod had developed procedures of governance that held

13286-735: The Finnish capital Helsinki , and 38 km (24 miles) south of Russia's border with Finland , where the Saimaa Canal enters the Gulf of Finland . The most recent census population of Vyborg is 72,530 ( 2021 Census ) . Vyborg was founded as a medieval fortress in Finland under Swedish rule during the Third Swedish Crusade . After numerous wars between the Russians and Swedes, the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323 defined

13468-743: The Finnish capital Helsinki, and 38 km (24 miles) south of Russia's border with Finland, where the Saimaa Canal enters the Gulf of Finland. Similar to many other areas along the Baltic Sea , Vyborg has a humid continental climate ( Dfb ) with large temperature differences between summer and winter. The climate is characterised by a fairly cloudy beginning of winter, but an increasing share of sunshine from February. Winter temperatures are being somewhat moderated by maritime effects compared to Russian cities further inland even on more southerly latitudes, but still cold enough compared to areas that are nearer

13650-480: The Great and developed from the Moscow ( Middle or Central Russian ) dialect substratum under the influence of some of the previous century's Russian chancery language. Prior to the Bolshevik Revolution , the spoken form of the Russian language was that of the nobility and the urban bourgeoisie. Russian peasants, the great majority of the population, continued to speak in their own dialects. However,

13832-590: The Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, an optional acute accent ( знак ударения ) may, and sometimes should, be used to mark stress . For example, it is used to distinguish between otherwise identical words, especially when context does not make it obvious: замо́к ( zamók – "lock") – за́мок ( zámok – "castle"), сто́ящий ( stóyashchy – "worthwhile") – стоя́щий ( stoyáshchy – "standing"), чудно́ ( chudnó – "this

14014-610: The Karelo-Finnish SSR. During the Soviet era, the town was settled by people from all over the Soviet Union. The naval air bases of Pribylovo and Veshchevo were built nearby. In 1940s and the 1950s, new factories were built: shipbuilding (1948), instrumentational (1953). In 1960, a local history museum was opened. Within the framework of administrative divisions , Vyborg serves as the administrative center of Vyborgsky District . As an administrative division, it

14196-526: The Middle East and North Africa – 1.3 million, Sub-Saharan Africa – 0.1 million, Latin America – 0.2 million, U.S., Canada , Australia, and New Zealand – 4.1 million speakers. Therefore, the Russian language is the seventh-largest in the world by the number of speakers , after English, Mandarin, Hindi -Urdu, Spanish, French, Arabic, and Portuguese. Russian is one of the six official languages of

14378-975: The Novgorodians sailed the Baltic themselves (several incidents involving Novgorodian merchants in Gotland and Denmark are reported in the Novgorodian First Chronicle ). Orthodox churches for Novgorodian merchants have been excavated on Gotland . Likewise, merchants from Gotland had their own St. Olaf church and trading house in Novgorod. However, the Hanseatic League disputed the right of Novgorodian merchants to carry out sea trade independently and to deliver cargoes to Western European ports by their own ships. Silver, cloth, wine and herring were imported from Western Europe. The amount of fur, especially squirrel and other relatively cheap furs, that Novgorod supplied to Hanseatic merchants

14560-758: The Pskovian army, while the pretender was captured, handed over to Yaroslav of Suzdal and imprisoned in Pereslavl-Zalessky . In 1234, Yaroslav of Suzdal campaigned against the bishopric of Dorpat. The 1234 peace agreement was based on that of 1224; it did not involve any territorial issues, but only a prisoner exchange and Dorpat's promise to stop supporting factions in Pskov and Novgorod that opposed Yaroslav of Suzdal. Yaroslav went to Kiev in 1235, leaving his 15- or 16-year-old son Aleksandr Yaroslavich behind in Novgorod. According to Russian sources, during

14742-493: The Rigans, and later Dorpat (modern Tartu ) and Odenpäh (modern Otepää ). Meanwhile, Yaroslav Vladimirovich, a son of the previous Pskovian prince Vladimir Mstislavich of Pskov  [ et ] sought to leverage his family ties with the bishops Hermann of Dorpat and Albert of Riga (died 1229) to gain his father's throne. The famine in Novgorod continued, and in 1230 another popular revolt erupted against supporters of

14924-693: The Rus' state. The Novgorodians were the first to reach the regions between the Arctic Ocean and Lake Onega . Even though there is no definitive account of the precise timing of their arrival at the northern rivers that flowed into the Arctic, there are chronicles which mention that one expedition reached the Pechora River in 1032, and trading was established as early as 1096 with the Yugra tribes. The Chronicle mentions Novgorodians traveling "beyond

15106-807: The Russian alphabet include ⟨ ѣ ⟩ , which merged to ⟨ е ⟩ ( /je/ or /ʲe/ ); ⟨ і ⟩ and ⟨ ѵ ⟩ , which both merged to ⟨ и ⟩ ( /i/ ); ⟨ ѳ ⟩ , which merged to ⟨ ф ⟩ ( /f/ ); ⟨ ѫ ⟩ , which merged to ⟨ у ⟩ ( /u/ ); ⟨ ѭ ⟩ , which merged to ⟨ ю ⟩ ( /ju/ or /ʲu/ ); and ⟨ ѧ ⟩ and ⟨ ѩ ⟩ , which later were graphically reshaped into ⟨ я ⟩ and merged phonetically to /ja/ or /ʲa/ . While these older letters have been abandoned at one time or another, they may be used in this and related articles. The yers ⟨ ъ ⟩ and ⟨ ь ⟩ originally indicated

15288-458: The Russian principalities before and especially during Mongol rule. This strengthened dialectal differences, and for a while, prevented the emergence of a standardized national language. The formation of the unified and centralized Russian state in the 15th and 16th centuries, and the gradual re-emergence of a common political, economic, and cultural space created the need for a common standard language. The initial impulse for standardization came from

15470-405: The Soviet era can speak Russian, other generations of citizens that do not have any knowledge of Russian. Primary and secondary education by Russian is almost non-existent. In Uzbekistan , Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication. It has some official roles, being permitted in official documentation and is the lingua franca of the country and the language of the elite. Russian

15652-467: The United Nations. Education in Russian is still a popular choice for both Russian as a second language (RSL) and native speakers in Russia, and in many former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics. In Belarus , Russian is a second state language alongside Belarusian per the Constitution of Belarus . 77% of

15834-459: The annexation was not recognized by any foreign state, even Finland's ally, Germany. By 1942, the population had risen to 16,000. About 70% of the evacuees from Finnish Karelia returned after the reconquest to rebuild their looted homes but were again evacuated after the Red Army 's Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive , timed to coincide with the Battle of Normandy . By the time of the Soviet offensive,

16016-535: The archbishops of Novgorod and others raised horses for the Novgorodian army), while hunting , beekeeping , and fishing were also widespread. In most of the regions of the republic, these different "industries" were combined with farming. Iron was mined on the coast of the Gulf of Finland . Staraya Russa and other localities were known for their saltworks . Flax and hop cultivation were also of significant importance. Countryside products, such as furs, beeswax , honey , fish, lard , flax, and hops, were sold on

16198-575: The area of what is now Vyborg used to be a trading center on the Vuoksi River 's western branch, which has since dried up. The region was inhabited by the Karelians , a Balto-Finnic tribe which gradually came under the domination of Novgorod and Sweden . It has been claimed that Vyborg appeared in the 11th–12th centuries as a mixed Karelian-Russian settlement, although there is no archeological proof of any East Slavic settlement of that time in

16380-547: The area, and it is not mentioned in any of the earliest historical documents, such as the Novgorod First Chronicle or the Primary Chronicle . Wider settlement in the area of Vyborg is generally regarded to date from 13th century onwards when Hanseatic traders began traveling to Novgorod . Vyborg Castle was founded during the Third Swedish Crusade in 1293 by marsk Torkel Knutsson on

16562-632: The areas around Lake Onega , along the Northern Dvina , and coastlines of the White Sea . At the beginning of the 14th century, the Novgorodians explored the Arctic Ocean , the Barents Sea , the Kara Sea , and the West-Siberian river Ob . The lands to the north of the city, rich with fur , sea fauna and salt among others were of great economic importance to the Novgorodians, who fought

16744-544: The auspices of Ivan III and his son Ivan Ivanovich . The Novgorod Judicial Charter, along with the Pskov Judicial Charter , were later used for Ivan III's Sudebnik of 1497 which served as the legal code for the entire Russian state. Novgorod was called a republic by Sigismund von Herberstein in his Notes on Muscovite Affairs written at least half a century after the conquest of Novgorod. Soviet-era Marxist scholarship frequently described

16926-732: The border of eastern Finland, and would separate the two cultures. Vyborg remained under Swedish rule until it was captured by the Russians during the Great Northern War . Under Russian rule, Vyborg was the seat of Vyborg Governorate until it was incorporated into the newly established Grand Duchy of Finland , an autonomous part of the Russian Empire . Finland declared its independence from Russia in 1917, after which Vyborg became its second-most significant city after Helsinki, and represented internationally as its most multicultural city. During World War II , Vyborg's population

17108-574: The bottom of the Baltic Sea to Lubmin in Germany. It started operating in September 2011, enabling Russia to export gas directly to Western Europe. The feeding pipeline in Russia ( Gryazovets–Vyborg gas pipeline ) is operated by Gazprom and is a part of the integrated gas transport network of Russia connecting existing grid in Gryazovets with the coastal compressor station at Vyborg. Before

17290-504: The boyars' wealth would flow to the grand prince and Muscovite boyars, and the Novgorodians would fall into decline; most of them also did not earn enough to pay for war. By 1470, with the pro-Lithuanian faction being dominant, the Novgorodian boyars questioned Ivan's sovereignty over Novgorod as their prince. Novgorod negotiated with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for a new prince to be sent over. This led to Mikhailo Olelkovich ,

17472-404: The boyars. The Cathedral of St. Sophia – the main ecclesiastic establishment of Novgorod – was their chief rival in terms of landownership . Its votchinas were located in the most economically developed regions of Novgorod Land. The Yuriev Monastery , Arkazhsky Monastery , Antoniev Monastery and some other privileged monasteries are known to have been big landowners. There were also

17654-483: The brand new prince Michael of Chernigov, including tysiatskii Boris Negochevich. The desperate Novgorodian people asked for Yaroslav of Suzdal to return, which he did at the end of 1230, but the famine got even worse in spring 1231, until German merchants sailing from overseas were able to import sufficient amounts of grain and flour to relieve the Republic's hunger. In autumn 1231, Yaroslav took Novgorodian troops on

17836-403: The broader sense of expanding the use of Russian alongside or in favour of other languages. The current standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language ( современный русский литературный язык – "sovremenny russky literaturny yazyk"). It arose at the beginning of the 18th century with the modernization reforms of the Russian state under the rule of Peter

18018-631: The census data. Vyborg had sizable minorities of Swedes , Germans , Russians , Romani , Tatars and Jews . During that time, Alvar Aalto built the Vyborg Library , an icon of functionalist architecture . During the Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939–1940, over 70,000 people were evacuated from Vyborg to other parts of Finland. The Winter War was concluded by the Moscow Peace Treaty , which stipulated

18200-459: The center of Russian Orthodoxy as opposed to Lithuania, where Catholicism was dominant and its culture was being increasingly polonized , though some Novgorodian clergy adopted a pro-Lithuanian policy for political reasons due to fears that embracing the grand prince of Moscow would eventually lead to the end of Novgorod's independence. Most Novgorodian boyars had hoped to maintain the republic's independence since if Novgorod were to be conquered,

18382-509: The chief executive of the city, and from 1156, the archbishop of Novgorod , subject to approval by the Russian metropolitan . The tysyatsky was also elected by the veche , who was originally the military commander, and served the interests of the common people. Novgorodian nobles known as boyars dominated the veche , and the offices of posadnik and tysyatsky remained in the hands of boyar families. The boyars also gave funding to

18564-486: The church in Novgorod, he headed embassies, oversaw certain court cases of a secular nature, and carried out other secular tasks. However, the archbishops appear to have worked with the boyars to reach a consensus and almost never acted alone. The archbishop was not appointed, but elected by Novgorodians, and approved by the metropolitan bishop of Russia . The archbishops were probably the richest single land-owners in Novgorod, and they also made money off court fees, fees for

18746-584: The city (there was a Carpenter's End and a Potters' End, for example). The merchants were organised into associations, of which the most famous were those of wax traders (called Ivan's Hundred ) and of the merchants engaged in overseas trade. Like much of the rest of Novgorod's medieval history, the precise composition of these organizations is uncertain. It is quite possible that the "ends" and "streets" were simply neighborhood administrative groups rather than guilds or "unions". Street organizations were known to build churches in their neighborhoods and to have buried

18928-443: The city and held court, although it was often presided over by his namestnik or lieutenant when he was personally absent from the city. The posadnik had always to be present in the court and no court decision could be made without his approval. Also, without the posadnik's approval the prince could neither give out Novgorod lands nor issue laws. Besides, the prince could not own land in Novgorod and could not himself collect taxes from

19110-501: The city. Throughout the republican period, the archbishop of Novgorod was the head of the Orthodox church in the city. The Finnic population of Novgorod Land underwent Christianization. The sect of the strigolniki spread to Novgorod from Pskov in the middle of the 14th century, with its members renouncing ecclesiastic hierarchy, monasticism and sacraments of priesthood, communion, repentance and baptism, before they disappeared by

19292-572: The country. There is an Israeli TV channel mainly broadcasting in Russian with Israel Plus . See also Russian language in Israel . Russian is also spoken as a second language by a small number of people in Afghanistan . In Vietnam , Russian has been added in the elementary curriculum along with Chinese and Japanese and were named as "first foreign languages" for Vietnamese students to learn, on equal footing with English. The Russian language

19474-591: The crown's incomes from the fief to use for the defense of the realm's eastern border. Vyborg remained in Swedish hands until its capture in 1710 after the Siege of Vyborg by Tsar Peter the Great in the Great Northern War . In the course of Peter's second administrative reform , Vyborg became the seat of the Vyborg Province of St. Petersburg Governorate . The 1721 Treaty of Nystad , which concluded

19656-401: The dead of their neighborhoods during outbreaks of the plague, but beyond that their activities are uncertain. "Streets" and "ends" may have taken part in political decision-making in Novgorod in support of certain boyar factions or to protect their interests. Merchant "elders" are also noted in treaties and other charters, but only about a hundred of these charters exist. A half dozen date from

19838-399: The dominance of rich merchant families in politics. Some scholars argue that the archbishop was the head of the executive branch of the government, although it is difficult to determine the exact competence of the various officials. It is possible that there was a Council of Lords ( Russian : Совет Господ ) that was headed by the archbishop and met in the archiepiscopal palace (and in

20020-673: The early 15th century. Another sect, known as the Heresy of the Judaizers by its opponents, appeared in Novgorod in the second half of the 15th century and subsequently enjoyed support at the court in Moscow, before ultimately they were persecuted and several councils of the Russian Church condemned them. Like other Russian states, the military of Novgorod consisted of a levy and the prince's retinue ( druzhina ). While potentially all free Novgorodians could be mobilised, in reality

20202-413: The factory and the industrial plant their local peasant dialects with their phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary, and the very process of recruiting workers from peasants and the mobility of the worker population generate another process: the liquidation of peasant inheritance by way of leveling the particulars of local dialects. On the ruins of peasant multilingual, in the context of developing heavy industry,

20384-456: The final reading amendments that state that all schools and kindergartens in the country are to transition to education in Latvian . From 2025, all children will be taught in Latvian only. On 28 September 2023, Latvian deputies approved The National Security Concept, according to which from 1 January 2026, all content created by Latvian public media (including LSM ) should be only in Latvian or

20566-572: The founding of Kievan Rus' , he ordered Novgorod to pay the Varangian princes in Kiev 300 grivny a year. In 1014, the PVL mentions this tribute had increased: "When Yaroslav was in Novgorod, he paid two thousand grivny a year as tribute to Kiev, and another thousand was given to his garrison in Novgorod." The "Russian–Scandinavian cultural symbiosis" became prevalent following the establishment of

20748-631: The generation of immigrants who started arriving in the early 1960s). Only about 25% of them are ethnic Russians, however. Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the overwhelming majority of Russophones in Brighton Beach, Brooklyn in New York City were Russian-speaking Jews. Afterward, the influx from the countries of the former Soviet Union changed the statistics somewhat, with ethnic Russians and Ukrainians immigrating along with some more Russian Jews and Central Asians. According to

20930-480: The government bureaucracy for the lack of a reliable tool of communication in administrative, legal, and judicial affairs became an obvious practical problem. The earliest attempts at standardizing Russian were made based on the so-called Moscow official or chancery language, during the 15th to 17th centuries. Since then, the trend of language policy in Russia has been standardization in both the restricted sense of reducing dialectical barriers between ethnic Russians, and

21112-507: The head of the administration, who is appointed under a contract concluded based on the results of a competition for a period of five years. From 2 August 2011, the head of the administration was Alexander Aleksandrovich Buyanov. On 24 September 2014, the post of head of the Municipal Municipality "City of Vyborg" was taken by Alexander Petrovich Lysov. His candidacy was supported unanimously. Vyborg's most prominent landmark

21294-416: The head of the town militia, but later a judicial and commercial official), other members of aristocratic families, and the archbishops of Novgorod . The veche tradition convinced Novgorodians that they had the right to be consulted on important issues, though in practice, the posadniki came from a few rich merchant families. In the early years of the republic, the prince and posadnik shared power until

21476-482: The key fortress of Orekhov . The Pskovites sent a small detachment and took advantage of the situation by only agreeing to accompany the Novgorodian army on the condition that Pskov would be formally granted its independence. Novgorod sent an allied force to lay siege to the fortress and signed the Treaty of Bolotovo (1348) on the way to Orekhov. As per the terms of the treaty, the posadniki of Novgorod no longer had any administrative or judicial function in Pskov and

21658-399: The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania. The prospects of changing allegiance in favor of the allied Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania caused a major commotion among the commoners. Janet Martin and Gail Lenhoff have recently argued that Boretskaya was scapegoated, probably by Archbishop Feofil ( r.  1470–1480 ) in order to shift the blame from him for his betrayal of

21840-524: The late 11th century, the Novgorodians asserted greater control over the determination of their rules, and rejected a politically dependent relationship to Kiev. The PVL claims that Novgorod ceased paying tribute to the Varangians at the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054). Chronicles state that the Novgorodians paid tribute to the grand prince of Kiev by 1113. Some time after this, the administration of

22022-508: The late 16th century peasants could leave their land in the weeks preceding and coming after George's Day in Autumn . Marxist scholars such as Aleksandr Khoroshev often spoke of a class struggle in Novgorod. There were some 80 major uprisings in the republic, which often turned into armed rebellions. The most notable among these took place in 1136, 1207, 1228–1229, 1270, 1418, and 1446–1447. The extent to which these were based on "class struggle"

22204-561: The law-courts of the archbishop of Novgorod would only be run by representatives chosen by the Pskovites. However, the archbishop of Novgorod continued to head the church in Pskov and kept the title of archbishop of Novgorod the Great and Pskov until 1589. As Moscow grew in strength, however, the Muscovite princes became a serious threat to Novgorod. Ivan I , Simeon , and other princes sought to limit Novgorod's independence. In 1397,

22386-424: The main profit of the shift. In spite of unfavorable natural conditions, Novgorod's rural population was dependent upon agriculture and stock-rearing, while hunting and fishing were also important. The agricultural basis was also insecure, as the land passed almost fully into the hands of ruling boyars and clergy, with only a small area belonging to merchants. The peasants of Novgorod also paid dues to their lords in

22568-410: The market and exported to other Russian cities or abroad. The real wealth of Novgorod, however, came from the fur trade. Hanseatic merchants were particularly attracted to the Russian trade due to its vast resources of furs and beeswax, with Novgorod being the leading supplier of furs. The city was the main entrepôt for trade between Rus' and northwestern Europe as it was located at the eastern end of

22750-555: The metayage, monetary payments also gained significant importance by the second half of the 15th century. Some scholars argue that the feudal lords tried to legally tie down the peasants to their land. Certain categories of feudally dependent peasants, such as davniye lyudi (давние люди), polovniki (половники), poruchniki (поручники), and dolzhniki (должники), were deprived of the right to leave their masters. The boyars and monasteries also tried to restrict other categories of peasants from switching their feudal lords. However, until

22932-438: The newly created Grand Duchy of Finland in 1811 (1812 NS). Over the course of the 19th century, the town developed as the centre of administration and trade for eastern Finland. The inauguration of the Saimaa Canal in 1856 benefited the local economy, as it opened the vast waterways of Eastern Finland to the sea. Vyborg was never a major industrial center and lacked large production facilities, but its location made it serve as

23114-729: The northern end of both the Volga trade route and the route from the Varangians to the Greeks along the Dnieper River system. A vast array of goods were transported along these routes and exchanged with local Novgorod merchants and other traders. The merchants of Gotland retained the Gothic Court trading house well into the 12th century. Later, German merchantmen also established trading houses in Novgorod. Scandinavian royalty would intermarry with Russian princes and princesses. After

23296-524: The northwestern Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region . Russian was also the main foreign language taught in school in China between 1949 and 1964. In Kazakhstan , Russian is not a state language, but according to article 7 of the Constitution of Kazakhstan its usage enjoys equal status to that of the Kazakh language in state and local administration. The 2009 census reported that 10,309,500 people, or 84.8% of

23478-402: The number of recruits depended on the level of danger faced by Novgorod. The professional formations included the retinues of the archbishop and prominent boyars , as well as the garrisons of fortresses. Firearms were first mentioned in 1394, and in the 15th century, fortress artillery was used, and cannons were installed on ships. During the era of Kievan Rus' , Novgorod was a trade hub at

23660-515: The other hand, before the war, almost a quarter of Ukrainians were in favour of granting Russian the status of the state language, while after the beginning of Russia's invasion the support for the idea dropped to just 7%. In peacetime, the idea of raising the status of Russian was traditionally supported by residents of the south and east . But even in these regions, only a third of the respondents were in favour, and after Russia's full-scale invasion , their number dropped by almost half. According to

23842-461: The other three languages in the East Slavic branch. In many places in eastern and southern Ukraine and throughout Belarus, these languages are spoken interchangeably, and in certain areas traditional bilingualism resulted in language mixtures such as Surzhyk in eastern Ukraine and Trasianka in Belarus. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect , although it vanished during the 15th or 16th century,

24024-446: The parliament approved a bill to close up all Russian language schools and kindergartens by the school year. The transition to only Estonian language schools and kindergartens will start in the 2024-2025 school year. In Latvia , Russian is officially considered a foreign language. 55% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 26% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. On 18 February 2012, Latvia held

24206-453: The peasants' speech was never systematically studied, as it was generally regarded by philologists as simply a source of folklore and an object of curiosity. This was acknowledged by the noted Russian dialectologist Nikolai Karinsky , who toward the end of his life wrote: "Scholars of Russian dialects mostly studied phonetics and morphology. Some scholars and collectors compiled local dictionaries. We have almost no studies of lexical material or

24388-466: The political system of Novgorod as a "feudal republic", placing it within the Marxist historiographic periodization ( slavery – feudalism – capitalism – socialism – communism ). Many scholars today, however, question whether Russia ever really had a feudal political system parallel to that of the medieval West. Historians have also described Novgorod's political system as an oligarchy due to

24570-459: The population aged 15 and above, could read and write well in Russian, and understand the spoken language. In October 2023, Kazakhstan drafted a media law aimed at increasing the use of the Kazakh language over Russian, the law stipulates that the share of the state language on television and radio should increase from 50% to 70%, at a rate of 5% per year, starting in 2025. In Kyrgyzstan , Russian

24752-418: The population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 67% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. According to the 2019 Belarusian census , out of 9,413,446 inhabitants of the country, 5,094,928 (54.1% of the total population) named Belarusian as their native language, with 61.2% of ethnic Belarusians and 54.5% of ethnic Poles declaring Belarusian as their native language. In everyday life in

24934-471: The portage" as early as 1079. They also traveled to Pomorye, the "summer [southern] coast" of the "Cold [White] Sea" in search of furs as well as fish and salt. Historian George Lantzeff remarked that "in the beginning of Russian history, two Russian principalities, Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal, were engaged in exploring, conquering, exploiting, and colonizing the area west of the Ural Mountains". From

25116-579: The position of head of the Vyborg District Municipal District of the Leningrad Oblast has been occupied by Alexander Petrovich Lysov. Also in September 2014, Gennady Alekseyevich Orlov assumed the position of head of the administration of the municipal formation "Vyborg District" of the Leningrad Oblast. The executive and administrative body of local self-government is the administration. It is formed and headed by

25298-596: The prince's power was gradually restricted, while the archbishop of Novgorod increasingly played the role of head of state, particularly during times of feuds. Just before 1300, a series of reforms further curtailed the prince's powers within the local administration while those of the archbishop rose. The Council of Lords ( Russian : Совет господ , romanized :  Sovet gospod ) was also formed, and boyar families from each district were represented, typically by former posadniki , with each posadnik beginning to hold office for only one year. As feuds continued to grow,

25480-413: The principality seemed to have matured. The Novgorodian tysyatsky and posadniki appointed boyars from the cities and collected revenues for administration in the territories it held. A charter from the 1130s mentioned 30 administrative posts in the territory of Novgorod, where revenues were collected regularly and sent as a tithe to the Novgorod bishop. Throughout the 12th century, Novgorod utilized

25662-436: The products of agriculture, fishing, forestry, and stock-rearing. Foreign coins and silver were used as a currency before Novgorod started minting its own novgorodka coins in 1420. More than half of all privately owned lands in Novgorod had been concentrated in the hands of some 30–40 noble boyar families by the 14th and 15th centuries. These vast estates served as material resources, which secured political supremacy of

25844-479: The pronunciation of ultra-short or reduced /ŭ/ , /ĭ/ . Because of many technical restrictions in computing and also because of the unavailability of Cyrillic keyboards abroad, Russian is often transliterated using the Latin alphabet. For example, мороз ('frost') is transliterated moroz , and мышь ('mouse'), mysh or myš' . Once commonly used by the majority of those living outside Russia, transliteration

26026-472: The proper pronunciation of uncommon words or names. Russian is an East Slavic language of the wider Indo-European family . It is a descendant of Old East Slavic , a language used in Kievan Rus' , which was a loose conglomerate of East Slavic tribes from the late 9th to the mid-13th centuries. From the point of view of spoken language , its closest relatives are Ukrainian , Belarusian , and Rusyn ,

26208-526: The reign of Yury . In part, Tver's proximity (the Tver principality was contiguous with Novgorod Land) threatened Novgorod. It was feared that a Tverian prince would annex Novgorod's territory, and thus weaken the republic. At the time, though, Moscow did not border Novgorod, and since the Muscovite princes were further afield, they were more acceptable as princes of Novgorod. They could come to Novgorod's aid when needed but would be too far away to meddle too much in

26390-546: The republic and the veche came in 1478 when Ivan III once again invaded and seized the city as part of his campaign to annex all other Russian states. The state was called Novgorod and Great Novgorod ( Russian : Великий Новгород , romanized :  Velikiy Novgorod ) with the form Sovereign Lord Novgorod the Great ( Russian : Государь Господин Великий Новгород , romanized :  Gosudar' Gospodin Velikiy Novgorod ) becoming common in

26572-625: The republic's affairs. The city of Pskov , initially part of Novgorod Land, became de facto independent as early as the 13th century after opening a trading post for merchants of the Hanseatic League . Several princes such as Vsevolod Mstislavich ( d.  1138 ) and Dovmont ( d.  1299 ) reigned in Pskov without any deference to, or consultation with, the prince or other officials in Novgorod. Pskov won its formal independence in August 1348 after Magnus IV of Sweden captured

26754-491: The respondents), while according to the 2002 census – 142.6 million people (99.2% of the respondents). In Ukraine , Russian is a significant minority language. According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly, in 2004 there were 14,400,000 native speakers of Russian in the country, and 29 million active speakers. 65% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 38% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. On 5 September 2017, Ukraine's Parliament passed

26936-406: The rest for his allies. The formal annexation of Novgorod marked a major step in the unification of Russia around Moscow, with Ivan III later adopting the title of sovereign of all Russia . The Novgorod Chronicle which had been critical of Ivan III before the fall of Novgorod thus described the conquest in its aftermath, justifying it on the grounds of purported conversion of Novgorodians to

27118-510: The site of an older Karelian fort which was burned. The castle, which was the first centre for the spread of Christianity in Karelia, was fought over for decades between Sweden and the Republic of Novgorod . As a result of the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323 between the Novgorod Republic and Sweden, Vyborg was finally recognized as a part of Sweden. The town's trade privileges were chartered by

27300-441: The so-called zhityi lyudi (житьи люди), who owned less land than the boyars, and unprivileged small votchina owners called svoyezemtsy (своеземцы, or private landowners). The most common form of labor exploitation – the system of metayage – was typical for the afore-mentioned categories of landowners. Their household economies were mostly serviced by slaves ( kholops ), whose number had been constantly decreasing. Along with

27482-427: The structure was again changed so that each district had its own posadnik , with the number of posadniki increasing to 24 in 1423, though this failed to achieve stability, and feuds continued until the last days of independence. The Novgorod Judicial Charter , inherited from the earlier Russkaya Pravda , served as the legal code of the Novgorod Republic from 1440. The latest version was supplemented in 1471 under

27664-632: The subsequent Moscow Armistice on 19 September 1944, Finland returned to the borders set by the Moscow Peace Treaty and ceded more land than the treaty originally demanded. In the Paris Peace Treaties (1947), Finland relinquished all claims to Vyborg. After the Second World War, Leningrad Oblast wanted to incorporate the area of Vyborg, but it took until November 1944 for the area to be finally transferred from

27846-626: The survey carried out by RATING in August 2023 in the territory controlled by Ukraine and among the refugees, almost 60% of the polled usually speak Ukrainian at home, about 30% – Ukrainian and Russian, only 9% – Russian. Since March 2022, the use of Russian in everyday life has been noticeably decreasing. For 82% of respondents, Ukrainian is their mother tongue, and for 16%, Russian is their mother tongue. IDPs and refugees living abroad are more likely to use both languages for communication or speak Russian. Nevertheless, more than 70% of IDPs and refugees consider Ukrainian to be their native language. In

28028-459: The syntax of Russian dialects." After 1917, Marxist linguists had no interest in the multiplicity of peasant dialects and regarded their language as a relic of the rapidly disappearing past that was not worthy of scholarly attention. Nakhimovsky quotes the Soviet academicians A.M Ivanov and L.P Yakubinsky, writing in 1930: The language of peasants has a motley diversity inherited from feudalism. On its way to becoming proletariat peasantry brings to

28210-564: The terms of the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy, which forbade Novgorod from conducting foreign affairs without grand princely approval. While the extent of Boretskaya's role in the Lithuanian party is probably exaggerated, Novgorod did indeed try to turn to the king of Poland. A draft treaty, allegedly found among the loot after the Battle of Shelon River, was drawn up between Casimir and the Novgorodians. The Muscovite authorities saw Novgorod's behavior as

28392-623: The territory of Novgorod. He lived from money given to him by the city. According to several ryads , the prince could not extradite or prosecute a Novgorodian outside of Novgorod Land. The princes had two residences, one on the Marketplace (called Yaroslav's Court ), and another in Rurikovo Gorodische (Рюриково городище) several miles south of the Trade Side of the city. The administrative division of Novgorod Republic

28574-538: The time, and not on any independent thinking on the part of Novgorod. Rostov-Suzdal comprised the territory of the important Oka region and lands along the vital Sheksna River. This river lay in the Northern Volga tributary region. Whoever controlled the river was able to block food supplies causing a famine in Novgorod. Perhaps due to these fears, Novgorod led a failed invasion of Suzdal in 1134. They tried again and succeeded in 1149. Alternatively, Novgorod, in

28756-479: The town each year. An HVDC back-to-back facility for the exchange of electricity between the Russian and Finnish power grids was completed near Vyborg in 1982. It consists of three bipolar HVDC back-to-back schemes with an operating voltage of 85 kV and a maximum transmission rate of 355 MW, so that the entire maximum transmission rate amounts to 1,420 MW. The Nord Stream 1 offshore pipeline runs from Vyborg compressor station at Portovaya Bay along

28938-589: The town had a population of nearly 28,000. The town was captured by the Red Army on 20 June 1944, but the Finnish forces, using war material provided by Germany, managed to halt the Soviet offensive at the Battle of Tali-Ihantala , the largest battle fought by any of the Nordic countries , in Viipuri Rural Municipality, which surrounded the town, during which the town was seriously damaged. In

29120-434: The transfer of Vyborg to Soviet control, and the whole Karelian Isthmus, and those places were emptied of their residents, to Soviet control. It was incorporated into the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic on 31 March 1940. As the town was still held by the Finns, the remaining Finnish population, some 10,000 people, had to be evacuated in haste before the handover. Thus, practically the whole population of Finnish Vyborg

29302-454: The turn of the 19th century. Most of its structures were designed by the architect Giuseppe Antonio Martinelli . Previously, the estate belonged to the future king Frederick I ( Maria Fyodorovna 's brother), who called it Charlottendahl in honor of his second wife. for people born in Viipuri Province between 1812 and 1917, when it was part of the Grand Duchy of Finland . Vyborg is twinned with: Russian language Russian

29484-615: The two. Others divide the language into three groupings, Northern , Central (or Middle), and Southern , with Moscow lying in the Central region. The Northern Russian dialects and those spoken along the Volga River typically pronounce unstressed /o/ clearly, a phenomenon called okanye ( оканье ). Besides the absence of vowel reduction, some dialects have high or diphthongal /e⁓i̯ɛ/ in place of Proto-Slavic  * ě and /o⁓u̯ɔ/ in stressed closed syllables (as in Ukrainian) instead of Standard Russian /e/ and /o/ , respectively. Another Northern dialectal morphological feature

29666-454: The use of the language has some presence in certain areas. A large part of the population, especially the older generations, can speak Russian as a foreign language. However, English has replaced Russian as lingua franca in Lithuania and around 80% of young people speak English as their first foreign language. In contrast to the other two Baltic states, Lithuania has a relatively small Russian-speaking minority (5.0% as of 2008). According to

29848-524: The use of weights and measures in the marketplace, and through other means. Another important executive was the posadnik of Novgorod, who chaired the veche , co-chaired courts together with the prince, oversaw tax collection and managed current affairs of the city. Most of the prince's major decisions had to be approved by the posadnik. In the mid-14th century, instead of one posadnik, the veche began electing six. These six posadniks kept their status for their lifetimes, and each year elected among themselves

30030-412: The veche. Tradespeople and craftsmen also participated in the political affairs of Novgorod. Traditional scholarship argues that they were organized into five kontsy ("ends" in Russian) – i.e., the boroughs of the city they lived in; each end was then organized by the streets in which they lived. The ends and streets often bore names indicating that certain trades were concentrated in certain parts of

30212-404: The war with Sweden, finalized the transfer of the town and a part of Old Finland to Russia. The loss of Vyborg led Sweden to develop Fredrikshamn as a substitute port town. Another result of the loss of Vyborg was that its diocese was moved to Borgå , transforming the town into an important learning centre. In 1744, Vyborg became the seat of the Vyborg Governorate . In 1783, the governorate

30394-406: The war, Vyborg was a major Finnish town of culture. Even today, a few choirs cherish Vyborg singing traditions . These are, for example, the Wiipurilaisen osakunnan kuoro of the University of Helsinki and the Viipurin Lauluveikot male choir, with the latter founded in Vyborg in 1897. Vyborg is a municipal entity within the Vyborgsky District of the Leningrad Oblast . Its official name

30576-529: The way after the previous failed attempt, Yaroslav was forced to abandon his plans and disband his expensive army. When a bad harvest exacerbated the famine,the Novogorodians rose in revolt against the prince, who fled with his family and supporters to Pereslavl-Zalessky . With the Suzdalian princely threat gone, the Pskovians sent the Livonian auxiliaries home, while the veche elected Michael of Chernigov as Novgorod's new knyaz in 1230. The NPL notes that in subsequent years, Pskov remained allied with Riga and

30758-533: The world's ninth-most spoken language by total number of speakers . Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station , one of the six official languages of the United Nations , as well as the fourth most widely used language on the Internet . Russian is written using the Russian alphabet of the Cyrillic script ; it distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without—the so-called "soft" and "hard" sounds. Almost every consonant has

30940-427: The year 862, the Varangian brothers Rurik , Sineus and Truvor were each "invited" to reign in Novgorod, Beloozero , and Izborsk , respectively, in what is now in northwestern Russia . As a result, in Russian historiography, Novgorod is traditionally seen as the birthplace of the country's monarchy . The Primary Chronicle (PVL) states that when Oleg the Wise conquered Kiev (modern Kyiv ) in 882, which marks

31122-466: Was being wise, with cooperation with the Mongols being the only sensible option at the time which averted further tragedy. Tver , Moscow and Lithuania fought over control of Novgorod and its enormous wealth from the 14th century. Upon receiving the jarlig for grand prince of Vladimir in 1304, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver sent his governors to Novgorod . A series of disagreements with Mikhail pushed Novgorod towards closer ties with Moscow during

31304-425: Was captured by Finnish troops. At first, the Finnish Army did not allow civilians into the town. Of the 6,287 buildings, 3,807 had been destroyed. The first civilians started to arrive in late September, and by the end of the year, Vyborg had a population of about 9,700. In December 1941, the Finnish government formally annexed the town, along with the other areas that had been lost in the Moscow Peace Treaty. However,

31486-434: Was captured by the White Guard in the Battle of Vyborg , on 29 April 1918. In April to May 1918, 360 to 420 civilians were murdered by White Guards during the Vyborg massacre . The city served as the starting point of the civil war, which later spread to the rest of Finland. Vyborg served as the seat of Viipuri Province . In the 1930 census, the administrative area of the city of Vyborg had 52,253 inhabitants. There were

31668-470: Was considerable. The Lübeck company of Wittenborg exported between 200,000 and 500,000 Lübeck marks from Novgorod to Livonia in the 1350s. Anna Khoroshkevich assumed that exports increased throughout the 14th century and was at its height in the beginning of the 15th century, but by the second half of the century, Novgorod suffered from the effects of exhaustion of its resources with hunting grounds moving considerably further north and Muscovite merchants accruing

31850-406: Was decided to form the Polish Legion in Finland to fight for Finnish independence from Russia (see also Finland–Poland relations ). The 1,700-strong Legion was then stationed in Viipuri. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the fall of the Russian Empire , Finland declared itself independent . During the Finnish Civil War , Viipuri was in the hands of the Finnish Red Guards until it

32032-449: Was evacuated and the town was ceded to the Soviet Union . In 2010, Vyborg was conferred the status of " City of Military Glory " by Russian president Dmitry Medvedev . The city hosts the Russian end of the 1,222 km (759 mi) Nord Stream 1 gas pipeline, laid in 2011 and operated by a consortium led by Russia's Gazprom state hydrocarbons enterprise to pump 55 billion cubic meters (1.9 trillion cubic feet) of natural gas

32214-405: Was first introduced in North America when Russian explorers voyaged into Alaska and claimed it for Russia during the 18th century. Although most Russian colonists left after the United States bought the land in 1867, a handful stayed and preserved the Russian language in this region to this day, although only a few elderly speakers of this unique dialect are left. In Nikolaevsk, Alaska , Russian

32396-421: Was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 19% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. According to the 2014 Moldovan census , Russians accounted for 4.1% of Moldova's population, 9.4% of the population declared Russian as their native language, and 14.5% said they usually spoke Russian. According to the 2010 census in Russia , Russian language skills were indicated by 138 million people (99.4% of

32578-424: Was populated by various East Slavic tribes that were constantly at war with one another for supremacy. However, these tribes came together during the beginning of the 9th century to try to form a negotiated settlement to end military aggression amongst each other. According to the legendary calling of the Varangians (recorded in diverging variations in the Primary Chronicle and Novgorod First Chronicle ), in

32760-446: Was resettled elsewhere in Finland. The town became the administrative center of Vyborgsky District . The evacuees from Finnish Karelia came to be a vociferous political force, and their wish to return to their homes was an important motive when Finland sought support from Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union. As a result, Finland fought with Nazi Germany as a co-belligerent during the Second World War . On 29 August 1941, Vyborg

32942-402: Was the sixth-most used language on the top 1,000 sites, behind English, Chinese, French, German, and Japanese. Despite leveling after 1900, especially in matters of vocabulary and phonetics, a number of dialects still exist in Russia. Some linguists divide the dialects of Russian into two primary regional groupings, "Northern" and "Southern", with Moscow lying on the zone of transition between

33124-400: Was transformed into the Vyborg Viceroyalty and in 1801 back into Vyborg Governorate. In 1802, the Vyborg Governorate was renamed the Finland Governorate. One of the largest naval battles in history, the Battle of Vyborg Bay , was fought in Vyborg Bay on 4 July 1790. After the rest of Finland was ceded to Russia in 1809, Emperor Alexander I incorporated the town and the governorate into

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