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153-483: Columba ( / k ə ˈ l ʌ m b ə ˌ ˈ k ɒ l ʌ m b ə / ) or Colmcille (7 December 521 – 9 June 597 AD) was an Irish abbot and missionary evangelist credited with spreading Christianity in what is today Scotland at the start of the Hiberno-Scottish mission . He founded the important abbey on Iona , which became a dominant religious and political institution in the region for centuries. He

306-538: A beard and mustache , and it was often seen as dishonourable for a Gaelic man to have no facial hair. Beard styles varied – the long forked beard and the rectangular Mesopotamian-style beard were fashionable at times. Warfare was common in Gaelic Ireland, as territories , kingdoms and clans fought for supremacy against each other and later against the Vikings and Anglo-Normans . Champion warfare

459-450: A dealg ( brooch ), with men usually wearing the dealg at their shoulders and women at their chests. The ionar (a short, tight-fitting jacket) became popular later on. In Topographia Hibernica , written during the 1180s, Gerald de Barri wrote that the Irish commonly wore hoods at that time (perhaps forming part of the brat ), while Edmund Spenser wrote in the 1580s that the brat

612-502: A dwaitha philosopher. Jainism , founded by Mahavira c.  570 BC , had its own monasteries since 5th century BC. Islam discourages monasticism, which is referred to in the Quran as "an invention". However, the term "Sufi" is applied to Muslim mystics who, as a means of achieving union with Allah, adopted ascetic practices including wearing a garment made of coarse wool called "sf". The term " Sufism " comes from "sf" meaning

765-467: A fine (plural: finte ). This was a large group of related people supposedly descended from one progenitor through male forebears. It was headed by a man whose office was known in Old Irish as a cenn fine or toísech (plural: toísig ). Nicholls suggests that they would be better thought of as akin to the modern-day corporation. Within each fine , the family descended from a common great-grandparent

918-759: A certain number of their father's cattle as their marriage-portion. It seems that, throughout the Middle Ages, the Gaelic Irish kept many of their marriage laws and traditions separate from those of the Church. Under Gaelic law, married women could hold property independent of their husbands, a link was maintained between married women and their own families, couples could easily divorce or separate, and men could have concubines (which could be lawfully bought). These laws differed from most of contemporary Europe and from Church law. The lawful age of marriage

1071-401: A clergyman could never regain his standing. Some laws were pre-Christian in origin. These secular laws existed in parallel, and sometimes in conflict, with Church law . Although brehons usually dealt with legal cases, kings would have been able to deliver judgments also, but it is unclear how much they would have had to rely on brehons. Kings had their own brehons to deal with cases involving

1224-502: A convent denoted a house of friars (reflecting the Latin), now more commonly called a friary . Various religions may apply these terms in more specific ways. The word monastery comes from the Greek word μοναστήριον , neut. of μοναστήριος – monasterios from μονάζειν – monazein "to live alone" from the root μόνος – monos "alone" (originally all Christian monks were hermits);

1377-658: A district beside Lough Gartan, in Tír Chonaill (mainly modern County Donegal ) in what is now Ulster , the northern province in Ireland . On his father's side, he is claimed as being the great-great-grandson of Niall of the Nine Hostages , a pseudo-historical Irish high king of the 5th century. Tradition holds that he was born in Gartan. One tradition holds that he was born on a flagstone called Leac na Cumha in

1530-672: A firm doctrinal basis to the Vishishtadvaita philosophy which had existed since time immemorial. He ensured the establishment of a number of mathas of his Sri Vaishnava creed at different important centres of pilgrimage. Later on, other famous Sri Vaishnava theologians and religious heads established various important mathas such as Nimbarka Sampradaya of Nimbarkacharya is popular in North, West and East India and has several important Mathas. Ashta matha (eight monasteries) of Udupi were founded by Madhvacharya (Madhwa acharya),

1683-779: A further list of Buddhist monasteries see list of Buddhist temples . Buddhist monasteries include some of the largest in the world. Drepung Monastery in Tibet housed around 10,000 monks prior to the Chinese invasion in 1950–1951. As of 2020 the relocated monastery in India houses around 8,000. According to tradition, Christian monasticism began in Egypt with Anthony the Great . Originally, all Christian monks were hermits seldom encountering other people. A transitional form of monasticism

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1836-435: A half feet high. Chariots were generally drawn by horses or oxen, with horse-drawn chariots being more common among chiefs and military men. War chariots furnished with scythes and spikes, like those of the ancient Gauls and Britons , are mentioned in literature. Boats used in Gaelic Ireland include canoes , currachs , sailboats and Irish galleys . Ferryboats were used to cross wide rivers and are often mentioned in

1989-467: A helmet, but they sometimes wore simple helmets made from animal hides. Artwork from Ireland's Gaelic period is found on pottery , jewellery , weapons , drinkware , tableware , stone carvings and illuminated manuscripts . Irish art from about 300 BC incorporates patterns and styles which developed in west central Europe. By about AD 600, after the Christianization of Ireland had begun,

2142-414: A hierarchy of kings and chiefs. The smallest territory was the túath (plural: túatha ), which was typically the territory of a single kin-group. It was ruled by a rí túaithe (king of a túath ) or toísech túaithe (leader of a túath ). Several túatha formed a mór túath (overkingdom), which was ruled by a rí mór túath or ruirí (overking). Several mór túatha formed a cóiced (province), which

2295-598: A kind of fosterage was common, whereby (for a certain length of time) children would be left in the care of others to strengthen family ties or political bonds. Foster parents were beholden to teach their foster children or to have them taught. Foster parents who had properly done their duties were entitled to be supported by their foster children in old age (if they were in need and had no children of their own). As with divorce, Gaelic law again differed from most of Europe and from Church law in giving legal standing to both "legitimate" and "illegitimate" children. For most of

2448-480: A long time, and with them, their respective monasteries, called mathas . Important among them are the chatur-amnaya mathas established by Adi Shankara which formed the nodal centres of under whose guidance the ancient Order of Advaitin monks were re-organised under ten names of the Dashanami Sampradaya . Ramanuja heralded a new era in the world of Hinduism by reviving the lost faith in it and gave

2601-473: A major role in the politics of the country. He was also very energetic in his work as a missionary, and, in addition to founding several churches in the Hebrides , he worked to turn his monastery at Iona into a school for missionaries. He was a renowned man of letters , having written several hymns and being credited with having transcribed 300 books. One of the few, if not the only, times he left Scotland

2754-473: A market of foreign traders. In the Middle Ages the main exports were textiles such as wool and linen while the main imports were luxury items. Money was seldom used in Gaelic society; instead, goods and services were usually exchanged for other goods and services ( barter ). The economy was mainly a pastoral one, based on livestock ( cows , sheep , pigs , goats , etc.) and their products . Cattle

2907-487: A monastery is called a wat . In Burma , a monastery is called a kyaung . A Christian monastery may be an abbey (i.e., under the rule of an abbot ), or a priory (under the rule of a prior ), or conceivably a hermitage (the dwelling of a hermit ). It may be a community of men ( monks ) or of women ( nuns ). A charterhouse is any monastery belonging to the Carthusian order. In Eastern Christianity ,

3060-470: A monk named Notker of St Gall , and was spread to musicians throughout Europe by way of the interconnected monasteries. Since monasteries offered respite for weary pilgrim travellers, monks were obligated also to care for their injuries or emotional needs. Over time, lay people started to make pilgrimages to monasteries instead of just using them as a stopover. By this time, they had sizeable libraries that attracted learned tourists. Families would donate

3213-418: A payment based on their closeness to the victim, their status, and so forth. There were separate payments for the kin-group of the victim's mother, and for the victim's foster-kin. Execution seems to have been rare and carried out only as a last resort. If a murderer was unable or unwilling to pay éraic and was handed to his victim's family, they might kill him if they wished should nobody intervene by paying

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3366-465: A portion of their yearly crop to the resident monks in the monastery, just as they would to a feudal landlord. In Sri Lanka and in Tibetan Buddhism , the ownership of a monastery often became vested in a single monk, who would often keep the property within the family by passing it on to a nephew ordained as a monk. In Japan , where civil authorities permitted Buddhist monks to marry,

3519-915: A respected elder teacher. While the wandering lifestyle practised by the Buddha and by his disciples continues to be the ideal model for forest-tradition monks in Thailand , Myanmar , Sri Lanka and elsewhere, practical concerns - including shrinking wilderness areas, lack of access to lay supporters, dangerous wildlife, and dangerous border conflicts - dictate that increasing numbers of "meditation" monks live in monasteries, rather than wandering. Tibetan Buddhist monasteries or gompas are sometimes known as lamaseries , with their monks sometimes (mistakenly) known as lamas . Helena Blavatsky 's Theosophical Society named its initial New York City meeting-place "the Lamasery". Famous Buddhist monasteries include: For

3672-406: A rival in a hurling match and had taken refuge with Columba, was dragged from his protector's arms and slain by Diarmaid's men, in defiance of the rights of sanctuary. A synod of clerics and scholars threatened to excommunicate him for these deaths, but Brendan of Birr spoke on his behalf. Eventually, the process was deemed a miscarriage of justice. Columba's own conscience was uneasy, and on

3825-553: A similar ascetic discipline, and even their religious habit is the same (though nuns wear an extra veil, called the apostolnik ). Unlike Roman Catholic monasticism, the Eastern Orthodox do not have distinct religious orders, but a single monastic form throughout the Eastern Orthodox Church. Monastics, male or female, live away from the world, in order to pray for the world. Monasteries vary from

3978-538: A son in return for blessings. During the plagues , monks helped to till the fields and provide food for the sick. A Warming House is a common part of a medieval monastery, where monks went to warm themselves. It was often the only room in the monastery where a fire was lit. A number of distinct monastic orders developed within Roman Catholicism: While in English most mendicant Orders use

4131-537: A style melding Irish, Mediterranean and Germanic Anglo-Saxon elements emerged, and was spread to Britain and mainland Europe by the Hiberno-Scottish mission . This is known as Insular art or Hiberno-Saxon art, which continued in some form in Ireland until the 12th century, although the Viking invasions ended its "Golden Age". Most surviving works of Insular art were either made by monks or made for monasteries, with

4284-432: A valuable resource but had a lesser role in Irish pastoralism. Horticulture was practised; the main crops being oats , wheat and barley , although flax was also grown for making linen. Transhumance was also practised, whereby people moved with their livestock to higher pastures in summer and back to lower pastures in the cooler months. The summer pasture was called the buaile (anglicized as booley ) and it

4437-588: A very small monastic community can be called a skete , and a very large or important monastery can be given the dignity of a lavra . The great communal life of a Christian monastery is called cenobitic , as opposed to the anchoretic (or anchoritic) life of an anchorite and the eremitic life of a hermit . There has also been, mostly under the Osmanli occupation of Greece and Cyprus, an "idiorrhythmic" lifestyle where monks come together but being able to own things individually and not being obliged to work for

4590-466: A wicker currach covered with leather. According to legend he first landed on the Kintyre Peninsula, near Southend . However, being still in sight of Ulster, he moved farther north up the west coast of Scotland. The island of Iona was made over to him by his kinsman Conall mac Comgaill King of Dál Riata , who perhaps had invited him to come to Scotland in the first place. However, there

4743-516: A young man. Soon the Egyptian desert blossomed with monasteries, especially around Nitria ( Wadi El Natrun ), which was called the "Holy City". Estimates are that upwards of 50,000 monks lived in this area at any one time. Eremetism never died out though, but was reserved only for those advanced monks who had worked out their problems within a cenobitic monastery. The idea caught on, and other places followed: The life of prayer and communal living

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4896-614: Is a common theme in Early Irish mythology , literature and culture. In the Middle Ages all able-bodied men, apart from the learned and the clergy, were eligible for military service on behalf of the king or chief . Throughout the Middle Ages and for some time after, outsiders often wrote that the Irish style of warfare differed greatly from what they deemed to be the norm in Western Europe. The Gaelic Irish preferred hit-and-run raids (the crech ), which involved catching

5049-553: Is a megalith park called Columcille, which is open to the public. There are at least four pipe bands named for him; one each from Tullamore , Ireland, from Derry , Northern Ireland, from Kearny, New Jersey , and from Cape Cod , Massachusetts. St. Columba's School , one of the most prominent English-Medium schools in India , run by the Irish Christian Brothers , is also named after the saint. The Munich GAA

5202-480: Is a sense in which he was not leaving his native people, as the Ulster Gaels had been inhabiting the west coast of Scotland for the previous couple of centuries. Aside from the services he provided guiding the only centre of literacy in the region, his reputation as a holy man led to his role as a diplomat among the tribes. There are also many stories of miracles which he performed during his work to convert

5355-455: Is a somewhat more specific definition of the term and many related terms. Buddhist monasteries are generally called vihara ( Pali language el). Viharas may be occupied by men or women, and in keeping with common English usage, a vihara populated by females may often be called a nunnery or a convent. However, vihara can also refer to a temple . In Tibetan Buddhism, monasteries are often called gompa . In Cambodia , Laos and Thailand ,

5508-409: Is a stone ringfort. The ringfort would typically have enclosed the family home, small farm buildings or workshops, and animal pens. Most date to the period 500–1000 CE and there is evidence of large-scale ringfort desertion at the end of the first millennium. The remains of between 30,000 and 40,000 lasted into the 19th century to be mapped by Ordnance Survey Ireland . Another kind of native dwelling

5661-595: Is a suggestion that this conflict resulted in the Battle of Cúl Dreimhne in Cairbre Drom Cliabh (now in County Sligo ) in 561, during which many men were killed. Richard Sharpe, translator of Adomnán's Life of St. Columba (referenced in the bibliography below) makes a stern caution at this point against accepting the many references that link the battle and Columba's leaving of Ireland, even though there

5814-405: Is also believed to have established a Church on Inishkea North , County Mayo which is named St Colmcille's Church. Some traditions assert that sometime around 560 Columba became involved in a quarrel with Finnian of Moville of Movilla Abbey over a psalter . Columba copied the manuscript at the scriptorium under Finnian, intending to keep the copy. Finnian disputed his right to keep it. There

5967-449: Is evidence in the annals that Columba supported his own king against the high king. Political conflicts that had existed for some time resulted in the clan Neill's battle against King Diarmait at Cooldrevny in 561. An issue, for example, was the king's violation of the right of sanctuary belonging to Columba's person as a monk on the occasion of the murder of Prince Curnan, Columba's kinsman. Prince Curnan of Connacht, who had fatally injured

6120-574: Is named München Colmcilles. Saint Columba's Feast Day, 9 June, has been designated as International Celtic Art Day. The Book of Kells and the Book of Durrow , great medieval masterpieces of Celtic art, are associated with Columba. Benjamin Britten composed A Hymn of St Columba for choir and organ in 1962, setting a poem by the saint, on the occasion of the 1,400th anniversary of his voyage to Iona. The main source of information about Columba's life

6273-502: Is noteworthy that the Irish word for boy ( buachaill ) originally meant a herdsman. Many moorland areas were "shared as a common summer pasturage by the people of a whole parish or barony". Gaelic Ireland was well furnished with roads and bridges. Bridges were typically wooden and in some places the roads were laid with wood and stone. There were five main roads leading from Tara : Slíghe Asail, Slíghe Chualann , Slíghe Dála, Slíghe Mór and Slíghe Midluachra . Horses were one of

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6426-903: Is part of the Presbyterian Church in Mauritius . Columba is the patron saint of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Youngstown , Ohio. The Cathedral there is named for him. Iona University , in New Rochelle, New York , is named after the island on which Columba established his first monastery in Scotland, as is Iona College in Windsor, Ontario , Iona Presentation College, Perth , and Iona College Geelong in Charlemont, Victoria . In Bangor, Pennsylvania , there

6579-486: Is socially separate from the surrounding populace can also vary widely; some religious traditions mandate isolation for purposes of contemplation removed from the everyday world, in which case members of the monastic community may spend most of their time isolated even from each other. Others focus on interacting with the local communities to provide services, such as teaching, medical care, or evangelism . Some monastic communities are only occupied seasonally, depending both on

6732-558: Is the Life of Columba ( Latin : Vita Columbae ), a hagiography written by Adomnán , one of Columba's successors at Iona, in the style of "saints' lives" narratives that had become widespread throughout medieval Europe. Both the Life of Columba and Bede (672/673–735) record Columba's visit to Bridei . Whereas Adomnán just tells us that Columba visited Bridei, Bede relates a later, perhaps Pictish tradition, whereby Columba actually converts

6885-740: Is the patron saint of Derry . He was highly regarded by both the Gaels of Dál Riata and the Picts , and is remembered today as a Catholic saint and one of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland . Columba studied under some of Ireland's most prominent church figures and founded several monasteries in the country. Around 563 AD he and his twelve companions crossed to Dunaverty near Southend, Argyll , in Kintyre before settling in Iona in Scotland, then part of

7038-607: The seanchaidhthe . Writing, in the form of inscription in the ogham alphabet , began in the protohistoric period , perhaps as early as the 1st century. The conversion to Christianity , beginning in the 5th century, accompanied the introduction of literature . In the Middle Ages, Irish mythology and Brehon law were recorded by Irish monks, albeit partly Christianized . Gaelic Irish monasteries were important centres of learning. Irish missionaries and scholars were influential in western Europe and helped to spread Christianity to much of Britain and parts of mainland Europe. In

7191-495: The Brehon Laws as subject to strict regulations. Sometimes they were owned by individuals and sometimes they were the common property of those living round the ferry. Large boats were used for trade with mainland Europe. Throughout the Middle Ages, the common clothing amongst the Gaelic Irish consisted of a brat (a woollen semi circular cloak) worn over a léine (a loose-fitting, long-sleeved tunic made of linen). For men

7344-890: The Church of England and the Episcopal Church , on 9 June. The Church of St. Columba in Ottawa is part of the Anglican Diocese of Ottawa. St. Columba Anglican Church is located in Tofino, British Columbia. St. Columba's Episcopal Church is in Washington, D.C. There is a St. Columba's Presbyterian Church in Peppermint Grove, Washington. The Saint-Columba Presbyterian Church in Palmerstone, Vacoas-Phoenix

7497-629: The Cross , and the several Mackinnon abbots of Iona . The MacKinnons included Green Abbots who were never priests and who were corrupt. The Macdonald Lords of the Isles dealt with them, imprisoning one who was convicted of treachery since Iona was the spiritual seat of Clan Donald. The cathedral of the Catholic Diocese of Argyll and the Isles is placed under the patronage of Saint Columba, as are numerous Catholic schools and parishes throughout

7650-626: The Irish round towers were built. In the fifty years before the Norman invasion , the term "castle" ( Old Irish : caistél/caislén ) appears in Gaelic writings, although there are few intact surviving examples of pre-Norman castles. After the invasion, the Normans built motte-and-bailey castles in the areas they occupied, some of which were converted from ringforts. By 1300 "some mottes, especially in frontier areas, had almost certainly been built by

7803-591: The Lordship of Ireland – and the island as a whole. However, the Gaelic system continued in areas outside Anglo-Norman control. The territory under English control gradually shrank to an area known as the Pale and, outside this, many Hiberno-Norman lords adopted Gaelic culture. In 1542, the Lordship of Ireland became the Kingdom of Ireland when Henry VIII of England was given the title of King of Ireland by

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7956-539: The Parliament of Ireland . The English then began to extend their control over the island . By 1607, Ireland was fully under English control, bringing the old Gaelic political and social order to an end. Gaelic culture and society was centred around the fine (explained below). Gaelic Ireland had a rich oral culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits. Filí and draoithe (druids) were held in high regard during Pagan times and orally passed down

8109-555: The Scoti or Irish "believing in Christ". Early medieval traditions credit Saint Patrick as being the first Primate of Ireland . Christianity would eventually supplant the existing pagan traditions, with the prologue of the 9th century Martyrology of Tallaght (attributed to author Óengus of Tallaght ) speaking of the last vestiges of paganism in Ireland. In Gaelic Ireland each person belonged to an agnatic kin-group known as

8262-574: The Ulster kingdom of Dál Riata, where they founded a new abbey as a base for spreading Celtic Christianity among the pagan Northern Pictish kingdoms . He remained active in Irish politics, though he spent most of the remainder of his life in Scotland. Three surviving early-medieval Latin hymns are attributed to him. Columba was born to Fedlimid and Eithne of the Cenél Conaill in Gartan ,

8415-412: The léine reached to their ankles but was hitched up by means of a crios (pronounced 'kriss') which was a type of woven belt. The léine was hitched up to knee level. Women wore the léine at full length. Men sometimes wore tight-fitting trews (Gaelic triúbhas) but otherwise went bare-legged. The brat was simply thrown over both shoulders or sometimes over only one. Occasionally the brat was fastened with

8568-486: The pantheons of other European nations. Two groups of supernatural beings who appear throughout Irish mythology—the Tuatha Dé Danann and Fomorians —are believed to represent the Gaelic pantheon. They were also animists , believing that all aspects of the natural world contained spirits, and that these spirits could be communicated with. Burial practices—which included burying food, weapons, and ornaments with

8721-533: The sangha . Over the years, the custom of staying on property held in common by the sangha as a whole during the vassa retreat evolved into cenobitic monasticism , in which monks and nuns resided year-round in monasteries. In India , Buddhist monasteries gradually developed into centres of learning where philosophical principles were developed and debated; this tradition continues in the monastic universities of Vajrayana Buddhists , as well as in religious schools and universities founded by religious orders across

8874-417: The timpan (a small string instrument played with a bow or plectrum ), the feadan (a fife ), the buinne (an oboe or flute ), the guthbuinne (a bassoon -type horn ), the bennbuabhal and corn ( hornpipes ), the cuislenna ( bagpipes – see Great Irish Warpipes ), the stoc and sturgan ( clarions or trumpets), and the cnamha ( castanets ). He also mentions the fiddle as being used in

9027-585: The townland of Lacknacoo. He was baptised in Temple-Douglas, in the County Donegal parish of Conwal (midway between Gartan and Letterkenny ), by his teacher and foster-uncle Cruithnechán . Columba lived in the remote district of what is now Glencolmcille for roughly five years, which was named after him. It is not known for sure if his name at birth was Colmcille or if he adopted this name later in life; Adomnán (Eunan) of Iona thought it

9180-486: The éraic . Habitual or particularly serious offenders might be expelled from the kin-group and its territory. Such people became outlaws (with no protection from the law) and anyone who sheltered him became liable for his crimes. If he still haunted the territory and continued his crimes there, he was proclaimed in a public assembly and after this anyone might lawfully kill him. Each person had an honour-price, which varied depending on their rank in society. This honour-price

9333-674: The "Iona of the East" (situated on an island in the Firth of Forth ), a 14th-century prayer begins O Columba spes Scotorum... "O Columba, hope of the Scots". Gaelic Ireland Gaelic Ireland ( Irish : Éire Ghaelach ) was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the late prehistoric era until the 17th century. It comprised the whole island before Anglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland in

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9486-445: The 1170s. Thereafter, it comprised that part of the country not under foreign dominion at a given time (i.e. the part beyond The Pale ). For most of its history, Gaelic Ireland was a "patchwork" hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs, who were chosen or elected through tanistry . Warfare between these territories was common. Traditionally, a powerful ruler was acknowledged as High King of Ireland . Society

9639-482: The 12th century), they did not wear armour , as they deemed it burdensome to wear and "brave and honourable" to fight without it. Instead, most ordinary soldiers fought semi-naked and carried only their weapons and a small round shield — Spenser wrote that these shields were covered with leather and painted in bright colours. Kings and chiefs sometimes went into battle wearing helmets adorned with eagle feathers. For ordinary soldiers, their thick hair often served as

9792-440: The 8th century as compliment to Irish music. As mentioned before, Gaelic Ireland was split into many clann territories and kingdoms called túath (plural: túatha ). Although there was no central government or parliament , a number of local, regional and national gatherings were held. These combined features of assemblies and fairs . In Ireland, the highest of these was the feis at Teamhair na Rí (Tara), which

9945-570: The 9th century, Vikings began raiding and founding settlements along Ireland's coasts and waterways, which became its first large towns. Over time, these settlers were assimilated and became the Norse-Gaels . After the Anglo-Norman invasion of 1169–71, large swathes of Ireland came under the control of Norman lords, leading to centuries of conflict with the native Irish. The King of England claimed sovereignty over this territory –

10098-618: The Buddhist world. In modern times, living a settled life in a monastery setting has become the most common lifestyle for Buddhist monks and nuns across the globe. Whereas early monasteries are considered to have been held in common by the entire sangha, in later years this tradition diverged in a number of countries. Despite vinaya prohibitions on possessing wealth, many monasteries became large landowners, much like monasteries in medieval Christian Europe. In Chinese Buddhism , peasant families worked monastic-owned land in exchange for paying

10251-655: The Christian Church the beginnings of growth of monasticism among Protestant denominations. The center of this movement was in the United States and Canada beginning with the Shaker Church, which was founded in England and then moved to the United States. In the 19th century many of these monastic societies were founded as Utopian communities based on the monastic model in many cases. Aside from

10404-411: The Church of Ireland St Augustine's Church both claim to stand at the spot of this original settlement. The Church of Ireland Cathedral, St. Columb's Cathedral , and the largest park in the city, St. Columb's Park , are named in his honour. The Catholic Boys' Grammar School, St. Columb's College , has him as Patron and namesake. St. Columba's National School in Drumcondra is a girls' school named after

10557-528: The Gaelic Irish in imitation". The Normans gradually replaced wooden motte-and-baileys with stone castles and tower houses . Tower houses are free-standing multi-storey stone towers usually surrounded by a wall (see bawn ) and ancillary buildings. Gaelic families had begun to build their own tower houses by the 15th century. As many as 7000 may have been built, but they were rare in areas with little Norman settlement or contact. They are concentrated in counties Limerick and Clare but are lacking in Ulster, except

10710-522: The Gaelic period, dwellings and farm buildings were circular with conical thatched roofs (see roundhouse ). Square and rectangle-shaped buildings gradually became more common, and by the 14th or 15th century they had replaced round buildings completely. In some areas, buildings were made mostly of stone. In others, they were built of timber, wattle and daub , or a mix of materials. Most ancient and early medieval stone buildings were of dry stone construction. Some buildings would have had glass windows. Among

10863-507: The Holy Cross at St Augustine's House in Michigan is a Lutheran order of monks and there are Lutheran religious communities in Sweden and Germany. In the 1960s, experimental monastic groups were formed in which both men and women were members of the same house and also were permitted to be married and have children – these were operated on a communal form. There is a growing Christian neo-monasticism , particularly among evangelical Christians. In Hinduism, monks have existed for

11016-494: The Norman invasion, it was common for priests and monks to have wives. This remained mostly unchanged after the Norman invasion, despite protests from bishops and archbishops. The authorities classed such women as priests' concubines and there is evidence that a formal contract of concubinage existed between priests and their women. However, unlike other concubines, they seem to have been treated just as wives were. In Gaelic Ireland

11169-692: The Pictish king. Another early source is a poem in praise of Columba, most probably commissioned by Columba's kinsman, the King of the Uí Néill clan. It was almost certainly written within three or four years of Columba's death and is the earliest vernacular poem in European history. It consists of twenty-five stanzas of four verses of seven syllables each, called the Amra Coluim Chille. Through

11322-730: The Picts, the most famous being his encounter with an unidentified animal that some have equated with the Loch Ness Monster in 565. It is said that he banished a ferocious "water beast" to the depths of the River Ness after it had killed a Pict and then tried to attack Columba's disciple, Lugne (see Vita Columbae Book 2 below). He visited the pagan King Bridei , King of Fortriu , at his base in Inverness , winning Bridei's respect, although not his conversion. He subsequently played

11475-762: The Resurrection ), Nashdom Abbey ( Benedictine ), Cleeve Priory ( Community of the Glorious Ascension ) and Ewell Monastery ( Cistercian ), Benedictine orders, Franciscan orders and the Orders of the Holy Cross, Order of St. Helena. Other Protestant Christian denominations also engage in monasticism, particularly Lutherans in Europe and North America. For example, the Benedictine order of

11628-564: The Saint as is one of the local gaelic teams, Naomh Colmcille. The Columba Press, a religious and spiritual book company based in Dublin, is named after Colmcille. Aer Lingus , Ireland's national flag carrier has named one of its Airbus A330 aircraft in commemoration of the saint (reg: EI-DUO). Columba is credited as being a leading figure in the revitalisation of monasticism . The Clan Malcolm/Clan McCallum claims its name from Columba and

11781-626: The Shakers, there were the Amanna , the Anabaptists , and others. Many did allow marriage but most had a policy of celibacy and communal life in which members shared all things communally and disavowed personal ownership. In the 19th-century monasticism was revived in the Church of England , leading to the foundation of such institutions as the House of the Resurrection , Mirfield ( Community of

11934-470: The advice of an aged hermit, Molaise, he resolved to expiate his sense of offence by departing Ireland. The term "exile" is used in some references. This, too, can be disputed, for the term "pilgrimage" is used more frequently in the literature about him. A marker at Stroove Beach on the Inishowen Peninsula commemorates the place where Columba set sail for Scotland. He left Ireland, but through

12087-532: The area around Strangford Lough . In Gaelic law, a 'sanctuary' called a maighin digona surrounded each person's dwelling. The maighin digona's size varied according to the owner's rank. In the case of a bóaire it stretched as far as he, while sitting at his house, could cast a cnairsech (variously described as a spear or sledgehammer). The owner of a maighin digona could offer its protection to someone fleeing from pursuers, who would then have to bring that person to justice by lawful means. Gaelic Ireland

12240-464: The army was made up of light infantry called ceithern (anglicized 'kern'). The ceithern wandered Ireland offering their services for hire and usually wielded swords, skenes (a kind of long knife), short spears, bows and shields. The cavalry was usually made up of a king or chieftain and his close relatives. They usually rode without saddles but wore armour and iron helmets and wielded swords, skenes and long spears or lances . One kind of Irish cavalry

12393-445: The bird genus Columba .) When sufficiently advanced in letters he entered the monastic school of Movilla, at Newtownards , under Finnian of Movilla who had studied at Ninian 's "Magnum Monasterium" on the shores of Galloway . He was about twenty, and a deacon when, having completed his training at Movilla, he travelled southwards into Leinster , where he became a pupil of an aged bard named Gemman. On leaving him, Columba entered

12546-408: The common good. In Hinduism monasteries are called matha , mandir , koil , or most commonly an ashram . Jains use the Buddhist term vihara . In most religions, life inside monasteries is governed by community rules that stipulate the gender of the inhabitants and require them to remain celibate and own little or no personal property. The degree to which life inside a particular monastery

12699-542: The contemporary abolition of monasticism in France in the wake of the French Revolution . Convents for female monastics, or nunneries, were often portrayed as punishments for women unable or unwilling to marry. In the 1880 novel The Brothers Karamazov , Fyodor Dostoyevsky was heavily inspired by real-life accounts of Orthodox monasticism. Parts of the novel focus in particular on the controversy surrounding

12852-428: The day took place around noon, often taken at a refectory table , and consisted of the most simple and bland foods e.g., poached fish, boiled oats. While they ate, scripture would be read from a pulpit above them. Since no other words were allowed to be spoken, monks developed communicative gestures. Abbots and notable guests were honoured with a seat at the high table, while everyone else sat perpendicular to that in

13005-469: The dead—suggest a belief in life after death . Some have equated this afterlife with the Otherworld realms known as Magh Meall and Tír na nÓg in Irish mythology. There were four main religious festivals each year, marking the traditional four divisions of the year – Samhain , Imbolc , Bealtaine and Lughnasadh . The mythology of Ireland was originally passed down orally , but much of it

13158-416: The early 700s describe a hierarchy of kings: kings of túath subject to kings of several túatha who again were subject to the regional overkings. Already before the 8th century these overkingdoms had begun to replace the túatha as the basic sociopolitical unit. Before Christianization , the Gaelic Irish were polytheistic or pagan . They had many gods and goddesses , which generally have parallels in

13311-518: The enemy unaware. If this worked they would then seize any valuables (mainly livestock) and potentially valuable hostages, burn the crops, and escape. The cattle raid was a social institution and was called a Táin Bó in Gaelic literature. Although hit-and-run raiding was the preferred tactic in medieval times, there were also pitched battles . From at least the 11th century, kings maintained small permanent fighting forces known as lucht tighe "troops of

13464-833: The exception of brooches , which were likely made and used by both clergy and laity. Examples of Insular art from Ireland include the Book of Kells , Muiredach's High Cross , the Tara Brooch , the Ardagh Hoard the Derrynaflan Chalice , and the late Cross of Cong , which also uses Viking styles. Although Gerald de Barri had an overtly negative view of the Irish, in Topographia Hibernica (1188) he conceded that they were more skilled at playing music than any other nation he had seen. He claimed that

13617-579: The exploits of Fionn mac Cumhaill and the Fianna . There are also a number of tales that do not fit into these cycles – this includes the immrama and echtrai , which are tales of voyages to the ' Otherworld '. The introduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century, with Palladius (later bishop of Ireland) sent by Pope Celestine I in the mid-5th century to preach " ad Scotti in Christum " or in other words to minister to

13770-523: The first containing seven lines and six lines in each subsequent stanza. It uses the same format and alphabet as "Adiutor Laborantium" except with each stanza starting with a different letter rather than each line. The poem tells a story over three parts split into the beginning of time, the history of Creation, and the Apocalypse or end of time. Columba is honoured in the Anglican communion, including

13923-560: The following churches), Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church , Indian Orthodox Church , and Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch. The monasteries of St. Macarius ( Deir Abu Makaria ) and St. Anthony ( Deir Mar Antonios ) are the oldest monasteries in the world and under the patronage of the Patriarch of the Coptic Orthodox Church. The last years of the 18th century marked in

14076-580: The following years, he returned several times to visit the communities he had founded there. Columba's copy of the psalter has been traditionally associated with the Cathach of St. Columba . In 574/575, during his return for the Synod of Drum Ceat, he founded the monastery of Drumcliff in Cairbre, now County Sligo. In 563, he travelled to Scotland with twelve companions (said to include Odran of Iona ) in

14229-451: The following years: Derry , at the southern edge of Inishowen ; Durrow, County Offaly; Kells , County Meath; and Swords . While at Derry it is said that he planned a pilgrimage to Rome and Jerusalem , but did not proceed farther than Tours . From Tours, he brought a copy of those gospels that had lain on the bosom of Martin for 100 years. This relic was deposited in Derry. St Colmcille

14382-537: The fourth century BCE from the practice of vassa , a retreat undertaken by Buddhist monastics during the South Asian wet season . To prevent wandering monks and nuns from disturbing new plant-growth or becoming stranded in inclement weather, they were instructed to remain in a fixed location for the roughly three-month period typically beginning in mid-July. These early fixed vassa retreats took place in pavilions and parks that wealthy supporters had donated to

14535-515: The fulfilment of social and ritual responsibilities were highly important. Like Britain , Gaelic Ireland consisted not of one single unified kingdom, but several. The main kingdoms were Ulaid (Ulster), Mide (Meath), Laigin (Leinster), Muma (Munster, consisting of Iarmuman , Tuadmumain and Desmumain ), Connacht , Bréifne (Breffny), In Tuaiscert (The North), and Airgíalla (Oriel). Each of these overkingdoms were built upon lordships known as túatha (singular: túath ). Law tracts from

14688-428: The group. For the briugu to fulfill these duties, he was allowed more land and privileges, but this could be lost if he ever refused guests. A freeman could further himself by becoming the client of one or more lords. The lord made his client a grant of property (i.e. livestock or land) and, in return, the client owed his lord yearly payments of food and fixed amounts of work. The clientship agreement could last until

14841-419: The history and traditions of their people. Later, many of their spiritual and intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks, after said religion prevailed from the 5th century onwards. However, the filí continued to hold a high position. Poetry, music, storytelling, literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland. Hospitality, bonds of kinship and

14994-437: The household", who were often given houses and land on the king's mensal land. These were well-trained and equipped professional soldiers made up of infantry and cavalry . By the reign of Brian Boru , Irish kings were taking large armies on campaign over long distances and using naval forces in tandem with land forces . A typical medieval Irish army included light infantry , heavy infantry and cavalry . The bulk of

15147-400: The king's own rights and to give him legal advice. Unlike other kingdoms in Europe, Gaelic kings—by their own authority—could not enact new laws as they wished and could not be "above the law". They could, however, enact temporary emergency laws. It was mainly through these emergency powers that the Church attempted to change Gaelic law. The law texts take great care to define social status,

15300-486: The lord's death. If the client died, his heirs would carry on the agreement. This system of clientship enabled social mobility as a client could increase his wealth until he could afford clients of his own, thus becoming a lord. Clientship was also practised between nobles, which established hierarchies of homage and political support. Gaelic law was originally passed down orally, but was written down in Old Irish during

15453-660: The main means of long-distance transport. Although horseshoes and reins were used, the Gaelic Irish did not use saddles , stirrups or spurs . Every man was trained to spring from the ground on to the back of his horse (an ech-léim or "steed-leap") and they urged-on and guided their horses with a rod having a hooked goad at the end. Two-wheeled and four-wheeled chariots (singular carbad ) were used in Ireland from ancient times, both in private life and in war. They were big enough for two people, made of wickerwork and wood, and often had decorated hoods. The wheels were spoked, shod all round with iron, and were from three to four and

15606-607: The mid-8th century called the Brecbennoch. Legend has it that the Brecbennoch was carried to the Battle of Bannockburn (24 June 1314) by the vastly outnumbered Scots army and the intercession of Columba helped them to victory. Since the 19th century the "Brecbennoch of St. Columba" has been identified with the Monymusk Reliquary , although this is now doubted by scholars. In the Antiphoner of Inchcolm Abbey ,

15759-539: The monastery of Clonard , governed at that time by Finnian , noted for sanctity and learning. Here he imbibed the traditions of the Welsh Church, for Finnian had been trained in the schools of David . The study of Latin learning and Christian theology in monasteries flourished. Columba became a pupil at the monastic school at Clonard Abbey , situated on the River Boyne in modern County Meath . During

15912-579: The monastic terms of monastery or priory , in the Latin languages , the term used by the friars for their houses is convent , from the Latin conventus , e.g., ( Italian : convento ) or ( French : couvent ), meaning "gathering place". The Franciscans rarely use the term "monastery" at present, preferring to call their house a "friary". In the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Church , both monks and nuns follow

16065-751: The nation. The Scottish Episcopal Church , the Church of Scotland , and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of England also have parishes dedicated to him. The village of Kilmacolm in Renfrewshire is also derived from Colmcille's name. St Columba's Hospice, a prominent hospice in Edinburgh , is named after the saint. Columba currently has two poems attributed to him: "Adiutor Laborantium" and " Altus Prosator ". Both poems are examples of Abecedarian hymns in Latin written while Columba

16218-453: The offender paying compensation to the victims. Although any such offence required compensation, the law made a distinction between intentional and unintentional harm, and between murder and manslaughter . If an offender did not pay outright, his property was seized until he did so. Should the offender be unable to pay, his family would be responsible for doing so. Should the family be unable or unwilling to pay, responsibility would broaden to

16371-511: The order of seniority. This practice remained when some monasteries became universities after the first millennium, and can still be seen at Oxford University and Cambridge University . Monasteries were important contributors to the surrounding community. They were centres of intellectual progression and education. They welcomed aspiring priests to come and study and learn, allowing them even to challenge doctrine in dialogue with superiors. The earliest forms of musical notation are attributed to

16524-542: The ordinary course of the law so that, in general, every woman had to have a male guardian. However, women had some legal capacity. By the 8th century, the preferred form of marriage was one between social equals, under which a woman was technically legally dependent on her husband and had half his honor price, but could exercise considerable authority in regard to the transfer of property. Such women were called "women of joint dominion". Thus historian Patrick Weston Joyce could write that, relative to other European countries of

16677-614: The period 600–900 AD. This collection of oral and written laws is known as the Fénechas or, in English, as the Brehon Law(s). The brehons (Old Irish: brithem , plural brithemain ) were the jurists in Gaelic Ireland. Becoming a brehon took many years of training and the office was, or became, largely hereditary. Most legal cases were contested privately between opposing parties, with the brehons acting as arbitrators. Offences against people and property were primarily settled by

16830-631: The person, who wears "sf". But in the course of time, Sufi has come to designate all Muslim believers in mystic union. Matthew Lewis ' 1796 Gothic Novel The Monk has as parts of its setting both a fictional monastery and nunnery in Spain at the time of the Inquisition . Many have interpreted Lewis' novel as a critique of Catholicism . Jane Austen sets the latter half of her 1818 novel Northanger Abbey in an out of use monastery, reflecting on Henry VIII 's abolition of monasticism in England and

16983-612: The population of the Holy Mountain is around 2,200 men only and can only be visited by men with special permission granted by both the Greek government and the government of the Holy Mountain itself. The Oriental Orthodox churches, distinguished by their Miaphysite beliefs, consist of the Armenian Apostolic Church , Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (whose Patriarch is considered first among equals for

17136-589: The position of head of a temple or monastery sometimes became hereditary, passed from father to son over many generations. Forest monasteries – most commonly found in the Theravada traditions of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka – are monasteries dedicated primarily to the study and cultivation of Buddhist meditation , rather than to scholarship or ceremonial duties. Forest monasteries often function like early Christian monasteries, with small groups of monks living an essentially hermit-like life gathered loosely around

17289-433: The property she had brought her husband during their marriage. Trial marriages seem to have been popular among the rich and powerful, and thus it has been argued that cohabitation before marriage must have been acceptable. It also seems that the wife of a chieftain was entitled to some share of the chief's authority over his territory. This led to some Gaelic Irish wives wielding a great deal of political power. Before

17442-786: The religion, which in the past formed the traditional support of monasteries. There has been a long tradition of Christian monasteries providing hospitable, charitable and hospital services. Monasteries have often been associated with the provision of education and the encouragement of scholarship and research, which has led to the establishment of schools and colleges and the association with universities. Monastic life has adapted to modern society by offering computer services, accounting services and management as well as modern hospital and educational administration. Buddhist monasteries, known as vihāra in Pali and in Sanskrit , emerged sometime around

17595-405: The reputation of its venerable founder and its position as a major European centre of learning, Columba's Iona became a place of pilgrimage . Columba is historically revered as a warrior saint and was often invoked for victory in battle. Some of his relics were removed in 849 and divided between Alba and Ireland. Relics of Columba were carried before Scottish armies in the reliquary made at Iona in

17748-500: The retreating plunderers with a "moving line of defence from which the horsemen could make short, sharp charges, and behind which they could retreat when pursued". As their armor made them less nimble, they were sometimes planted at strategic spots along the line of retreat. The kern , horsemen and gallóglaigh had lightly armed servants to carry their weapons into battle. Warriors were sometimes rallied into battle by blowing horns and warpipes . According to Gerald de Barri (in

17901-412: The rights and duties that went with that status, and the relationships between people. For example, ceann finte had to take responsibility for members of their fine , acting as a surety for some of their deeds and making sure debts were paid. He would also be responsible for unmarried women after the death of their fathers. Ancient Irish culture was patriarchal . The Brehon law excepted women from

18054-454: The saint is commonly known as Colmcille. Colmcille is one of the three patron saints of Ireland, after Patrick and Brigid of Kildare . Colmcille is the patron saint of the city of Derry , where he founded a monastic settlement in c. 540. The name of the city in Irish is Doire Cholm Cille and is derived from the native oak trees in the area and the city's association with Colmcille. The Catholic Church of Saint Colmcille's Long Tower, and

18207-480: The saint. St. Colmcille's Primary School and St. Colmcille's Community School are two schools in Knocklyon , Dublin, named after him, with the former having an annual day dedicated to the saint on 9 June. The town of Swords, Dublin was reputedly founded by Colmcille in 560 AD. St. Colmcille's Boys' National School and St. Colmcille's Girls' National School, both located in the town of Swords, are also named after

18360-430: The same derbfine and he was elected by other members of the derbfine . Tanistry meant that the kingship usually went to whichever relative was deemed to be the most fitting. Sometimes there would be more than one tanist at a time and they would succeed each other in order of seniority. Some Anglo-Norman lordships later adopted tanistry from the Irish. Gaelic Ireland was divided into a hierarchy of territories ruled by

18513-463: The sixth century, some of the most significant names in the history of Celtic Christianity studied at the Clonard monastery. The average number of scholars under instruction at Clonard was said to be 300. Columba was one of twelve students of Finnian of Clonard who became known as the Twelve Apostles of Ireland . He became a monk and eventually was ordained a priest . Another preceptor of Columba

18666-637: The suffix "-terion" denotes a "place for doing something". The earliest extant use of the term monastērion is by the 1st century AD Jewish philosopher Philo in On The Contemplative Life, ch. III. In England, the word monastery was also applied to the habitation of a bishop and the cathedral clergy who lived apart from the lay community. Most cathedrals were not monasteries, and were served by canons secular , which were communal but not monastic. However, some were run by monasteries orders, such as York Minster . Westminster Abbey

18819-528: The time, free women in Gaelic Ireland "held a good position" and their social and property rights were "in most respects, quite on a level with men". Gaelic Irish society was also patrilineal , with land being primarily owned by men and inherited by the sons. Only when a man had no sons would his land pass to his daughters, and then only for their lifetimes. Upon their deaths, the land was redistributed among their father's male relations. Under Brehon law, rather than inheriting land, daughters had assigned to them

18972-412: The traditions involved and the local climate, and people may be part of a monastic community for periods ranging from a few days at a time to almost an entire lifetime. Life within the walls of a monastery may be supported in several ways: by manufacturing and selling goods, often agricultural products; by donations or alms ; by rental or investment incomes; and by funds from other organizations within

19125-419: The two main instruments were the " harp " and " tabor " (see also bodhrán ), that their music was fast and lively, and that their songs always began and ended with B-flat . In A History of Irish Music (1905), W. H. Grattan Flood wrote that there were at least ten instruments in general use by the Gaelic Irish. These were the cruit (a small harp) and clairseach (a bigger harp with typically 30 strings),

19278-551: The very large to the very small. There are three types of monastic houses in the Eastern Orthodox Church: One of the great centres of Eastern Orthodox monasticism is Mount Athos in Greece , which, like Vatican City , is self-governing. It is located on an isolated peninsula approximately 20 miles (32 km) long and 5 miles (8.0 km) wide, and is administered by the heads of the 20 monasteries. Today

19431-414: The wealthy, it was common for women to have their own 'apartment' called a grianan (anglicized "greenan") in the sunniest part of the homestead. The dwellings of freemen and their families were often surrounded by a circular rampart called a " ringfort ". There are two main kinds of ringfort. The ráth is an earthen ringfort, averaging 30m diameter, with a dry outside ditch. The cathair or caiseal

19584-542: The wider kin-group. Hence, it has been argued that "the people were their own police". Acts of violence were generally settled by payment of compensation known as an éraic fine; the Gaelic equivalent of the Welsh galanas and the Germanic weregild . If a free person was murdered, the éraic was equal to 21 cows, regardless of the victim's rank in society. Each member of the murder victim's agnatic kin-group received

19737-485: Was Mobhí Clárainech , whose monastery at Glasnevin was frequented by such famous men as Cainnech of Aghaboe , Comgall , and Ciarán . A pestilence which devastated Ireland in 544 caused the dispersion of Mobhi's disciples, and Columba returned to Ulster , the land of his kindred. He was a striking figure of great stature and powerful build, with a loud, melodious voice which could be heard from one hilltop to another. The foundation of several important monasteries marked

19890-417: Was "the main element in the Irish pastoral economy" and the main form of wealth , providing milk , butter , cheese , meat , fat , hides , and so forth. They were a "highly mobile form of wealth and economic resource which could be quickly and easily moved to a safer locality in time of war or trouble". The nobility owned great herds of cattle that had herdsmen and guards. Sheep, goats and pigs were also

20043-455: Was (in general) their main item of clothing. Gaelic clothing does not appear to have been influenced by outside styles. Women invariably grew their hair long and, as in other European cultures, this custom was also common among the men. It is said that the Gaelic Irish took great pride in their long hair —for example, a person could be forced to pay the heavy fine of two cows for shaving a man's head against his will. For women, very long hair

20196-622: Was at the Iona Abbey . The shorter of the two poems, "Adiutor Laborantium" consists of twenty-seven lines of eight syllables each, with each line following the format of an Abecedarian hymn using the Classical Latin alphabet save for lines 10–11 and 25–27. The content of the poem addresses God as a helper, ruler, guard, defender and lifter for those who are good and an enemy of sinners whom he will punish. " Altus Prosator " consists of twenty-three stanzas sixteen syllables long, with

20349-417: Was called a derbfine (modern form dearbhfhine ), lit. "close clan". The cland (modern form clann ) referred to the children of the nuclear family. Succession to the kingship was through tanistry . When a man became king, a relative was elected to be his deputy or 'tanist' (Irish: tánaiste , plural tanaistí ). When the king died, his tanist would automatically succeed him. The tanist had to share

20502-687: Was eventually written down by Irish monks , who Christianized and modified it to an extent. This large body of work is often split into three overlapping cycles: the Mythological Cycle , the Ulster Cycle , and the Fenian Cycle . The first cycle is a pseudo-history that describes how Ireland, its people and its society came to be. The second cycle tells of the lives and deaths of Ulaidh heroes and villains such as Cúchulainn , Queen Medb and Conall Cernach . The third cycle tells of

20655-401: Was fifteen for girls and eighteen for boys, the respective ages at which fosterage ended. Upon marriage, the families of the bride and bridegroom were expected to contribute to the match. It was custom for the bridegroom and his family to pay a coibche (modern spelling: coibhche ) and the bride was allowed a share of it. If the marriage ended owing to a fault of the husband then the coibche

20808-604: Was for a short time a cathedral, and was a Benedictine monastery until the Reformation , and its Chapter preserves elements of the Benedictine tradition. See the entry cathedral . They are also to be distinguished from collegiate churches, such as St George's Chapel, Windsor . The term monastery is used generically to refer to any of a number of types of religious community. In the Roman Catholic religion and to some extent in certain branches of Buddhism , there

20961-416: Was held every third Samhain . This was a gathering of the leading men of the whole island – kings , lords , chieftains , druids , judges etc. Below this was the óenach (modern spelling: aonach ). These were regional or provincial gatherings open to everyone. Examples include that held at Tailtin each Lughnasadh , and that held at Uisneach each Bealtaine . The main purpose of these gatherings

21114-541: Was his birth name but other Irish sources have claimed his name at birth was Crimthann (meaning 'fox'). In the Irish language his name means 'dove', which is the same name as the Prophet Jonah (Jonah in Hebrew is also 'dove'), which Adomnán of Iona, as well as other early Irish writers, were aware of, although it is not clear if he was deliberately named after Jonah or not. Columba is also Latin for dove. (See also

21267-512: Was involved in trade with Britain and mainland Europe from ancient times , and this trade increased over the centuries. Tacitus , for example, wrote in the 1st century that most of Ireland's harbours were known to the Romans through commerce. There are many passages in early Irish literature that mention luxury goods imported from foreign lands, and the fair of Carman in Leinster included

21420-503: Was kept by the wife and her family, but if the fault lay with the wife then the coibche was to be returned. It was custom for the bride to receive a spréid (modern spelling: spréidh ) from her family (or foster family) upon marriage. This was to be returned if the marriage ended through divorce or the death of the husband. Later, the spréid seems to have been converted into a dowry . Women could seek divorce/separation as easily as men could and, when obtained on her behalf, she kept all

21573-502: Was later created by Ammonas in which "solitary" monks lived close enough to one another to offer mutual support as well as gathering together on Sundays for common services. It was Pachomius the Great who developed the idea of cenobitic monasticism : having renunciates live together and worship together under the same roof. Some attribute his mode of communal living to the barracks of the Roman Army in which Pachomios served as

21726-492: Was made up of clans and, like the rest of Europe , was structured hierarchically according to class . Throughout this period, the economy was mainly pastoral and money was generally not used . A Gaelic Irish style of dress , music , dance , sport and art can be identified, with Irish art later merging with Anglo-Saxon styles to create Insular art . Gaelic Ireland was initially pagan and had an oral culture maintained by traditional Gaelic storytellers/historians,

21879-467: Was often a thin and flexible band of burnished gold, silver or findruine. When the Anglo-Normans and the English colonized Ireland, hair length came to signify one's allegiance. Irishmen who cut their hair short were deemed to be forsaking their Irish heritage. Likewise, English colonists who grew their hair long at the back were deemed to be giving in to the Irish life. Gaelic men typically wore

22032-583: Was one of rigorous schedules and self-sacrifice. Prayer was their work, and the Office prayers took up much of a monk's waking hours – Matins , Lauds , Prime , Terce , daily Mass, Sext , None , Vespers , and Compline . In between prayers, monks were allowed to sit in the cloister and work on their projects of writing, copying, or decorating books. These would have been assigned based on a monk's abilities and interests. The non-scholastic types were assigned to physical labour of varying degrees. The main meal of

22185-464: Was possible to rise or sink from one rank to another. Rising upward could be achieved a number of ways, such as by gaining wealth, by gaining skill in some department, by qualifying for a learned profession, by showing conspicuous valour, or by performing some service to the community. An example of the latter is a person choosing to become a briugu (hospitaller). A briugu had to have his house open to any guests, which included feeding no matter how big

22338-526: Was reputedly founded by the descendants of his original followers. It is also said that Clan Robertson Clan Donnachaidh / Duncan are heirs of Columba. Clan MacKinnon may also have some claim to being spiritual descendants of St Columba. Sir Iain Moncreiffe of that Ilk speculated that Clan MacKinnon belonged to the kindred of Columba, noting the MacKinnon Arms bore the hand of Columba holding

22491-498: Was ruled by a rí cóicid or rí ruirech (provincial king). In the early Middle Ages the túatha was the main political unit, but over time they were subsumed into bigger conglomerate territories and became much less important politically. Gaelic society was structured hierarchically, with those further up the hierarchy generally having more privileges, wealth and power than those further down. Although distinct, these ranks were not utterly exclusive castes like those of India. It

22644-412: Was seen as a mark of beauty. Sometimes, wealthy men and women would braid their hair and fasten hollow golden balls to the braids. Another style that was popular among some medieval Gaelic men was the glib (short all over except for a long, thick lock of hair towards the front of the head). A band or ribbon around the forehead was the typical way of holding one's hair in place. For the wealthy, this band

22797-466: Was the crannóg , which were roundhouses built on artificial islands in lakes. There were very few nucleated settlements, but after the 5th century some monasteries became the heart of small "monastic towns". By the 10th century the Norse-Gaelic ports of Dublin , Wexford , Cork and Limerick had grown into substantial settlements, all ruled by Gaelic kings by 1052. In this era many of

22950-541: Was the hobelar . After the Norman invasion there emerged a kind of heavy infantry called gallóglaigh (anglicized 'gallo[w]glass'). They were originally Scottish mercenaries who appeared in the 13th century, but by the 15th century most large túatha had their own hereditary force of Irish gallóglaigh . Some Anglo-Norman lordships also began using gallóglaigh in imitation of the Irish. They usually wore mail and iron helmets and wielded sparth axes , claymores , and sometimes spears or lances. The gallóglaigh furnished

23103-436: Was to be paid to them if their honour was violated by certain offences. Those of higher rank had a higher honour-price. However, an offence against the property of a poor man (who could ill afford it), was punished more harshly than a similar offence upon a wealthy man. The clergy were more harshly punished than the laity . When a layman had paid his fine he would go through a probationary period and then regain his standing, but

23256-479: Was to promulgate and reaffirm the laws – they were read aloud in public that they might not be forgotten, and any changes in them carefully explained to those present. Monasteries In English usage, the term monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics (nuns), particularly communities of teaching or nursing religious sisters . Historically,

23409-535: Was towards the end of his life, when he returned to Ireland to found the monastery at Durrow . According to traditional sources, Columba died in Iona on Sunday, 9 June 597, and was buried by his monks in the abbey he created. However, Dr. Daniel P. Mc Carthy disputes this and assigns a date of 593 to Columba's death. The Annals record the first raid made upon Iona in 795, with further raids occurring in 802, 806 and 825. Columba's relics were finally removed in 849 and divided between Scotland and Ireland. In Ireland,

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