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135-522: On January 24, 1675, 17-years-old Cornelis Chastelein boarded the Ship's ’t Huis te Cleeff and arrived at Batavia on August 16, 1675. In Batavia, Chastelein worked as an accountant in service of the company. Cornelis Chastelein was successful in his career. In 1682 he was one a big shopkeeper ( groot-winkelier ) in the Grooten Winkel te Batavia . In 1691, he was of the wealthiest "Big Shopkeeper in

270-810: A Republic of the United States of Indonesia . In December 1949 the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty with the exception of the Dutch New Guinea ( Western New Guinea ). Sukarno 's government campaigned for Indonesian control of the territory, and with pressure from the United States, the Netherlands agreed to the New York Agreement which ceded the territory to Indonesian administration in May 1963. In 2013

405-742: A cease-fire on 14 October (a month after its arrival in Batavia) and a draft agreement on 15 November with the negotiators for the Republik Sutan Sjahrir , Prime Minister, Amir Sjarifuddin , Defense Minister, and Johannes Leimena , Junior Minister of Health, chairman of the Indonesian Christian Party. This so-called Linggadjati Agreement was first "elucidated" by the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs Jan Jonkman on 10 December, and in this form accepted by

540-588: A headman. Batavia's sugar industry declined during the 1730s, with rising unemployment and social disorder. In 1739, there were 10,574 Chinese people living in the Ommelanden. Tensions grew as the colonial government attempted to restrict Chinese immigration with deportations to Ceylon and South Africa. The Chinese, afraid that they would be thrown overboard to drown, rioted. Ten thousand Chinese were killed from 9 to 22 October 1740. The few surviving Chinese inhabitants were moved to Glodok , outside

675-411: A local government in 1664, which became fully functional in 1682. Chinese inhabitants began to cultivate sugarcane. Large-scale cultivation negatively impacted the environment, and Batavia's northern area experienced coastal erosion . The canals required extensive maintenance, with frequent closures for dredging . Residents of the Ommelanden lived in country houses or ethnic kampungs governed by

810-445: A mixed blood girl as daughter: Maria Chastelein mixtures (5 June 1693). Cornelis Chastelein died at the age of 56, on 28 June 1714 at 4 o'clock in the afternoon and 28 June is still the official day of Chastelein being commemorated. In addition to his great ability as a businessman, Chastelein was a socially moved man who had his time far ahead. His greatest merit, however, was his legacy to his body-owners. In his will, he had found that

945-551: A pepper plantation. It can not be a coincidence that Chastelein had let this family work in Depok, slave families like Laurens and Loen from Ambon. During the period he wrote a dissertation in which he established an ethical manifestation against the Dutch East India Company's merchant politics, especially toward Governor General Willem van Outhoorn , who was in favor of aggressive trade policy. Cornelis Chastelein

1080-621: A period of transition and upheaval during the Indonesian struggle for independence. During the Japanese occupation, and when the Indonesian nationalists declared independence on 17 August 1945, the city was renamed Jakarta. In 1945, it was briefly occupied by the Allies and returned to the Dutch. The Dutch name, Batavia, remained the internationally recognized name until Indonesian independence

1215-414: A problem until the mid-19th century. Finally, in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1806, with the Netherlands under Imperial French domination, Emperor Napoleon I appointed his brother Louis Bonaparte to the Dutch throne, which led to the 1808 appointment of Marshal Herman Willem Daendels as Governor-General of

1350-595: A sea battle, newly appointed Dutch governor Jan Pieterszoon Coen escaped to the Moluccas to seek support; the Dutch had taken over the first of the Portuguese forts there in 1605. Dutch garrison commander Pieter van den Broecke and five other men were arrested during negotiations, since Jayawikarta believed that he had been deceived by the Dutch. Jayawikarta and the English then forged an alliance. The Dutch army

1485-538: A small portion of the indigenous population was able to vote for its members. The council comprised 30 indigenous members, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925 the Volksraad was made a semilegislative body; although decisions were still made by the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to consult the Volksraad on major issues. The Volksraad

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1620-635: A treaty outlining "spheres of influence". The Dutch East Indies fell into Japan's sphere. The Netherlands, Britain and the United States tried to defend the colony from the Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in search of Dutch oil. On 10 January 1942, during the Dutch East Indies Campaign , Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies as part of the Pacific War . The rubber plantations and oil fields of

1755-418: Is the most stately and most pleasant, both for the goodliness of its buildings, and the ornamentation of its streets, which afford a very agreeable shadow to those who pass along the street". The Prinsestraat, originally the street leading to the castle, became an urban center connecting the castle's south gate with the city hall . Eastern Batavia was protected by a long canal which linked the castle moat and

1890-553: The Balinese kingdom of Gelgel ). After the siege, it was decided that Batavia needed a stronger defense system. Based on the work of Flemish mathematician and military engineer Simon Stevin , Governor-General Jacques Specx designed a moat and city wall; extensions of the wall were built west of Batavia, and the city was completely enclosed. In 1656, due to a conflict with Banten, the Javanese were not allowed to live within

2025-741: The Batavian region during the Roman Empire ; at the time, it was believed that the tribe was the ancestors of the Dutch people . Jayakarta was called Batavia for over 300 years. There were three governmental administrations in the Batavia region. Initial authority was established in 1609 and became the colonial High Government , consisting of the Governor-General and the Council of

2160-493: The Ciliwung River. Private companies owned (or managed) plantations, oil fields, and mines. The island's first railway line opened in 1867, and railway stations were built in urban centers such as Batavia. Schools, hospitals, factories, offices, trading companies, and post offices were established throughout the city. Improvements in Batavia's transportation, health, and technology encouraged more Dutch people to move to

2295-700: The Dutch East India Company (VOC) a monopoly on Asian trade in 1602. A year later, the first permanent Dutch trading post in the East Indies archipelago was established in Bantam, West Java . Prince Jayawikarta gave Dutch merchants permission to build a wooden warehouse and houses on the east bank of the Ciliwung river opposite Jayakarta in 1610, and the outpost was established the following year. As Dutch power increased, Jayawikarta allowed

2430-754: The Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated. All European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males, were interned by the Japanese as POWs . Twenty-five percent of the POWs did not survive their internment. Following World War II, a reconstituted KNIL joined with Dutch Army troops to re-establish colonial "law and order". Despite two successful military campaigns in 1947 and 1948–1949, Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony failed and

2565-581: The Indonesian National Revolution . The Dutch, aiming to re-establish control of the archipelago, responded by deploying roughly 220,000 troops, who fought the Indonesian nationalists in attrition warfare . The United States threatened to terminate financial aid for the Netherlands under the Marshall Plan if they did not agree to transfer sovereignty to Indonesia, leading to Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty at

2700-753: The Netherlands East Indies ( Dutch : Nederlands(ch)-Indië ; Indonesian : Hindia Belanda ), was a Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia , which declared independence on 17 August 1945. Following the Indonesian War of Independence , Indonesia and the Netherlands made peace in 1949. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 , the Dutch ceded the governorate of Dutch Malacca to Britain, leading to its eventual incorporation into Malacca (state) of modern Malaysia . The Dutch East Indies

2835-661: The Portuguese in 1512 who established a network of trading posts and fortresses throughout the region, including at the spice islands of the Maluku islands . In 1580 Portugal formed a union with Spain , and therewith entered the war with the Dutch Republic . Following disruption of Dutch access to spices, the first Dutch expedition set sail to reach the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. After many skirmishes and hardships , only one third of

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2970-507: The Strait of Malacca . Britain was a protector of Aceh and it granted the Dutch request to conduct their anti-piracy campaign. The campaign quickly drove out the Sultan, but across Aceh numerous local Muslim leaders mobilised and fought the Dutch in four decades of expensive guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities on both sides. Colonial military authorities tried to forestall a war against

3105-516: The 17th and 18th century. Punishments for slaves could be extremely harsh— for instance, runaway slaves and their accomplices could be subject to whipping, chain gangs, or death. Other punishments included the cutting of hands, ears, breasts and noses, forms of scaphism , being burned alive and the breaking wheel . In theory, slave masters did not have free rein to punish their own slaves as they wished. Punishments of slaves had to be decided in court, and certain punishments could only be applied when

3240-519: The 1949 Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference . Indonesia became one of the leading nations of the Asian independence movement after World War II. During the revolution and after Indonesian independence, almost all Dutch citizens repatriated to the Netherlands. In 1962, the Dutch turned over their last possession in Southeast Asia, Dutch New Guinea ( Western New Guinea ), to Indonesia under

3375-644: The 19th century and there were no significant famines in Java after the 1840s. Another source of profit were the so-called coolies , a name for low-wage indentured laborers. After the abolition of the Cultivation System in 1870, the economy shifted to private companies such as the Deli Company , which was founded on Sumatra in 1869. Large-scale plantations were built to grow cash crops and Javanese, Chinese, Malay, Batak and Indian people were shipped to

3510-591: The 19th century, Batavia's population was 115,887 people; of these, 8,893 were Europeans, 26,817 were Chinese and 77,700 were indigenous islanders. The city's expanding commercial activity led to the immigration of large numbers of Dutch employees and rural Javanese to Batavia. The 1905 population of Batavia and its surrounding area reached 2.1 million, including 93,000 Chinese people, 14,000 Europeans, and 2,800 Arabs. This growth resulted in an increased demand for housing, and land prices soared. New houses were built close together, and kampung settlements filled spaces between

3645-526: The 19th century, the Cultivation System ("Cultuurstelsel") was implemented in 1830. Under this system it was stipulated that Indonesian farmers had to use 20% of their farmland for the cultivation of cash crops for export such as indigo, coffee and sugar. Through this system considerable profits were made; the net profit for the Dutch treasury is estimated at 4% of the Dutch GDP at the time and around 50% of total state revenue. The system proved disastrous for

3780-848: The Batavia telephone exchange for one night before they were captured. The Dutch sent prisoners to Banden and to a penal colony at Boven-Digoel in West New Guinea, where many died of malaria. Sukarno and the Study Club founded the Indonesian Nationalist Association (which became the Indonesian National Party and later joined the Partai Sarekat Islam, Budi Utomo , and the Surabaya Study Club to form

3915-576: The Biblical names given to Chastelein to the converted slave families. The remaining seven families retained their original names: Bacas, Laurens, Leander, Loen, Sadokh, Soedira and Tholense. After the Second World War, the name Sadokh went extinct. In 1704, Chastelein worked for the company once more as 'Extraordinary Council'. After his first meeting in the Council of the Indies in 1705, he

4050-602: The Big Store in Batavia", and in 1691 he was "Second Upperman of the Batavia Castle . In that same year, he was resolutely fired on request "with regard to his increasing weakness". It is not unlikely that the appointment of Joan van Hoorn as Director-General, by which he became Chastelein's chief, was the reason for this resignation request. It was known that Chastelein and van Hoorn doesn't go very well together. From 1691 to 1704, Chastelein acquired various estates to

4185-631: The British secured the Dutch settlement of Singapore as well as Dutch possessions in the Malay Peninsula ( Malaya ) and Dutch India . The resulting borders between former British and Dutch possessions remain today between modern Malaysia and Indonesia. Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century, the expansion of Dutch territory had been a business matter. Graaf van den Bosch 's governor-generalship (1830–1835) confirmed profitability as

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4320-665: The Ciliwung riverbend, and ran at a slight angle to Tijgersgracht. The canal cost over 160,000 real, which was paid mostly by the Chinese instead of the company (who had strengthened the castle with slave and prison labor). The short-lived outer canal was redesigned several years after the 1628–1629 siege of Batavia . East of Batavia, Sultan Agung (king of the Mataram Sultanate ) gained control of most of Java by defeating Surabaya in 1625. On 27 August 1628, Agung began

4455-645: The Dutch East Indies were considered crucial for the Japanese war effort. Allied forces were quickly overwhelmed by the Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the Royal Dutch East Indies Army surrendered in Java. Fuelled by the Japanese Light of Asia war propaganda and the Indonesian National Awakening , a vast majority of the indigenous Dutch East Indies population first welcomed the Japanese as liberators from

4590-547: The Dutch East Indies. In 1811 Daendels was replaced by Governor-General Jan Willem Janssens , but shortly after his arrival, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including the Spice islands in 1810 and Java the following year , leading to Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles becoming Lieutenant Governor. Following Napoleon's defeat at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo and the Congress of Vienna , independent Dutch control

4725-563: The Dutch Parliament on 20 December 1946. It was formally signed by the parties on 25 March 1947 in Djakarta, with the Indonesian side rejecting the "elucidation". After this high point in the relations between the two countries, the situation rapidly deteriorated. On both sides more extreme parties got the upper hand. The Dutch unilaterally instituted an interim government for the colony on a "federal" basis, with representation for

4860-478: The Dutch conquests were installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil service. While they lost de facto control, their wealth and splendour under the Dutch grew. This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250 European and 1,500 indigenous civil servants, and 16,000 Dutch officers and men and 26,000 hired native troops, were required to rule 35 million colonial subjects. From 1910,

4995-541: The Dutch created the most centralised state power in Southeast Asia . Politically, the highly centralised power structure established by the Dutch administration, including the exorbitant powers of exile and censorship, was carried over into the new Indonesian republic. A People's Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies commenced in 1918. The Volksraad was limited to an advisory role and only

5130-466: The English to build houses on the west bank of the Ciliwung and a fort near his customs office to maintain a balance of power. Tensions between Prince Jayawikarta and the Dutch escalated until 1618, when Jayawikarta's soldiers besieged the Dutch fortress containing the Nassau and Mauritius warehouse. An English fleet of 15 ships arrived under Thomas Dale , former governor of the colony of Virginia . After

5265-499: The European legal class and in 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of a 'Home guard' ( Dutch : Landstorm ) for European conscripts older than 32. Petitions by Indonesian nationalists to establish military service for indigenous people were rejected. In July 1941 the Volksraad passed law creating a native militia of 18,000 by a majority of 43 to 4, with only the moderate Great Indonesia Party objecting. After

5400-443: The Indies . The urban (or civil) administration of the city of Batavia was established in 1620. On 24 June 1620, two company officials and three free citizens (or burghers) were appointed to the first College of Aldermen. The local rural administration, formed in 1664, became fully functional in 1682. The Javanese people were prohibited from settling in Batavia from the time of its founding in 1619. From its founding, Batavia

5535-704: The Indies. During the occupation, the Njai and their mixed-race children were forcefully separated from European men, who were put into internment camps. After Sukarno proclaimed an independent Indonesia, the Njai were forced to choose between going with their partners to Europe, or staying in Indonesia. The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to Germany on May 14, 1940. The royal family fled to exile in Britain. Germany and Japan were Axis allies. On 27 September 1940, Germany, Hungary , Italy and Japan signed

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5670-668: The Islamic Commercial Union in Batavia to support Indonesian merchants. Branches in other areas followed. In 1920, Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto and Agus Salim established a committee in Batavia to support the Ottoman Caliphate . Spies warned the Dutch about a planned revolt in 1926, and Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) leaders were arrested. Andries Cornelis Dirk de Graeff replaced Dirk Fock as governor-general, and uprisings in Batavia, Banten, and Priangan were quickly crushed. Armed Communists occupied

5805-657: The Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A four-and-a-half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony; although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian independence. The Netherlands committed war crimes: summary and arbitrary killings of Indonesian villagers and farmers, torture of Indonesian prisoners and execution of prisoners. Ad van Liempt documented

5940-430: The Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links among the masses, and they trained and armed the younger generations. According to a UN report, four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation. Following

6075-405: The Japanese. The Dutch formally surrendered to the Japanese occupation forces on 9 March 1942, and the colony's government was transferred to Japan. Batavia was renamed Jakarta. The economic situation and the physical condition of Indonesian cities deteriorated during the occupation. Buildings were converted to internment camps for the Dutch. After the Japanese defeat in 1945, the region experienced

6210-404: The Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the Indonesian people, an apology repeated by King Willem-Alexander on a state visit in 2020. To this day, the colonial war is commonly referred to as "police actions" in the Netherlands. Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided with the office of the governor-general. During the Dutch East Indies era

6345-607: The Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949. The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the Indonesian military . At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army. Key officers in

6480-494: The Supreme Court in Batavia, dealt with appeals and monitored judges and courts throughout the colony. Six councils of justice (Raad van Justitie) dealt mostly with crime committed by people in the European legal class and only indirectly with the indigenous population. The land councils (Landraden) dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces, and matrimonial disputes. The indigenous population

6615-561: The Union of Indonesian Political Associations) on 4 July 1927. A youth congress was held in Batavia in October 1928, and the groups began referring to the city as Jakarta. They demanded Indonesian independence, displayed the red-and-white flag, and sang the Indonesian national anthem written by Wage Rudolf Supratman . The Dutch banned the flag, the national anthem, and the words "Indonesia" and "Indonesian". On 5 March 1942, Batavia fell to

6750-647: The VOC arrived in the Indonesian archipelago, they started to use and expand upon the then-existing indigenous system of slavery. In certain places slaves were used on plantations such as on the Maluku islands, namely the Banda islands where most of the local population had been deported or exterminated by the VOC to be replaced with slaves. Dutch slaves worked in agriculture, manufacturing, and services, but most were used as domestic servants including housemaids and houseboys, cooks, seamstresses, musicians, and concubines. Slaves could be acquired through trade at indigenous slave markets or captured on raids. In certain cases

6885-414: The VOC stirred up ethnic tensions between rivalling populations in the hope they could cheaply buy war captives at slave markets after the conflict. Slaves were transported from islands in Indonesia itself, or from other countries such as India and China. Estimates of the scale of the slave trade in the Dutch East Indies are scant, but it is suggested that around 1 million slaves were active during its peak in

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7020-462: The absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in the colony. The so-called exorbitant powers of the governor-general allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving any Court of Law. Until 1848 the governor-general was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch, and in later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet. During two periods (1815–1835 and 1854–1925)

7155-408: The archipelago to establish a colony on vacant land, triggering wars in Java and Sumatra . Large numbers of troops were brought into the Dutch Indies to suppress unrest (particularly on Sumatra) and extend Dutch government influence beyond Java. However, the Dutch never conquered the entire archipelago. The development of Weltevreden as the colony's administrative center continued, gradually shifting

7290-482: The archipelago to prevent intervention from other Western powers during the European push for colonial possessions . As exploitation of Indonesian resources expanded off Java, most of the outer islands came under direct Dutch government control or influence. The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri War (1821–38) and the Java War (1825–30) ended significant Javanese resistance. The Banjarmasin War (1859–1863) in southeast Kalimantan resulted in

7425-462: The archipelago: Balinese , Ambonese , Buginese and Sundanese . It is suspected that there were also the descendants of the Mardijkers , a group of Portuguese-creole, among his slaves. Of the twelve original slave families, at least five families decided to receive a new Christian name from Chastelein. There were also Roman Catholic families which were converted to (Protestant) Christianity by Chastelein. Isakh, Jacob, Jonathan, Joseph and Samuel are

7560-458: The bankruptcy of the VOC in 1798, but continued under Dutch state rule. Due to growing international criticism slavery was eventually abolished in the Dutch East Indies in 1860. In reality this was mostly limited to the slaves present on Java and Madura, whose masters were financially compensated for the loss of their workforce. However, on many other islands where slave masters were more often indigenous rulers, little changed. The main reason for this

7695-428: The capital of the Dutch East Indies . The area corresponds to present-day Jakarta , Indonesia. Batavia can refer to the city proper or its suburbs and hinterland , the Ommelanden , which included the much larger area of the Residency of Batavia in the present-day Indonesian provinces of Jakarta, Banten and West Java . The founding of Batavia by the Dutch in 1619, on the site of the ruins of Jayakarta , led to

7830-404: The capital, and Batavian society became increasingly Dutch. The city traded with Europe, and increased shipping led to the construction of a new harbor at Tanjung Priok between 1877 and 1883. Foreigners were known locally as totoks , distinguishing new Chinese arrivals from the peranakans . Many totoks adopted Indonesian culture, wearing kebayas , sarongs, and summer dresses. By the end of

7965-401: The center of Batavia south from Oud Batavia . A new Indies Empire style of architecture emerged; white-plastered villas with a large front porch were built, especially around the Koningsplein and at Weltevreden. This newer part of Batavia generally had a more open look than Oud Batavia's developed, canal cityscape. Unlike the first half of the 19th century, the second half of the century

8100-416: The city walls and settled outside Batavia. The Chinese and the Mardijkers were the only non-Dutch settlers within the walled city. A 1659 truce with Banten enabled the city to grow, and more bamboo houses were built. Bamboo houses and livestock were banned in 1667, and the wealthy Dutch built tall houses and canals. The region was an important source of food crops and building materials. The VOC established

8235-464: The city walls, the following year. In 1789, the Americans visited and were permitted through formal applications to trade. After the VOC went bankrupt and was dissolved in 1800, the Batavian Republic nationalized its debts and possessions and expanded its territorial claims into a colony known as the Dutch East Indies . Batavia evolved from a regional company headquarters into the colony's capital. In 1808, Herman Willem Daendels decided to leave

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8370-463: The city was renamed Jakarta. Amsterdam merchants embarked on an expedition to the East Indies archipelago in 1595 under the command of Cornelis de Houtman . The English East India Company 's first voyage in 1602, commanded by James Lancaster , arrived in Aceh and sailed on to Bantam . There, Lancaster was allowed to build a trading post which was the center of English trade in the East Indies archipelago until 1682. The Dutch government granted

8505-473: The city) and Weltevreden (the relatively newer city), on higher ground to the south. It was a European colonial city for about 320 years until 1942, when the Dutch East Indies was occupied by Japan during World War II . During the Japanese occupation and after Indonesian nationalists declared independence on 17 August 1945, the city was known as Jakarta. It remained internationally known by its Dutch name until Indonesia achieved full independence in 1949, when

8640-446: The colonial Government Navy . The KNIL was not part of the Royal Netherlands Army , but a separate military arm commanded by the governor-general and funded by the colonial budget. The KNIL was not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had the nature of a ' Foreign Legion ' recruiting not only Dutch volunteers, but many other European nationalities (especially German, Belgian and Swiss mercenaries). While most officers were Europeans,

8775-429: The colonial Dutch empire, but this sentiment quickly changed as the occupation turned out to be far more oppressive and ruinous than the Dutch colonial government. The Japanese occupation during World War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia, as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime. Although the top positions were held by

8910-558: The colonial justice system. The Coolie Ordinances ("Poenale sanctie") of 1880, which allowed the plantation owners to serve as judge, jury and executioner resulted in widespread atrocities. It included a penal sanction which allowed owners to physically punish their coolies as they saw fit. Punishments that were used against coolies included whippings or beatings, after which the open wounds were rubbed with salt. Other punishments used were electrocution, crucifixion and suspending coolies by their toes or thumbs until they broke. Medical care for

9045-464: The colony from 1913, and quasi-diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to manage the Haji pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies. The governor-general led a hierarchy of Dutch officials: the residents, the assistant residents, and district officers called controllers . Traditional rulers who survived displacement by

9180-469: The coolies was scarce and often aimed at healing punished coolies so they could return to work or be tortured more extensively. Rape of adult female coolies as well as their children was also common. The coolie system was heavily criticized, especially after 1900 with the rise of the so-called "Ethical Politics". A critical pamphlet named "De miljoenen uit Deli" was published by J. van den Brand. The document described abuses committed against coolies including

9315-485: The correctional facility. In response to the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp Boven-Digoel was established in New Guinea . As of 1927, political prisoners, including indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence, were 'exiled' to the outer islands. The Dutch East Indies was divided into three gouvernementen —Groot Oost, Borneo and Sumatra—and three provincies in Java. Provincies and gouvernementen were both divided into residencies, but while

9450-481: The declaration of independence in 1945, Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous. Although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh , Bali , Lombok and Borneo . There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted efforts to establish Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up its military forces. Piracy remained

9585-411: The declaration of war with Japan, over 100,000 natives volunteered. The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform them into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. During

9720-464: The defeat of the Sultan. After failed expeditions to conquer Bali in 1846 and 1848 , an 1849 intervention brought northern Bali under Dutch control. The most prolonged military expedition was the Aceh War in which a Dutch invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and ended with an Acehnese surrender in 1912. Disturbances continued to break out on both Java and Sumatra during

9855-547: The dilapidated, unhealthy Old Town . A new town center was built further south, on the Weltevreden estate. Batavia became a city with two centers; Kota was the business hub with offices and warehouses of shipping and trading companies, and Weltevreden was home to the government, military, and shops. The centers were connected by the Molenvliet Canal and a road alongside the canal. Under British rule , Daendels

9990-493: The early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië , Indies , the Dutch East Indies , the Netherlands Indies , and colonial Indonesia interchangeably. At the time when Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states (the most important were Srivijaya and Majapahit ). Since centuries BCE

10125-487: The erection of an eastern fort extension, overseen by Commander Van Raay, on 12 March 1619. Although Coen wanted to name the new settlement Nieuw-Hoorn after Hoorn (his birthplace), he was prevented from doing so by the board of the VOC. Batavia was chosen as the new name of the fort and settlement, and a naming ceremony was held on 18 January 1621. It was named after the Batavi Germanic tribe, which inhabited

10260-551: The establishment of a Dutch colony ; Batavia became the center of the Dutch East India Company 's trading network in Asia . Monopolies on local produce were augmented by non-indigenous cash crops . To safeguard their commercial interests, the company and the colonial administration absorbed surrounding territory. Batavia is on the north coast of Java , in a sheltered bay, on a land of marshland and hills crisscrossed with canals. The city had two centers: Oud Batavia (the oldest part of

10395-400: The first of its kind in Java, a Protestant congregation consisting of native Indonesians which was named De Eerste Protestante Organisatie van Christenen (DEPOC). In 1704, Chastelein bought another land which later he named Weltevreden . In this new estate he established the first experimental coffee plantation in the Indies, as well as the first Indies zoo. In the estate of Depok he created

10530-423: The foundation of official policy, restricting its attention to Java, Sumatra and Bangka . However, from about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands. Motivations included the protection of areas already held, the intervention of Dutch officials ambitious for glory or promotion, and the aim to establish Dutch claims throughout

10665-400: The governor-general functioned as chief executive president of colonial government and served as commander-in-chief of the colonial army ( KNIL ). Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the governor-general and were entirely dependent on the central administration of the 'office of the governor-general' for their budgets. Until 1815 the governor-general had

10800-611: The governor-general ruled jointly with an advisory board called the Raad van Indie (Indies Council). Colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague . From 1815 to 1848 the ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch king. In the 20th century the colony gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole with its treasury separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by

10935-485: The ground two days later and expelling its population. Only the Luso-Sundanese padrão remained. Jayawikarta retreated to Tanara , in the interior of Banten, where he later died. The Dutch established a closer relationship with Banten and assumed control of the port, which became the regional Dutch center of power. The region which became Batavia came under Dutch control in 1619, initially as an expansion of

11070-474: The house they worked in as so-called "Indigenous Furniture" ( Inlands Meubel ). Njai were also not allowed custody of the children they had with their Dutch masters, and when they were fired, their children would be taken away. By the 1910s the number of Njai had decreased, although prostitution had become more prevalent. The practice had not died out, however, by the time the Empire of Japan invaded and occupied

11205-507: The houses. Settlements, built with little regard for the region's tropical conditions, resulted in overcrowding, poor sanitation, and an absence of public amenities. Java had an outbreak of plague in 1913. Old Batavia's abandoned moats and ramparts experienced a boom during the period, as trading companies were established along the Ciliwung. The old city soon re-established itself as a commercial center, with 20th- and 17th-century buildings adjacent to one another. The Dutch Ethical Policy

11340-412: The islands were part of migratory and commercial exchange within Southeast Asia , India , Arabian peninsula and east-Africa . From classical antiquity onwards the archipelago was also a major part of the global spice trade . For centuries Hindu-Buddhist civilizations were dominant; however, increasing trade links instigated the spread of Islam . By the 16th century, a large part of the archipelago

11475-407: The late 19th century, increasing numbers of Dutch immigrants arrived in colonial Indonesia, leading to a shortage of available women, as most immigrants were men. The Dutch then bought the "Njai", who were indigenous women who officially served as maids but were often also used as concubines . While officially contract workers, these women enjoyed few rights. They could be bought and sold together with

11610-478: The line from Batavia to Buitenzorg was completed in 1873. The city's first ice house was built in 1870. The 1869 opening of the Suez Canal increased the need for a new port. The port of Tanjung Priok was completed in 1885, replacing the centuries-old, inadequate Sunda Kelapa , significantly increasing trade and tourism in Batavia and the Dutch East Indies. The Cultivation System ( cultuurstelsel )

11745-473: The local population; at its height, over 1 million farmers worked under the Cultuurstelsel and the extreme incentive for profit resulted in widespread abuses. Farmers were often forced to either use more than 20% of their farmland, or the most fertile land, for cultivation of cash crops. The system led to an increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in the 1840s. According to one estimate,

11880-456: The majority of soldiers were indigenous Indonesians, the largest contingent of which were Javanese and Sundanese . Dutch policy before the 1870s was to take full charge of strategic points and work out treaties with the local leaders elsewhere so they would remain in control and co-operate. The policy failed in Aceh , in northern Sumatra, where the Sultan tolerated pirates who raided commerce in

12015-505: The mass murder of 364 Indonesians by Dutch soldiers in the village of Galoeng Galoeng. Alfred Edelstein and Karin van Coevorden, documented later the execution of hundreds of men in the village of Rawagede . The independence movement during the later phases of the Bersiap also targeted Dutch and Eurasian civilians, particularly under the direction of Sutomo who personally supervised the summary executions of hundreds of civilians. After

12150-576: The mortality rates increased by as much as 30% during this period. Due to widespread criticism of the system, it was abolished in 1870. According to one study, the mortality rate in Java would have been 10–20% higher by the late 1870s if the Cultivation system had not been abolished. The introduction of trucks, railways, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems all contributed to famine elimination in Java which had historically been common. Java experienced rapid population growth during

12285-486: The ongoing expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago (including much of Java , parts of Sumatra , much of Maluku , and the hinterlands of ports such as Makasar , Manado and Kupang ) were nationalized under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. When

12420-408: The original Dutch fort and a new building on the ruins of the former Jayakarta. Coen decided to expand the original fort into a larger fortress on 2 July 1619, and sent plans for Batavia Castle to the Netherlands on 7 October of that year. The castle was larger than the previous one, with two northern bastions protecting it from a maritime attack. The Nassau and Mauritius warehouses were expanded with

12555-536: The original crew made it back to Holland and other Dutch expeditions soon followed. Recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC). In March 1602 the VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, and make treaties across Asia. A capital

12690-560: The parts of the colony not represented by the Republik. This was unacceptable to Sukarno. Sjahrir proposed a compromise, but this was rejected by the Dutch. Sjahrir resigned and was replaced by Sjarifuddin. Sukarno declared a state of emergency in the areas that were in the hands of the Republik and assumed charge of the negotiations. The situation deteriorated further, and the Dutch resorted to military intervention under Operation Product (or first "politionele actie" ). The Commission General

12825-802: The plantations in Sumatra and Java to perform harsh labor. It is estimated that over 500,000 coolies were transported to Sumatra during the late 19th and early 20th century. The precise death rate among coolie laborers is hard to estimate due to scarce or unreliable records but has been estimated to be as high as 25% in certain places, with a possible death toll of many tens of thousands. While coolies were often paid laborers who worked out of free will, in practice their circumstances often involved forced labor and more closely resembled slavery. They were often misled when signing work contracts or even forced to sign contracts. Others were kidnapped or forced to work due to debts or were criminals sentenced to forced labour by

12960-645: The political situation in Indonesia devolved into a deadlock the new Dutch government, led by Louis Beel of the Catholic People's Party, formed a Commissie-Generaal voor Nederlands-Indië (Commission General for the Dutch Indies) on 14 September 1946. This Commission-General consisted of Willem Schermerhorn , Dutch Prime Minister from 1945 to 1946; F. De Boer, Liberal politician; Max van Poll, Catholic Party politician; and Hubertus van Mook , Lieutenant-Governor General (ex officio). The Commission achieved

13095-412: The population by means of a 'strategy of awe'. When a guerrilla war did take place the Dutch used either a slow, violent occupation or a campaign of destruction. By 1900 the archipelago was considered "pacified" and the KNIL was mainly involved with military police tasks. The nature of the KNIL changed in 1917 when the colonial government introduced obligatory military service for all male conscripts in

13230-502: The provisions of the New York Agreement . At that point, the entirety of the colony ceased to exist. The word Indies comes from Latin : Indus ( Names for India ). The original name Dutch Indies ( Dutch : Nederlandsch-Indië ) was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies , to keep it distinct from the Dutch West Indies . The name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Company 's documents of

13365-526: The remainder of the 19th century. This included the Banten Peasant's Revolt in the aftermath of the tremendous eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. However, the island of Lombok came under Dutch control in 1894, and Batak resistance in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895. Towards the end of the 19th century, the balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-industrial independent indigenous Indonesian polities as

13500-756: The remaining independent local rulers. Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 1905–06, the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests in 1906 and 1908 , as were the remaining independent kingdoms in Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Nusa Tenggara . Other rulers including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak (Kalimantan) and Palembang in Sumatra , requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions under colonial rule. The Bird's Head Peninsula ( Western New Guinea ),

13635-694: The residencies under the provincies were divided again into regentschappen , residencies under gouvermenten were divided into afdeelingen first before being subdivided into regentschappen . The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) and its air arm, the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force (ML-KNIL), were established in 1814 and 1915, respectively. Naval forces of the Royal Netherlands Navy were based in Surabaya , supplemented by

13770-584: The river; Batavia's first combined church and town hall (replaced during the 1630s) was at 6°07′56″S 106°48′42″E  /  6.132212°S 106.811779°E  / -6.132212; 106.811779 . Around 1627, the three canals were connected with the Tijgersgracht canal. The new canal was lined with coconut trees; according to a contemporary observer, "Among the Grachts, the Tygersgracht

13905-399: The same language (mostly Portuguese and Malay). Many of these women effectively became widows; their husbands left Batavia to return to the Netherlands, and their children were often removed as well. Most of Batavia's residents were of Asian descent. Thousands of slaves were brought from India and Arakan ; later, slaves were brought from Bali and Sulawesi . To avoid an uprising, a decision

14040-476: The second politionele actie, or Operation Kraai , in December 1948. This was militarily successful (the Dutch managed to capture Sukarno), but again international political pressure forced the Dutch to back down and be party to the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement (7 May 1949). The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference then started on 22 August 1949, which led to the agreement to transfer sovereignty to

14175-502: The siege of Batavia. After heavy losses in his first attempt, he retreated and launched a second offensive the following year. This also failed; the Dutch fleet destroyed his supplies and ships in the harbors of Cirebon and Tegal . Mataram troops, starving and decimated by illness, retreated again. Agung then moved east, attacking Blitar , Panarukan and the Blambangan Kingdom in eastern Java (a vassal state of

14310-484: The slave was found guilty in an official court case. In reality however abuse of slaves by their masters was rampant and often went unpunished. Beatings and whippings were a commonplace punishment for disobedient slaves. Rape of female slaves by their masters was a common occurrence as well, as these women and girls were obliged to provide sexual services for their masters. Refusing to do so could result in severe physical punishment. Slavery and its excesses did not end with

14445-478: The south of Batavia e.g. Siringsing (now Serengseng Sawah, South Jakarta ) in 1695, at pole 17 (about 25 kilometres (16 miles) from Batavia), somewhere in the middle of the Batavia- Buitenzorg route. On May 18, 1696, he bought a plot of land with an area of 12.44 square kilometers, at pole 21 (about 32 kilometres (20 miles) from Batavia), between Ciliwung and Pesanggrahan river. There he established

14580-399: The technology gap widened. Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive, backward, or disrespectful of international law. Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from

14715-478: The torture and sexual abuse of a 15-year-old female coolie who had rejected sexual advances of a Dutch plantation overseer. The penal sanction was eventually abolished in 1931 and the Coolie Ordinances ended in the early 1940s. During earlier stages of colonization female indigenous sex slaves were bought by Dutch colonials, but this practice was cut short after 1860 with the abolition of slavery. In

14850-401: The twelve original families had the estate Depok, 1240 ha. great, if he would inherit a communal property and thereby obtain their freedom. And thus it was determined that "released bodies and their descendants would have landed forever and used". The name Chastelein does not exist anymore. The people are now called Castelein or Casteleijn. Batavia, Dutch East Indies Batavia was

14985-600: The unruliest inmates. In the Sawahlunto prison on Sumatra prisoners had to perform manual labour in the coal mines. Separate prisons were built for juveniles (West Java) and for women. In the Bulu women's prison in Semarang inmates had the opportunity to learn a profession during their detention, such as sewing, weaving and making batik . This training was held in high esteem and helped re-socialise women once they were outside

15120-504: Was a mid-19th-century Dutch government policy which required a portion of agricultural production to be export crops. Indonesian historians refer to it as tanam paksa (enforced planting). The 1870 abolition of the Cultivation System led to the rapid development of private enterprise in the Dutch East Indies. A number of trading companies and financial institutions were established on Java, particularly in Batavia. The Old Town's deteriorating structures were replaced with offices, usually along

15255-617: Was a peaceful period characterized by economic and technological expansion and a stable government. In 1856, the region's first telegraph line was installed between Batavia and Buitenzorg . In 1859, Batavia was connected to Singapore with the Dutch East Indies' first international telegraph connection. The city completed its first gasworks two years later, and its streets were lit with gas by 1862. The first trams and telephones came in 1882. Horse-drawn tram , introduced to Batavia in 1869, were upgraded to steam power in 1882 and electricity in 1900. The city's first railway also began in 1869, and

15390-409: Was achieved and Jakarta proclaimed the national capital on 27 December 1949. Batavia, founded as the trade and administrative center of the VOC, was never intended to be a Dutch settlement. Jan Pieterszoon Coen founded Batavia for trade, with the city's inhabitants producing and supplying food. There was no migration of intact Dutch families, and there were few Dutch women in Batavia. A mixed society

15525-528: Was against slavery and he would give slaves in the colonial land their freedom. The church council of Batavia had ruled that slavery is contrary to the Bible, but this provision was valid only for Christians. Because of this, Chastelein converted his slaves to Christianity and made them free people. Their number in the year 1714 – the year that Chastelein died – was estimated about 200. For his estate Depok, Chastelein bought twelve slave families from various parts of

15660-543: Was appointed as Ordinary Member of the Council of Dutch India in November 1708, receiving a monthly allowance of 350 guilders per month. He remained in this position to his death. Cornelis Chastelein was married to Catharina of Quaelborg. She was probably his niece, since her father, Council of India, was married to one Henriëtte Chastelein. They had one son Anthony, while Chastelein's will shows that they have also adopted

15795-473: Was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia . The colonial wars in the Dutch East Indies exacted a heavy toll on the Indonesian population, with around 3 to 4 million deaths including both direct war casualties and indirect victims of war due to famine and disease. Due to the high monetary costs of several Dutch conquests in

15930-597: Was changed to Universiteit van Indonesië (UVI). After the Indonesian National Revolution the government established Universiteit Indonesia, a state university, in Jakarta in February 1950. Its name was later changed to Universitas Indonesia. Volksraad member Mohammad Husni Thamrin criticized the colonial government for ignoring the kampungs and catering to the wealthy in Menteng . In 1909, Tirto Adhi Soerjo founded

16065-478: Was dissolved in 1942 during the Japanese occupation. The legal system was divided by the three main ethnic groups classified under the Dutch colonial administration— Europeans, Foreign Orientals (Arabs and the Chinese) and the indigenous— which were subject to their own legal systems that were all simultaneously in force. The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its colony. The highest court of law,

16200-518: Was dissolved on 15 November 1947 after Schermerhorn and Van Poll resigned. The Politionele Actie did not achieve its goals, and international pressure forced the Dutch government to accept a cease-fire and the Renville Agreement (17 January 1948). This agreement, however, did not lead to a solution. Provocative actions from both sides led to a tense military situation, and the Dutch for the second time resorted to military intervention with

16335-476: Was established in Batavia (now Jakarta ), which became the center of the VOC's Asian trading network. To their original monopolies on nutmeg , peppers , cloves and cinnamon , the company and later colonial administrations introduced non-indigenous cash crops like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and opium, and safeguarded their commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory. Smuggling,

16470-409: Was financial, as the Dutch state at that time did not want to spend the money necessary to free the slaves on the more distant islands. Another reason was to appease local rulers and to prevent political turmoil. Due to the lax policy of the Dutch state slavery persisted in parts of the Dutch East Indies well into the 20th century. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to

16605-524: Was forced to live in its own village outside the city wall. Each person was tagged to identify their ethnic group; later, the identity tags were replaced with parchment. Batavia experienced more malaria epidemics during the 18th century, as its marsh areas bred mosquitoes. The disease killed many Europeans and Batavia received the nickname "cemetery of Europeans". Wealthier European settlers moved to southern areas at higher elevations. Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies , also known as

16740-439: Was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company , which came under the administration of the Dutch government in 1800. During the 19th century, the Dutch fought many wars against indigenous rulers and peoples, which caused hundreds of thousands of deaths. Dutch rule reached its greatest territorial extent in the early 20th century with the occupation of Western New Guinea . The Dutch East Indies

16875-459: Was formed; relationships between Dutchmen and Asian women did not usually result in marriage, and the women did not have the right to return to the Dutch Republic . This societal pattern created a group of mestizos in Batavia. Since the VOC preferred to maintain complete control of its business, a large number of slaves was employed. Women became an important feature of Batavia's social network; they were accustomed to dealing with slaves, and spoke

17010-583: Was introduced in 1901, expanding educational opportunities for the indigenous population of the Dutch East Indies. In 1924, a law school was founded in Batavia. The city's population in the 1930 census was 435,000. The University of Batavia was established in 1941, and later became the University of Indonesia . In 1946, the Dutch colonial government established the Nood Universiteit (Emergency University) in Jakarta. The following year, its name

17145-470: Was made to free the Javanese people from slavery. Chinese people made up the largest group in Batavia (most being merchants and laborers), and were the most decisive group in the city's development. Other residents included Malays and Muslim and Hindu merchants from India. Initially, these ethnic groups lived together; however, in 1688, segregation was imposed on the indigenous population. Each ethnic group

17280-630: Was on the verge of surrendering to the English when, in 1619, the Sultanate of Banten sent a group of soldiers to summon Jayawikarta. Jayawikarta's agreement with the English had not been approved by the Bantenese authorities. The conflict between Banten and Jayawikarta and the tense relationship between Banten and the English provided a new opportunity for the Dutch. Coen returned from the Moluccas with reinforcements on 28 May 1619, razing Jayakarta to

17415-414: Was one of the most valuable colonies under European rule, though its profits depended on exploitative labor. The colony contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th century, and coal and oil exploration in the 20th century. The colonial social order was rigidly racial with the Dutch elite living separately from but linked to their native subjects. The term Indonesia

17550-410: Was planned in a well-defined layout. Three trenches were dug east of the Ciliwung River in 1619, its first Dutch-made canals. The canals were named (from south to north) Leeuwengracht, Groenegracht, and Steenhouwersgracht. The castle area begins in a former field north of Steenhouwersgracht, in which a town market was established. The first church and town hall were built c. 1622 on the east bank of

17685-602: Was replaced by Stamford Raffles . In 1811, Raffles—who was employed by the British East India Company as secretary to the governor of Malacca—decided to take over the government in Batavia. One reason was to prevent the French from stepping in completely, since Napoleon had nominated Daendels (who worked closely with the French). In 1816, the Dutch returned to rule the region. Europeans were brought to

17820-509: Was restored in 1816 on the basis of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 . The Commissioners-General of the Dutch East Indies reformed the public finances of the colony and drew up a new Regeringsreglement that would define the government of the colony for a century. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty the Dutch secured the Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak and British settlements such as Bengkulu , both in Sumatra , and

17955-560: Was ruled under Islamic kingdoms , except Bali that retained a Hindu majority. Sultanates, city states , local kingdoms and tribes were all connected through trade, creating a mixed Hindu-Buddhist-Islamic culture , and Malay as a lingua franca throughout the region. The islands were known to the Europeans and were sporadically visited by expeditions such as that of Italians Marco Polo in 1292 and Odoric of Pordenone in 1321. The first Europeans to establish themselves in Indonesia were

18090-439: Was subject to their respective adat law and to indigenous regents and district courts, unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges. Following Indonesian independence, the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established. By 1920 the Dutch had established 350 prisons throughout the colony. The Meester Cornelis prison in Batavia incarcerated

18225-481: Was used for the geographical location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals conceived Indonesia as a nation state , setting the stage for an independence movement. Japan's World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945, Indonesian nationalist leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared independence , instigating

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