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111-597: Some famous holders of this post in Pakistan include: (birth–death) Some famous holders of this post in Bangladesh include: In Indonesia, this post was briefly held by army chief Suharto , who seized power in 1966 and forced President Sukarno to resign in 1967 . Sukarno had also enforced martial law during his tenure as President of Indonesia . Suharto 2nd President of Indonesia [REDACTED] Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008)

222-412: A bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority, Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972. In 1967, generals Hartono Rekso Dharsono , Kemal Idris , and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo (dubbed "New Order Radicals") opposed Suharto's decision to allow participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of

333-804: A colonel, he led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing the Makassar uprising , a rebellion of former colonial soldiers who supported the Dutch-established State of East Indonesia and its federal entity, the United States of Indonesia . During his year in Makassar , Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours, the Habibie family, whose eldest son BJ Habibie was later Suharto's vice-president, and went on to succeed him as president. In 1951–1952, Suharto led his troops in defeating

444-706: A concept similar to corporatism . The government formed various civil society groups to unite the populace in support of government programs. For instance, the government created the Indonesian Civil Servants Corps ( Korps Pegawai Republik Indonesia or KORPRI ) in November 1971 as union of civil servants to ensure their loyalty, organized the FBSI ( Federasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia ) as the only legal labour union in February 1973, and established

555-519: A deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism. Between 1956 and 1959, he served in the important position of commander of Diponegoro Division based in Semarang , responsible for Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces. His relationship with prominent businessmen Liem Sioe Liong and Bob Hasan , which extended throughout his presidency, began in Central Java, where he was involved in

666-516: A field commander. In the early years of the war, he organized local armed forces into Battalion X of Regiment I; Suharto was promoted to Major and became Battalion X's leader. The arrival of the Allies, under a mandate to return the situation to the status quo ante bellum , quickly led to clashes between Indonesian republicans and Allied forces, i.e. returning Dutch and assisting British forces. Suharto led his Division X troops to halt an advance by

777-604: A founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in August 1967. This organization is designed to establish a peaceful relationship between Southeast Asian countries free from conflicts such as the ongoing Vietnam War . In 1974, the neighbouring colony of Portuguese Timor descended into civil war after the withdrawal of Portuguese authority following the Carnation Revolution , whereby

888-794: A full-scale invasion of the colony on 7 December 1975 followed with its official annexation as Indonesia's 27th province of East Timor in July 1976. The "encirclement and annihilation" campaigns of 1977–1979 broke the back of Fretilin control over the hinterlands, although continuing guerrilla resistance caused the government to maintain a strong military force in the half-island until 1999. An estimated minimum of 90,800 and maximum of 213,600 conflict-related deaths occurred in East Timor during Indonesian rule (1974–1999) ; namely, 17,600–19,600 killings and 73,200 to 194,000 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness; Indonesian forces were responsible for about 70% of

999-611: A key member of the Movement and close family friend of Suharto. According to Latief's later testimony, the conspirators assumed Suharto to be a Sukarno-loyalist; hence Latief went to inform him of the impending kidnapping plan to save Sukarno from treacherous generals, upon which Suharto seemed to offer his neutrality. Upon being told of the killings, Suharto went to Kostrad headquarters just before dawn from where he could see soldiers occupying Merdeka Square. He mobilised Kostrad and RPKAD (now Kopassus ) special forces to seize control of

1110-488: A local woman, was distantly related to Hamengkubuwono V by his first concubine. Five weeks after Suharto's birth, his mother suffered a nervous breakdown ; he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt, Kromodirjo as a result. Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto's life and both later remarried. At the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in

1221-589: A localised version of the Japanese bushido , or "way of the warrior", used to indoctrinate troops. This training encouraged an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist thought, although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists. The encounter with a nationalistic and militarist ideology is believed to have profoundly influenced Suharto's own way of thinking. Suharto was posted to a PETA coastal defense battalion at Wates , south of Yogyakarta until he

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1332-612: A military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he repeatedly mentioned during the next few months. On his independence day speech in August, Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti-imperialist alliance with China and other communist countries and warned the army not to interfere. While Sukarno devoted his energy for domestic and international politics, the economy of Indonesia deteriorated rapidly with worsening widespread poverty and hunger, while foreign debt obligations became unmanageable and infrastructure crumbled. Sukarno's Guided Democracy stood on fragile grounds due to

1443-497: A minor noble in the Mangkunegaran royal house of Solo. The arranged marriage was enduring and supportive, lasting until Tien's death in 1996. The couple had six children: Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana (Tutut, born 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953), Siti Hediati (" Titiek Suharto ", born 1959), Hutomo Mandala Putra (Tommy, born 1962), and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish (Mamiek, born 1964). Within

1554-465: A new unit of the newly formed Indonesian army. Based on his PETA experience, he was appointed deputy commander, and subsequently, a battalion commander when the republican forces were formally organized in October 1945. Suharto was involved in fighting against Allied troops around Magelang and Semarang and was subsequently appointed the head of a brigade as lieutenant-colonel, having earned respect as

1665-480: A non-ideological platform of "development", and aided by official government support and subtle intimidation tactics, Golkar managed to secure 62.8% of the popular vote. The March 1973 general session of newly elected MPR promptly appointed Suharto to second-term in office with Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX as vice-president. "It is not the military strength of the Communists but their fanaticism and ideology which

1776-421: A non-ideological two-party system similar to those found in many Western countries. Suharto sent Dharsono overseas as an ambassador, while Idris and Wibowo were sent to distant North Sumatra and South Sulawesi as regional commanders. Suharto's previously strong relationship with the student movement soured over the increasing authoritarianism and corruption of his administration. While many original leaders of

1887-426: A partner of major foreign power companies and forced the state-run power company, PLN , to buy electricity at inflated rates. According to one estimate from the 24 May 1999 cover story in the international issue of Time magazine , the total wealth amassed by the Suharto family over three decades in power was $ 73.24 billion. Setting aside $ 9 billion earned from interest on deposits, three-fourths of this wealth

1998-518: A policy of neutrality in the Cold War but was nevertheless quietly aligned with the Western bloc (including Japan and South Korea ) to secure support for Indonesia's economic recovery. Western countries, impressed by Suharto's strong anti-communist credentials, were quick to offer their support. Diplomatic relations with China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in

2109-549: A quasi-religious cult, Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1983 which obliged all organizations in Indonesia to adhere to Pancasila as a fundamental principle. He also instituted mandatory Pancasila training programs for all Indonesians, from primary school students to office workers. In practice, however, the vagueness of Pancasila was exploited by Suharto's government to justify their actions and to condemn their opponents as "anti-Pancasila". The New Order also implemented

2220-727: A result, he was given the title "Father of Development." According to Transparency International , Suharto was one of the most corrupt leaders in modern history, having embezzled an alleged US$ 15–35 billion during his rule. Suharto died in January 2008. Suharto remains a controversial and divisive figure within the Indonesian general public. Many Indonesians have praised his 31-year regime for its economic development, rapid industrialisation, and perceived political stability, while others have denounced his dictatorial rule, extensive human rights violations and corruption. Plans to award

2331-516: A series of "profit-generating" enterprises conducted primarily to keep the poorly funded military unit functioning. Army anti-corruption investigations implicated Suharto in a 1959 smuggling scandal. Relieved of his position, he was transferred to the army's Staff and Command School ( Seskoad ) in the city of Bandung . While in Bandung, he was promoted to brigadier-general, and in late 1960, promoted to army deputy chief of staff. On 6 March 1961, he

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2442-644: A series of currency devaluations. Industrialisation was mostly undertaken by Chinese-Indonesian companies which evolved into large conglomerates dominating the nation's economy. The largest of these conglomerates were the Salim Group led by Liem Sioe Liong (Sudono Salim) , Sinar Mas Group led by Oei Ek Tjong (Eka Tjipta Widjaja) , Astra Group led by Tjia Han Poen (William Soeryadjaya) , Lippo Group led by Lie Mo Tie (Mochtar Riady) , Barito Pacific Group led by Pang Djun Phen (Prajogo Pangestu) , and Nusamba Group led by Bob Hasan . Suharto decided to support

2553-436: A series of five-year plans, dubbed REPELITA ( Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun ) I to VI from 1969 to 1998. Outside the formal economy, Suharto created a network of charitable organizations (" yayasan ") run by the military and his family members, which extracted "donations" from domestic and foreign enterprises in exchange for necessary government support and permits. While some proceeds were used for charitable purposes, much of

2664-438: A series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations. The law provided for a parliament ( Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat /MPR) with the power to elect presidents, consisting of a house of representatives ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat /DPR ) and regional representatives. 100 of the 460 members of DPR would be directly appointed by

2775-562: A strong, centralised and military-dominated government. What started as an oligarchic military dictatorship evolved into a personalistic authoritarian regime centred around him. An ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti-communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War . For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant industrialisation, economic growth, and improved levels of education. As

2886-570: A subsidiary of the state oil company Pertamina , instantly making him a major crude-oil broker and transporter. Perta generated profits of $ 1 million per month. Most of Indonesia's toll roads were built and operated by the stateowned firm Jasa Marga , with untold markups and opportunities for skimming and theft for oligarchs as the projects were completed. In 1989, Suharto issued a decree granting his daughter Tutut 75% of profits from all toll roads her group operated jointly with Jasa Marga, driving costs up still further. Bambang positioned his group as

2997-593: A systematic cultural genocide . In 1978, the government began requiring a Letter of Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia ( Indonesian : Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia , or SBKRI). Although the SBKRI was legally required for all citizens of foreign descent, in practice it was generally applied only to Chinese descent. This led to difficulties for Chinese Indonesians when enrolling in state universities, applying to be civil servants, or joining

3108-484: Is the principal element of their strength. To consider this, each country in the area needs an ideology of its own with which to counter the Communists. But a national ideology is not enough by itself. The well being of the people must be improved so that it strengthens and supports the national ideology." On 5 January 1973, to allow better control, the government forced the four Islamic parties to merge into PPP ( Partai Persatuan Pembangunan /United Development Party) while

3219-908: The Dwifungsi ("Dual Function") policy which enabled the military to have an active role in all levels of the Indonesian government, economy, and society. Having been appointed president, Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mere primus inter pares , and Islamic and student groups who participated in the anti-Communist purge. Suharto, aided by his "Office of Personal Assistants" ( Aspri ) clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division, particularly Ali Murtopo , began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives. Having successfully stood-down MPRS chairman General Abdul Haris Nasution 's 1968 attempt to introduce

3330-645: The 30 September Movement (diplomatic relations were only restored in 1990). Due to Suharto's destruction of the PKI, the Soviet Union embargoed military sales to Indonesia. However, from 1967 to 1970 foreign minister Adam Malik managed to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from the Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states. Regionally, having ended confrontation with Malaysia in August 1966, Indonesia became

3441-552: The Communist Party of Indonesia and other leftist organizations. The purge spread from Jakarta to much of the rest of the country. The most widely accepted estimates are that at least 500,000 to over 1 million were killed. As many as 1.5 million were imprisoned at one stage or another. As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party,

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3552-556: The MPRS (parliament), and Suharto replaced chiefs of the navy, air force, and the police force with his supporters, who then began an extensive purge within each service. In June 1966, the now-purged parliament passed 24 resolutions including the banning of Marxism–Leninism , ratifying the Supersemar , and stripping Sukarno of his title of President for Life. Crucially, it also resolved that if Sukarno were unable to carry out his duties,

3663-622: The MUI in 1975 to control Islamic clerics. Additionally, Suharto relied on the military to ruthlessly maintain domestic security, organized by the Kopkamtib (Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order) and BAKIN (State Intelligence Coordination Agency). To maintain strict control over the country, Suharto expanded the army's territorial system down to village-level, while military officers were appointed as regional heads under

3774-479: The PNI , in 1969 Suharto decided to take over control of an obscure military-run federation of NGOs called Golkar ("Functional Groups") and transform it into his electoral vehicle under the coordination of his right-hand man Ali Murtopo . The first general election was held on 3 July 1971 with ten participants; consisting of Golkar , four Islamic parties, as well as five nationalist and Christian parties. Campaigning on

3885-505: The Petition of Fifty , which criticised Suharto's use of Pancasila to silence his critics. Suharto refused to address the petitioners' concerns, and some of them were imprisoned with others having restrictions imposed on their movements. To placate demands from civilian politicians for the holding of elections, as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967, Suharto government formulated

3996-403: The Supersemar letter, Suharto ordered the banning of the PKI the following day and proceeded to purge pro-Sukarno elements from the parliament, the government and military, accusing them of being communist sympathisers. The army arrested 15 cabinet ministers and forced Sukarno to appoint a new cabinet consisting of Suharto supporters. The army arrested pro-Sukarno and pro-communist members of

4107-810: The toll-expressway market which was monopolised by Tutut, the national car project monopolised by Bambang and Tommy, and even the cinema market, monopolised by 21 Cineplex (owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about 36,000 km of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land in East Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish "strategic partnerships" with Suharto family companies. Meanwhile,

4218-705: The 1966 student movement ( Angkatan '66 ) were successfully co-opted into the regime, Suharto was faced with large student demonstrations challenging the legitimacy of 1971 elections (" Golput " movement), the costly construction of the Taman Mini Indonesia Indah theme park (1972), the domination of foreign capitalists ( Malari Incident of 1974), and the lack of term limits of Suharto's presidency (1978). The regime responded by imprisoning many student activists (such as future national figures Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti , Adnan Buyung Nasution , Hariman Siregar, and Syahrir ), and even sending troops to occupy

4329-492: The 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats. In January 1966, university students under the banner of KAMI , began demonstrations against the Sukarno government voicing demands for the disbandment of the PKI and control of hyperinflation. The students received support and protection from

4440-532: The British and Malaysians. Tensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when Sukarno endorsed the immediate implementation of the PKI's proposal for a "fifth armed force" consisting of armed peasants and workers. However, this idea was rejected by the army's leadership as being tantamount to the PKI establishing its own armed forces. In May, the " Gilchrist Document " aroused Sukarno's fear of

4551-462: The DPR and MPR made such approval a mere formality. Combined with the DPR's infrequent sessions (it usually sat for only one session per year), Suharto was able to effectively rule by decree for most of his tenure. Suharto also proceeded with various social engineering projects designed to transform Indonesian society into a de-politicised "floating mass" supportive of the national mission of "development",

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4662-635: The Dutch T ("Tiger") Brigade on 17 May 1946. It earned him the respect of Lieutenant-Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirjo, who invited him to draft the working guidelines for the Battle Leadership Headquarters (MPP), a body created to organize and unify the command structure of the Indonesian Nationalist forces. The military forces of the still infant Republic of Indonesia were constantly restructuring. By August 1946, Suharto

4773-734: The Dutch military in 1940. Suharto finished middle school at the age of 18 and took a clerical job at a bank in Wuryantaro. He was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes. Following a spell of unemployment, he joined the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) in June 1940 and undertook basic training in Gombong near Yogyakarta. With the Netherlands under German occupation and

4884-586: The Dutch to cease the military offensive and to recommence negotiations, which eventually led to the Dutch withdrawal from the Yogyakarta area in June 1949 and to complete transfer of sovereignty in December 1949. Suharto was responsible for the takeover of Yogyakarta city from the withdrawing Dutch in June 1949. During the Revolution, Suharto married Siti Hartinah (known as Madam Tien), the daughter of

4995-443: The Dutch, who were preparing it for its own independence, separate from Indonesia. In 1965, Suharto was assigned operational command of Sukarno's Konfrontasi , against the newly formed Malaysia. Fearful that Konfrontasi would leave Java thinly covered by the army, and hand control to the 2 million-strong Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), he authorised a Kostrad intelligence officer, Ali Murtopo , to open secret contacts with

5106-465: The G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno, air force commander Omar Dhani and PKI chairman Dipa Nusantara Aidit had gathered, causing them to disperse before Suhartoist soldiers occupied the airbase on 2 October after short fighting. With the failure of the poorly organized coup, and having secured authority from the president to restore order and security, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of

5217-578: The Islamic-inspired rebellion of Battalion 426 in the Klaten area of Central Java . Appointed to lead four battalions in early 1953, he organized their participation in battling Darul Islam insurgents in northwestern Central Java and anti-bandit operations in the Mount Merapi area. He also sought to stem leftist sympathies among his troops. His experience in this period left Suharto with

5328-601: The Japanese in the aftermath of the failed February 1945 PETA Revolt in Blitar , led by Supriyadi . Two days after the Japanese surrender in the Pacific, independence leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian independence and were appointed president and vice-president respectively of the new Republic. Suharto disbanded his regiment under orders from the Japanese command and returned to Yogyakarta. As republican groups rose to assert Indonesian independence, Suharto joined

5439-703: The Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies, the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese. Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal, graduated from a short training course at KNIL Kaderschool in Gombong to become a sergeant, and was posted to a KNIL reserve battalion in Cisarua . Following the Dutch surrender to the invading Japanese forces in March 1942, Suharto abandoned his KNIL uniform and went back to Wurjantoro. After months of unemployment, he then became one of

5550-637: The Javanese upper class, it was considered acceptable for the wife to pursue genteel commerce to supplement the family budget, allowing her husband to keep his dignity in his official role. The commercial dealings of Tien, her children and grandchildren became extensive and ultimately undermined Suharto's presidency. In the years following Indonesian independence, Suharto served in the Indonesian National Army , primarily in Java . In 1950, as

5661-493: The MPR in 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998. Golkar won landslide majorities in the MPR at every election, ensuring that Suharto would be able to pass his agenda with virtually no opposition. Suharto took great care to make it appear that his regime appeared to observe the tenets of the constitution. On paper, the president was the "mandatory of the MPR," responsible for implementing the "Broad Lines of State Policy" (GBHN) developed by

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5772-546: The MPR. Near the end of each of his terms, Suharto delivered "accountability speeches" to the MPR that outlined the achievements of his administration and demonstrated how he had adhered to the GBHN. Additionally, the president had the power to issue regulations in lieu of law, but such regulations had to be approved by the House of People's Representatives (DPR) to remain in effect. In practice, however, Golkar's landslide majorities in

5883-532: The Solution of Chinese Problem", whereby only one Chinese-language publication (controlled by the Army) was allowed to continue, all Chinese cultural and religious expressions (including the display of Chinese characters) were prohibited from public space, Chinese schools were seized and turned into Indonesian-language public schools , and the ethnic-Chinese were forced to take-up Indonesian-sounding names ; creating

5994-475: The Suharto government decided to de-regulate the banking sector to encourage savings and providing a domestic source of financing required for growth. Suharto decreed the "October Package of 1988" ( PAKTO 88 ) which eased requirements for establishing banks and extending credit; resulting in a 50% increase in the number of banks from 1989 to 1991. To promote savings, the government introduced the TABANAS program to

6105-617: The Third Division ordered the attack. However, General Abdul Nasution said that Suharto took great care in preparing the "General Offensive" ( Indonesian : Serangan Umum ). Civilians sympathetic to the Republican cause within the city had been galvanised by the show of force which proved that the Dutch had failed to win the guerrilla war. Internationally, the United Nations Security Council pressured

6216-526: The appearance of unidentified troops around Merdeka Palace during a cabinet meeting (which Suharto had not attended) forced Sukarno to flee to Bogor Palace (60 km away) by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals, Major General Basuki Rahmat , Brigadier General M. Jusuf , and Brigadier General Amir Machmud went to Bogor to meet Sukarno. There, they persuaded and secured a presidential decree from Sukarno (see Supersemar ) that gave Suharto authority to take any action necessary to maintain security. Using

6327-409: The armed forces. After Sukarno gave his version of events, the MPRS concluded that he had been derelict in his duties and decided to hold another session to impeach him. On 20 February 1967, facing an increasingly untenable situation, Sukarno announced he would resign from the presidency. Later, the MPRS session stripped him of his remaining power on 12 March and named Suharto acting president . Sukarno

6438-612: The armed forces. Sumitro was an ambitious general who disliked the strong influence of Suharto's Aspri inner circle. Suharto learned that the riots were engineered by Sumitro to destabilise the government, resulting in Sumitro's dismissal and forced retirement. This incident is referred to as the Malari Incident ( Malapetaka Lima Belas Januari / Disaster of 15 January) . However, Suharto also disbanded Aspri to appease popular dissent. In 1980, fifty prominent political figures signed

6549-486: The army and Islamic and Catholic student groups convinced both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a communist coup attempt, and that the killings were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes. The army in alliance with civilian religious groups, and backed by the United States and other Western powers, led a campaign of mass killings to purge Indonesian society, government, and armed forces of

6660-420: The army by 2 October (he was officially appointed army commander on 14 October). On 5 October, Suharto led a dramatic public ceremony to bury the generals' bodies. Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organizers and their aims. The army's version, and subsequently that of the "New Order" , was that the PKI was solely responsible. A propaganda campaign by

6771-430: The army. Street fights broke out between the students and pro-Sukarno loyalists with the pro-Suharto students prevailing due to army protection. In February 1966, Sukarno promoted Suharto to lieutenant-general (and to full general in July 1966). The killing of a student demonstrator and Sukarno's order for the disbandment of KAMI in February 1966 further galvanised public opinion against the president. On 11 March 1966,

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6882-611: The boy as his own, which provided Suharto with a father-figure and a stable home in Wuryantoro. In 1931, he moved to the town of Wonogiri to attend the primary school, living first with Prawirohardjo's son Sulardi, and later with his father's relative Hardjowijono. While living with Hardjowijono, Suharto became acquainted with Darjatmo, a dukun ("shaman") of Javanese mystical arts and faith healing. The experience deeply affected him and later, as president, Suharto surrounded himself with powerful symbolic language. Difficulties in paying

6993-616: The campus of ITB ( Bandung Institute of Technology ) from January–March 1978. In April 1978, Suharto moved decisively by issuing a decree on "Normalisation of Campus Life" (NKK) which prohibited political activities on-campus not related to academic pursuits. On 15–16 January 1974, Suharto faced a significant challenge when violent riots broke out in Jakarta during a visit by the Japanese prime minister Kakuei Tanaka . Students demonstrating against increasing dominance of Japanese investors were encouraged by General Sumitro , deputy commander of

7104-451: The centre of Jakarta, capturing key strategic sites including the radio station without resistance. Suharto announced over the radio at 9:00 pm that six generals had been kidnapped by "counter-revolutionaries" and that the 30 September Movement actually intended to overthrow Sukarno. He said he was in control of the army, and that he would crush the Movement and safeguard Sukarno. Suharto issued an ultimatum to Halim Air Force Base , where

7215-543: The education gap between boys and girls. Sustained support for agriculture resulted in Indonesia achieving rice self-sufficiency by 1984, an unprecedented achievement which earned Suharto a gold medal from the FAO in November 1985. In the early 1980s, Suharto government responded to the fall in oil exports due to the 1980s oil glut by successfully shifting the basis of the economy to export-oriented labour-intensive manufacturing, made globally competitive by Indonesia's low wages and

7326-484: The end of Suharto's presidency. The growth of the economy coincided with the rapid expansion of corruption, collusion, and nepotism ( Korupsi, Kolusi, dan Nepotisme / KKN ). In the early 1980s, Suharto's children, particularly Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana ("Tutut"), Hutomo Mandala Putra ("Tommy") , and Bambang Trihatmodjo, had grown into greedy adults. Their companies were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include

7437-785: The fees for his education in Wonogiri resulted in another move back to his father in Kemusuk, where he continued studying at a lower-fee Schakel Muhammadiyah (middle school) in the city of Yogyakarta until 1938. Suharto's upbringing contrasts with that of leading Indonesian nationalists such as Sukarno in that he is believed to have had little interest in anti-colonialism , or political concerns beyond his immediate surroundings. Unlike Sukarno and his circle, Suharto had little or no contact with European colonisers. Consequently, he did not learn to speak Dutch or other European languages in his youth. He learned to speak Dutch after his induction into

7548-504: The first incarnation of Free Aceh Movement separatists under Hasan di Tiro in 1977 led to the dispatch of small special forces detachments who quickly either killed or forced the movement's members to flee abroad. Notably, in March 1981, Suharto authorised a successful special forces mission to end hijacking of a Garuda Indonesia flight by Islamic extremists at Don Mueang International Airport in Bangkok . In 1968, Suharto commenced

7659-406: The five non-Islamic parties were fused into PDI ( Partai Demokrasi Indonesia /Indonesian Democratic Party). The government ensured that these parties never developed effective opposition by controlling their leadership while establishing the "re-call" system to remove any outspoken legislators from their positions. Using this system dubbed " Pancasila Democracy", Suharto was re-elected unopposed by

7770-648: The following year. He then mounted a social campaign known as " de-Sukarnoization " to reduce the former president's influence. Suharto ordered an invasion of East Timor in 1975, followed by a deadly 23-year occupation of the country and genocide . By the 1990s, the New Order's increasing authoritarianism and widespread corruption were a source of discontent and, following the 1997 Asian financial crisis which led to widespread unrest , he resigned in May 1998 . Under his " New Order " administration, Suharto constructed

7881-427: The general approach in Indonesia is to rely on the spelling preferred by the person concerned. At the time of his birth, the standard transcription was Soeharto, and he used the original spelling throughout his life. The international English-language press generally uses the spelling "Suharto" while the Indonesian government and media use "Soeharto". Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 in a plaited-bamboo-walled house in

7992-417: The government, while the remaining seats were allocated to political organizations based on results of the general election. This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs, particularly the appointment of presidents. To participate in the elections, Suharto realised the need to align himself with a political party. After initially considering alignment with Sukarno's old party,

8103-412: The growth of a small number of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates since they would not pose a political challenge due to their ethnic-minority status, but from his experience, he deemed them to possess the skills and capital needed to create real growth for the country. In exchange for Suharto's patronage, the conglomerates provided vital financing for his "regime maintenance" activities. In the late 1980s,

8214-548: The hamlet of Kemusuk , a part of the larger village of Godean, then part of the Dutch East Indies . The village is 15 kilometres (9 mi) west of Yogyakarta , the cultural heartland of the Javanese . Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the only child of his father's second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage and was a village irrigation official. His mother, Sukirah,

8325-429: The highly successful family-planning program ( Keluarga Berentjana/KB ) to stem the high population growth rate and hence increasing per-capita income. A lasting legacy from this period is the spelling reform of Indonesian language decreed by Suharto on 17 August 1972. To promote assimilation of the influential Chinese-Indonesians , the Suharto government passed several laws as part of the so-called "Basic Policy for

8436-685: The holder of the Supersemar —Suharto—would become acting president. Against the wishes of Sukarno, the government ended the Konfrontasi with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations (Sukarno had removed Indonesia from the UN in the previous year). Suharto did not seek Sukarno's outright removal at this MPRS session due to the remaining support for the president among some elements of the armed forces. By January 1967, Suharto felt confident that he had removed all significant support for Sukarno within

8547-480: The inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars, the military and the communists. The military, nationalists, and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno's protection. They feared the imminent establishment of a communist state in Indonesia. By 1965, the PKI had three million members and was particularly strong in Central Java and Bali. The party had become

8658-564: The late 1960s and early 1970s in the import-substitution light-manufacturing sector such as Astra Group and Salim Group . From 1967, the government secured low-interest foreign aid from ten countries grouped under the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) to cover its budget deficit. With the IGGI funds and the later jump in oil export revenue from the 1973 oil crisis , the government invested in infrastructure under

8769-496: The left-wing populist Fretilin ( Portuguese : Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente ) emerged triumphant. With approval from Western countries (including from U.S. president Gerald Ford and Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam during their visits to Indonesia), Suharto decided to intervene. He claimed the move was to prevent the establishment of a communist state. After an unsuccessful attempt of covert support to Timorese groups UDT and APODETI , Suharto authorised

8880-405: The manufacturing sector made up less than 10% of GDP (mostly industries related to oil and agriculture). By 1997, manufacturing had risen to 25% of GDP, and 53% of exports consisted of manufactured products. The government invested in massive infrastructure development (notably the launching of a series of Palapa telecommunication satellites); consequently, Indonesian infrastructure in the mid-1990s

8991-443: The military or police. To stabilise the economy and to ensure long-term support for the New Order, Suharto's administration enlisted a group of mostly US-educated Indonesian economists, dubbed the " Berkeley Mafia ", to formulate significant changes in economic policy. By cutting subsidies, decreasing government debt, and reforming the exchange rate mechanism, inflation was lowered from 660% in 1966 to 19% in 1969. The threat of famine

9102-424: The money was recycled as a slush fund to reward political allies and to maintain support for the New Order. In 1975, the state-owned oil company, Pertamina , defaulted on its foreign loans as a result of mismanagement and corruption under the leadership of Suharto's close ally, Ibnu Sutowo . The government bail-out of the company nearly doubled the national debt. Upon assuming power, Suharto's government adopted

9213-619: The most potent political party in Indonesia. Before dawn on 1 October 1965, six army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by soldiers from the Presidential Guard, Diponegoro Division, and Brawidjaja Division. Soldiers occupied Merdeka Square including the areas in front of the Presidential Palace, the national radio station, and telecommunications centre. At 7:10 am Untung bin Syamsuri announced on

9324-842: The myriad of yayasan s run by the Suharto family grew even larger, levying millions of dollars in "donations" from the public and private sectors each year. In 1997, Forbes magazine listed Suharto as the fourth richest person in the world with an individual net worth of $ 16 billion, despite drawing an annual salary in his last peak year of only $ 21,000. The Suharto family owned or controlled 3.6 million hectares of prime Indonesian land, an area comparable to all of Belgium , and directly owned or had controlling equity in at least 564 companies, with no Indonesian economic sector untouched. With $ 100,000 of seed capital, Tommy Suharto got his start in 1984 at age 22. Within ten weeks his Humpuss Group already had twenty subsidiaries, which soon ballooned to sixty. A year later he acquired Perta Oil Marketing,

9435-437: The newly formed Indonesian Army and rose to the rank of major general some time after full Indonesian independence was achieved. An attempted coup on 30 September and 1 October 1965 was countered by Suharto-led troops. The army subsequently led a nationwide violent anti-communist purge and Suharto wrested power from Indonesia's founding president, Sukarno . He was appointed acting president in 1967 and elected president

9546-404: The populace. The Jakarta Stock Exchange , re-opened in 1977, recorded a "bull run", due to a spree of domestic IPOs and an influx of foreign funds after the deregulation in 1990. The sudden availability of credit fuelled robust economic growth in the early 1990s, but the weak regulatory environment of the financial sector sowed the seeds of the catastrophic crisis in 1997, which eventually lead to

9657-601: The population. Using the above strategy, the plebiscite produced a unanimous decision for integration with Indonesia, which was duly noted by the United Nations General Assembly in November 1969. Real socio-economic progress sustained support for Suharto's regime across three decades. By 1996, Indonesia's poverty rate has dropped to around 11% compared with 45% in 1970. From 1966 to 1997, Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5.03% pa, pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US$ 806 to US$ 4,114. In 1966,

9768-400: The radio that the " 30 September Movement " had forestalled a coup attempt on Sukarno by " CIA -backed power-mad generals", and that it was "an internal army affair". The movement never made any attempt on Suharto's life. Suharto had been in Jakarta army hospital that evening with his three-year-old son Tommy who had a scalding injury. It was here that he was visited by Colonel Abdul Latief,

9879-400: The rice paddies. In 1929, Suharto's father took him to live with his sister, who was married to an agricultural supervisor, Prawirowihardjo, in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low-yielding farming area near Wonogiri . Over the following two years, he was taken back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father. Prawirowihardjo took to raising

9990-583: The rubric of the Dwifungsi ("Dual Function") of the military. By 1969, 70% of Indonesia's provincial governors and more than half of its district chiefs were active military officers. Suharto authorised Operasi Trisula which destroyed PKI remnants trying to organize a guerrilla base in the Blitar area in 1968 and ordered several military operations that ended the communist PGRS-Paraku insurgency in West Kalimantan (1967–1972). Attacks on oil workers by

10101-545: The state. After the fall of Suharto , calls for his arrest, on the basis of corruption, emerged. People's Consultative Assembly decree no. XI/1998 declared that attempts to eradicate corruption must include investigations into Suharto. Despite ongoing investigations into alleged corruption, in 2006 attorney general Abdul Rachman Saleh declared the issuance of the "Termination of Criminal Persecution Decree" (Surat Keputusan Penghentian Penuntutan Pidana, SKP3). The decree suspended all attempts to prosecute Suharto because he

10212-484: The status of National Hero to Suharto are being considered by the Indonesian government and have been debated vigorously. Like many Javanese , Suharto had only one name . Religious contexts in recent years had sometimes referred to him as Haji/Al-Haj Mohammed Suharto, but these names were neither part of his formal name nor generally used. The spelling "Suharto" reflects modern Indonesian orthography, although

10323-441: The surrender of several bands of former Dutch-organized militia ( Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps / PVK ) at large in the jungles since the Indonesian takeover in 1963 while sending Catholic volunteers under Jusuf Wanandi to distribute consumer goods to promote pro-Indonesian sentiments. In March 1969, it was agreed that the plebiscite would be channelled via 1,025 tribal chiefs, citing the logistical challenge and political ignorance of

10434-535: The territory he controlled, to generate income. In September 1948, Suharto was dispatched to meet Musso , chairman of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) in an unsuccessful attempt at a peaceful reconciliation of the communist uprising in Madiun . In December 1948, the Dutch launched " Operation Kraai ", which resulted in the capture of Sukarno and Hatta and the capital Yogyakarta . Suharto

10545-552: The thousands of Indonesians who took the opportunity to join Japanese-organized security forces by joining the Yogyakarta police force. In October 1943, Suharto was transferred from the police force to the newly formed Japanese-sponsored militia, the Pembela Tanah Air (PETA) in which Indonesians served as officers. In his training to serve with the rank of shodancho (platoon commander) he encountered

10656-555: The violent deaths. Indonesia's invasion and occupation of East Timor during Suharto's presidency resulted in at least 100,000 deaths. To comply with the New York Agreement of 1962 which required a plebiscite on the integration of West Irian into Indonesia before the end of 1969, the Suharto government begin organizing for a so-called " Act of Free Choice " scheduled for July–August 1969. The government sent RPKAD special forces under Sarwo Edhie Wibowo which secured

10767-540: Was admitted for training for chudancho (company commander) in Bogor from April to August 1944. As company commander, he conducted training for new PETA recruits in Surakarta , Jakarta , and Madiun . The Japanese surrender and Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in August 1945 occurred while Suharto was posted to the remote Brebeg area (on the slopes of Mount Wilis ) to train new NCOs to replace those executed by

10878-658: Was alleviated by the influx of USAID rice aid shipments from 1967 to 1968. With a lack of domestic capital that was required for economic growth, the New Order reversed Sukarno's economic self-sufficiency policies and opened selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment through the 1967 Foreign Investment Law. Suharto travelled to Western Europe and Japan to promote investment in Indonesia. The first foreign investors to re-enter Indonesia included mining companies Freeport Sulphur Company / International Nickel Company . Following government regulatory frameworks, domestic entrepreneurs (mostly Chinese-Indonesians) emerged in

10989-553: Was an Indonesian military officer and the second President of Indonesia . Widely regarded as a military dictator by international observers, Suharto led Indonesia as an authoritarian regime from 1967 until his resignation in 1998 following nationwide unrest . His 31-year dictatorship is considered one of the most brutal and corrupt of the 20th century: he was central to the perpetration of mass killings against alleged communists and subsequent persecution of ethnic Chinese , irreligious people, and trade unionists. Suharto

11100-533: Was appointed to lead the Wehrkreise III , consisting of two battalions, which waged guerrilla warfare against the Dutch from the hills south of Yogyakarta . In dawn raids on 1 March 1949, Suharto's forces and local militia recaptured the city, holding it until noon. Suharto's later accounts had him as the lone plotter, although other sources say Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogyakarta, and the Panglima of

11211-650: Was born in Kemusuk , near the city of Yogyakarta , during the Dutch colonial era. He grew up in humble circumstances. His Javanese Muslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he lived with foster parents for much of his childhood. During the Japanese occupation , Suharto served in the Japanese-organized Indonesian security forces. During Indonesia's independence struggle , he joined

11322-600: Was considered at par with China. Suharto was keen to capitalize on such achievements to justify his presidency, and the parliament (MPR) on 9 March 1983 granted him the title of "Father of Development". Suharto government's health-care programs (such as the Puskesmas program) increased life expectancy from 47 years (1966) to 67 years (1997) while cutting infant mortality rate by more than 60%. The government's Inpres program launched in 1973 resulted in primary school enrolment ratio reaching 90% by 1983 while almost eliminating

11433-573: Was derived from grabbing the country's oil, gas, and mining resources, or muscling in on state corporations and major government contracts. The entrepreneurial value added from these Suharto family companies was, by all accounts, almost zero. Corruption charges against Suharto 2nd President of Indonesia [REDACTED] Investigations into allegations of corruption against Indonesian former president / dictator Suharto began immediately after his 32-year rule. In Global Transparency Report, made by Transparency International in 2004, he

11544-524: Was distributed to Bank Duta , Rp13 billion to Sempati Air , and the rest went to other companies and cooperatives. In 1995, Suharto issued presidential decree no. 90 which recommended for all taxpayers with incomes above Rp100 million to donate 2% of their income to the Dana Sejahtera Mandiri. This decree was revised by decree no. 92/1996, which made the donation compulsory. The decree caused losses of Rp1.4 trillion for taxpayers, which

11655-402: Was effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam. The CIA described the purge as "one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century". Sukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population, and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of

11766-433: Was given an additional command, as head of the army's new Strategic Reserve ( Korps Tentara I Cadangan Umum AD , later KOSTRAD ), a ready-reaction air-mobile force based in Jakarta . In January 1962, Suharto was promoted to the rank of major general and appointed to lead Operation Mandala, a joint army-navy-air force command based in Makassar . This formed the military side of the campaign to win western New Guinea from

11877-474: Was head of the 22nd Regiment of Division III (the " Diponegoro Division ") stationed in Yogyakarta. In late 1946, the Diponegoro Division assumed responsibility for the defence of the west and southwest of Yogyakarta from Dutch forces. Conditions at the time are reported by Dutch sources as miserable; Suharto himself is reported as assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport of opium through

11988-517: Was mainly from state-owned banks, with Decree no. 15/1976 allowing state-owned banks to deposit income into Supersemar. In 2015, the Supersemar Foundation was convicted, after several failed attempts to suspend prosecution. This conviction forced the organization to pay Rp 4.4 trillion in damages to the state. The foundation had incomes of Rp185 billion embezzled, instead being delivered to Suharto and co-conspirators. US$ 420 million

12099-545: Was medically unfit to stand trial. This decision was overturned by a South Jakarta state court, on the grounds that physical and mental decline aren’t valid reasons to suspend prosecution. The revocation of the decree allowed investigations into Suharto to proceed. Suharto's death on 27 January 2008 failed to stop the corruption case. Suharto’s children replaced him as the defendants of the case, shortly before his death. Established by Suharto in 1974, Supersemar provided scholarships for Indonesian students. Supersemar’s income

12210-550: Was placed under house arrest in Bogor Palace ; little more was heard from him, and he died in June 1970. On 27 March 1968, the MPRS appointed Suharto for a full five-year term as president. Suharto promoted his "New Order", as opposed to Sukarno 's "Old Order", as a society based on the Pancasila ideology. After initially being careful not to offend sensitivities of Islamic scholars who feared Pancasila might develop into

12321-412: Was ranked as the world’s most corrupt leader. The report accused Suharto of causing losses of US$ 15–35 billion for the Indonesian government. Suharto headed several organizations during his rule, with various functions, including to provide educational , health , and give support for veterans of Trikora . All of these organizations were suspected of receiving illicit funds, which was embezzled from

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