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160-689: The mosque was built during the reign of the Sultan of Bengal Alauddin Husain Shah , between 1493 and 1519. The fifteen domes of the mosque were once gilded, giving the mosque the name of Choto Shona Masjid ( Small Golden Mosque ). The mosque is one of the best-preserved sultanate monuments under the protection of the Government of Bangladesh. The gilding that gave the building its name does not exist anymore. The mosque premise, which covers an area of 42 m from east to west by 43.5 m from north to south,

320-666: A Pashtun general, he regained control of his country during the Reconquest of Arakan . The restored Arakanese realm became a vassal state of Bengal. A war with Arakan in 1459 led to the defeat of Bengali Sultan Rukunuddin Barbak Shah . The Arakanese developed an alliance with Portuguese Chittagong against Bengal. Despite achieving independence from the Sultans of Bengal, the Arakanese kings continued to fashion themselves after

480-618: A brief interregnum by Ali Mardan himself) until Delhi Sultan Iltutmish sent forces under his son, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, to bring Bengal under the direct control of the Delhi Sultans. Iltutmish declared Bengal as a province of Delhi in 1225. The Delhi Sultans attempted to govern Bengal through appointed governors, however, Delhi could not succeed given the considerable overland distance with Bengal. Ambitious governors rebelled and ruled as independent rulers until being suppressed militarily by

640-564: A confederation of twelve aristocrats of the former sultanate, who became known as the Baro Bhuyans . Their leader was Isa Khan , a zamindar and a former nobleman of the sultanate through his mother Princess Syeda Momena Khatun . The confederation was made up of petty kingdoms . The Mughal government eventually suppressed the remnants of the sultanate in the Bhati area and brought all of Bengal under full Mughal control. The Bengal Sultanate

800-626: A flourishing shipbuilding industry was part of the evidence that Bengal enjoyed significant seaborne trade. The expansion of muslin production, sericulture and the emergence of several other crafts were indicated in Ma Huan's list of items exported from Bengal to China. Bengali shipping co-existed with Chinese shipping until the latter withdrew from the Indian Ocean in the mid-15th century. The testimony of European travelers such as Ludovico di Varthema , Duarte Barbosa and Tomé Pires attest to

960-496: A possible fifth category but was influenced heavily from both South and East Asia literal cultures. All four cultures in post-classical times used poetry , drama , and prose . Throughout the period and until the 19th century poetry was the dominant form of literary expression. In West Asia, South Asia, Europe, and China, great poetic works often used figurative language. Examples include, the Sanskrit Shakuntala ,

1120-690: A power vacuum for the Mediterranean and Europe, but forced certain areas to build what some historians might call new civilizations entirely. An entirely different political system was applied in Western Europe (i.e. feudalism ), as well as a different society (i.e. manorialism ). However, the once Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) retained many features of old Rome, as well as Greek and Persian similarities. Kievan Rus' and subsequently Russia began development in Eastern Europe as well. In

1280-607: A relative (but not a direct descendant) of Yersinia Pestis rose to afflict Eurasia: the Black Death . The first instance of the second plague pandemic was between 1347 and 1351. It killed variously between 25% and 50% of populations. Traditionally many historians believed the Black Death started in China and was then spread westward by invading Mongols who inadvertently carried infected fleas and rats with them. Although there

1440-556: A relatively short-lived but significant reign, during which he helped an Arakanese king to achieve the reconquest of Arakan . Jalaluddin established control over Fatehabad . Jalaluddin also promoted more native Bengali elements into the architecture and governance of the sultanate. He was initially loyal to the Abbasid Caliph but later declared himself as the Caliph in a sign of Bengali Muslim independence. The Ilyas Shahi dynasty

1600-646: A result of the Black Death is most discussed, Islamic countries including the Ottoman Empire also partook in land-based expansionism and used their own slave trade. The term post-classical science is often used in academic circles and in college courses to combine the study of medieval European science and medieval Islamic science due to their interactions with one another. However scientific knowledge also spread westward by trade and war from Eastern Eurasia, particularly from China by Arabs. The Islamic world also took medical knowledge from South Asia . In

1760-559: A rich regional historiography, ranging from the 14th-century Ibn Khaldun to the 20th-century Marshall Hodgson and beyond. Correspondingly, research into the network of commercial hubs which enabled goods and ideas to move between China in the East and the Atlantic islands in the West—which can be called the early history of globalization —is fairly advanced; one key historian in this field

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1920-553: A routine occurrence. Historians consider the hypothesis of a Chinese origin of a westward-moving plague unlikely given the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire and the 5,000-mile journey between China proper and Crimea through sparsely populated Central Asia. The aftershocks of the plague continued to affect populations well into the early modern period. In Western Europe, the devastating loss of people created lasting changes. Wage labor began to rise in Western Europe and there

2080-447: A side of 3.5 m. The nave has three rectangular units, each measuring 3.5 by 4.5 m. The interior of the mosque has therefore a total of fifteen units, of which the three rectangular units are covered with chauchala vaults, and the remaining twelve square units each by an inverted tumbler-shaped dome. They are all carried on radiating arches springing from the free-standing stone pillars and the engaged pilasters. The upper corners in between

2240-488: A strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal . Bengal was gradually absorbed into the Delhi Sultanate during the 1200s. It began with Bakhtiyar 's conquest of Gauda between 1202 and 1204 during

2400-530: A sugar shattering situation (become excited) That this Persian candy [ode], to Bangalah [Bengal] is going on. Post-classical history In world history , post-classical history refers to the period from about 500 CE to 1500 CE, roughly corresponding to the European Middle Ages . The period is characterized by the expansion of civilizations geographically and the development of trade networks between civilizations. This period

2560-844: A tradition during the reigns of his successors. Ghiyasuddin also sponsored construction projects in Arabia . He exchanged letters and poetry with the Persian poet Hafez . The Bengal Sultans pledged nominal allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo. The coins of the Bengal Sultans often bore the name of the contemporary Abbasid Caliph. Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah held his court in the central Bengali city of Sonargaon, in addition to Pandua. The travel accounts of Chinese envoys state that

2720-530: A useful approach to World History in the Middle Ages, noting that certain climate events had effects on all human populations. The post-classical era saw several common developments or themes. There was the expansion and growth of civilization into new geographic areas; the rise and/or spread of the three major world, or missionary, religions; and a period of rapidly expanding trade and trade networks. While scholastic emphasis has remained on Eurasia there

2880-619: A vassal king in 1430. However, conflict later emerged between Arakan and Bengal based on the control of Chittagong . Arakan asserted its independence as a coastal power. Under Alauddin Husain Shah , Bengali sovereignty was restored in Chittagong and northern Arakan. However, the Arakanese persisted to fight over Chittagong, often allying with Portuguese pirates . During Husain Shah's rule, Bengali control over Assam reached its zenith. Under

3040-514: Is Janet Abu-Lughod . Understanding of communication within sub-Saharan Africa or the Americas is, by contrast, far more limited. Around the 2010s, therefore, researchers began to explore the possibilities of writing history covering the Old World, where human activities were fairly interconnected, and establish its relationship with other cultural spheres, such as the Americas and Oceania. In

3200-493: Is a growing effort to examine the effects of these global trends on other places. In describing geographic zones historians have identified three large self contained world regions, Afro-Eurasia, the Americas, and Oceania. First was the expansion and growth of civilization into new geographic areas across Asia , Africa , Europe , Mesoamerica , and western South America . However, as noted by world historian Peter N. Stearns , there were no common global political trends during

3360-535: Is a partial listing of mint towns: Vassal states were a number of tributary states and protectorates on the periphery of the Bengal Sultanate under the suzerainty of the Sultan of Bengal. Direct control was not established over these territories for various reasons. Vassal states had Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist rulers. The following illustrates the most notable vassal states. In the southeast, Arakan

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3520-524: Is also called the medieval era , post-antiquity era , post-ancient era , pre-modernity era , or pre-modern era . In Asia , the spread of Islam created a series of caliphates and inaugurated the Islamic Golden Age , leading to advances in science in the medieval Islamic world and trade among the Asian, African , and European continents. East Asia experienced the full establishment of

3680-462: Is connectedness, including transnational relationships. [...] The third approach is the study of globalization [...]. Globalization is a term that needs to be rescued from the present, and salvaged for the past. To define it as always encompassing the whole planet is to mistake the current outcome for a very ancient process. A number of commentators have pointed to the history of the Earth's climate as

3840-692: Is even claimed by some historians – such as Andre Gunder Frank , William Hardy McNeill , Jerry H. Bentley , and Marshall Hodgson – that the Afro-Eurasian world was loosely united culturally, and that the Silk Road was fundamental to this unity. This major trade route began with the Han dynasty of China, connecting it to the Roman Empire and any regions in between or nearby. At this time, Central Asia exported horses, wool , and jade into China for

4000-620: Is no concrete historical evidence for this theory, the plague is considered endemic on the steppe. Currently there is extensive historiography of the Black Death's effects in Europe and the Islamic world, but beyond Western Eurasia direct evidence for Black Death's presence is lacking. The Bulletin of the History of Medicine explored the potential linking of known 14th century epidemics in Asia with

4160-463: Is not in situ , but a roundel has been composed by the excavators, putting the flakes in their appropriate places and exhibiting it in a room attached to the guesthouse nearby. At a distance of 14.5 m to the east of the gateway, there is a stone platform containing two tomb sarcophagi inscribed with verses from the Quran and some names of God. It is unknown who is buried here. Cunningham suggests these are

4320-490: Is now lost, but it influenced Chinese and Korean geographical knowledge centuries later. It is apparent that within Eurasia transfer of information between world cultures did occur, usually through translations of written documents. Within Eurasia, there were four major civilization groups that had literate cultures and created literature and arts, including Europe, West Asia, South Asia, and East Asia. Southeast Asia could be

4480-797: The Chagatayid and Ögedeid families. The Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 marked the high-water point of the Mongol conquests and was the first time a Mongol advance had ever been beaten back in direct combat on the battlefield. Though the Mongols launched many more invasions into the Levant, briefly occupying it and raiding as far as Gaza after a decisive victory at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299, they withdrew due to various geopolitical factors. By

4640-638: The Columbian exchange . Thus researchers around the year 2020 emphasized that "a global history of the period between 500 and 1500 is still wanting" and that "historians have only just begun to embark on a global history of the Middle Ages". For many regions of the world, there are well established histories. Although medieval studies in Europe tended in the 19th century to focus on creating histories for individual nation-states, much 20th-century research focused, successfully, on creating an integrated history of medieval Europe. The Islamic World likewise has

4800-800: The Ghiyasia Madrasa and Banjaliah Madrasa. Taqi al-Din al-Fasi , a contemporary Arab scholar, was a teacher at the madrasa in Makkah. The madrasa in Madinah was built at a place called Husn al-Atiq near the Prophet's Mosque . Several other Bengali Sultans also sponsored madrasas in the Hejaz . In Africa, Sultan Ashraf Barsbay of Egypt sent the Bengali Sultan a robe of honour and a letter of recognition. There are also records of envoys from

4960-597: The Indian Ocean and in the Mediterranean , replacing Byzantium in the latter region. The Christian Crusades into the Middle East (as well as Muslim Spain and Sicily ) brought Islamic science, technology, and goods to Western Europe . Western trade into East Asia was pioneered by Marco Polo . Importantly, China began to influence regions like Japan, Korea, and Vietnam through trade and conquest. Finally,

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5120-628: The Ming dynasty . He sent ambassadors in 1405, 1408 and 1409. Emperor Yongle of China responded by sending ambassadors to Bengal between 1405 and 1433, including members of the Treasure voyages fleet led by Admiral Zheng He . The exchange of embassies included the gift of an East African giraffe by Sultan Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah to the Chinese emperor in 1414. China also mediated an end to

5280-461: The Sengoku period did there come to be fully decentralized power dominated by private military leaders. Still other historians reject the term feudalism outright, challenging its ability to usefully describe societies either within or outside of medieval Europe. The Mongol Empire, which existed during the 13th and 14th centuries, was the largest continuous land empire in history. Originating in

5440-713: The Sundarbans . The governor of the Sundarbans, Khan Jahan Ali , built the mint town of Khalifatabad . Like many other officials, Khan Jahan had settled in Bengal after Timur 's sack of Delhi. During the reign of Rukunuddin Barbak Shah , the Kingdom of Mrauk U conquered Chittagong. The late 1480s saw four usurper Sultans from the Abyssinian mercenary corps. Tensions between different Muslim communities often affected

5600-588: The Suri Empire , followed by Mughal conquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms. The Bengal Sultanate was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Bengali , Turco-Persian , Afghan and Abyssinian elites. The most prominent dynasties were the Ilyas Shahi , House of Ganesha and Hussain Shahi. The kingdom was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. While Persian

5760-621: The Twipra Kingdom . The Pratapgarh Kingdom came under Bengali suzerainty . Hussain Shah also waged several campaigns against the Gajapati rulers of Orissa. Hussain Shah extended Bengali territory in the west beyond Bihar, up to Saran in Jaunpur . The Sultan of Jaunpur took refuge in Bengal after an invasion by the Lodi dynasty of Delhi. The Delhi Sultan attacked Bengal in pursuit of

5920-823: The Western Roman Empire (in 476 CE), the Gupta Empire (in 543 CE), and the Sasanian Empire (in 651 CE). The post-classical period is one of the five or six major periods world historians use: Although post-classical is synonymous with the Middle Ages of Western Europe, the term post-classical is not necessarily a member of the traditional tripartite periodization of Western European history into classical , middle , and modern . The historical field of world history , which looks at common themes occurring across multiple cultures and regions, has enjoyed extensive development since

6080-653: The converted Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah received recognition from Al-Mu'tadid II , which strengthened Jalaluddin's legitimacy in the eyes of the clergy. Many coins minted by the Bengal Sultanate bore the names of both the Bengali Sultans and the Abbasid Caliphs. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah sponsored the construction of madrasas (Islamic theological schools) in the pilgrimage cities of Makkah and Madinah . The schools became known as

6240-411: The jagirdar system of land ownership. The production of silver coins inscribed with the name of the Sultan of Bengal was a mark of Bengali sovereignty. Bengal was more successful in perpetuating purely silver coinage than Delhi and other contemporary Asian and European governments. There were three sources of silver. The first source was the leftover silver reserve of previous kingdoms. The second source

6400-707: The steppes of Central Asia, the Mongol Empire eventually stretched from Central Europe to the Sea of Japan , extending northwards into Siberia , eastwards and southwards into the Indian subcontinent , Indochina , and the Iranian Plateau , and westwards as far as the Levant and Arabia. The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of nomadic tribes in the Mongolia homeland under the leadership of Genghis Khan , who

6560-424: The 11th century, but colder by the early 17th century. The degree of climate change which occurred in all regions across the world is uncertain, as is whether such changes were all part of a global trend. Climate trends appear to be more recognizable in the Northern than in the Southern Hemisphere however, there are instances where climate in areas without written records have been estimated, historians now believe

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6720-413: The 13th century during the reign of the Mongol Empire, which through conquest had brought stability in Central Asia comparable to the Pax Romana . It was claimed by a Muslim historian that Central Asia was peaceful and safe to transverse. "(Central Asia) enjoyed such a peace that a man might have journeyed from the land of sunrise to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head without suffering

6880-505: The 13th century, complex states were established, most notably the Tuʻi Tonga Empire which collected tribute from many island chains in the greater region. Religion that envisaged the possibility that all humans could be included in a universal order had emerged already in the first millennium BCE, particularly with Buddhism . In the following millennium, Buddhism was joined by two other major, universalizing, missionary religions, both developing from Judaism : Christianity and Islam . By

7040-509: The 16th century, the Lodi dynasty of Delhi again attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Sultan of Jaunpur. The Lodis eventually agreed to a peace treaty with Bengal. The Jaunpur Sultanate attacked Bengal during the 15th century. With diplomatic help from Ming China and the Timurid ruler of Herat , Bengal fended off the Jaunpuri invasion. Arakan and the Brahmaputra Valley was often subjected to Bengali invasions. The Bengal Sultanate defeated Burmese forces in Arakan and restored Min Saw Mon as

7200-444: The 1980s. However, World History research has tended to focus on early modern globalization (beginning around 1500) and subsequent developments, and views post-classical history as mainly pertaining to Afro-Eurasia . Historians recognize the difficulties of creating a periodization and identifying common themes that include not only this region but also, for example, the Americas, since they had little contact with Afro-Eurasia before

7360-431: The Abyssinians. Muslim poets were writing in the Bengali language by the 15th century. By the turn of the 16th century, a vernacular literature based on concepts of Sufism and Islamic cosmology flourished in the region. Bengali Muslim mystic literature was one of the most original in Islamic India. And with the three washers [cups of wine], this dispute is going on. All the parrots [poets] of India have fallen into

7520-430: The Bay of Bengal. It attracted immigrants and traders from different parts of the world. Bengali ships and merchants traded across the region, including in Malacca, China, and the Maldives. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a prosperous kingdom. Due to the abundance of goods in Bengal, the region was described as the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left

7680-407: The Bengal Sultanate until the reign of the Hussain Shahi dynasty , when it was formally annexed by the sultanate. In the northeastern Barak Valley , the ruler Bazid of the Pratapgarh Kingdom declared himself as a Sultan on par with the Sultan of Bengal. This invited the retribution of Alauddin Husain Shah , who dispatched Sarwar Khan to suppress the newly formed sultanate in Pratapgarh. Bazid

7840-433: The Bengal Sultanate's territory extended from Koch Bihar in the north to Puri in the south and from the Son River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east. The Mughals became determined to bring an end to the expansionism of the Bengal Sultanate; while eager to absorb the Bengal region for its riches. The Battle of Tukaroi in Orissa saw Mughal forces led by Akbar overwhelm the Bengal Sultanate's forces led by

8000-404: The Bengal-Jaunpur War after a request from Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah. Ming China considered Bengal to be "rich and civilized" and one of the strongest countries in the entire chain of contacts between China and Asian states during the 15th century. Sino-Bengali contacts was the main feature of relations between China and the Indian subcontinent during the 15th century. The Bengali language

8160-469: The Bengali Sultans by copying clothes, coins, titles and administrative techniques. Bengali Muslim influence on Arakan lasted for 350 years. In the Indian Ocean, the Bengal Sultanate was involved in trading with the Maldives where Bengali rice was exchanged for Maldivian shell currency. Historians have focused on Bengal's relations with Ming China during the early 15th century. For example, Trade and Diplomacy in India-China Relations: A Study of Bengal During

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8320-474: The Bengali triad. Ilyas Shah established his capital in Pandua . He unified the delta of Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers into the Sultanate of Bengal. Ilyas Shah waged wars and raids against several city-states and kingdoms in the eastern subcontinent. He conquered eastern Bengal and northern Bihar. He led the first Muslim army into Nepal , raided the Kathmandu Valley , and returned to Bengal with treasures. He controlled an area stretching from Assam in

8480-418: The Deccan event, surviving accounts do not describe symptoms; so historians are left to speculate. Perhaps these outbreaks were not the Black Death but instead some other disease already common to East Asia at the time, such as typhus , smallpox , or dysentery . Compared to Western reactions to the Black Death, Chinese records that do mention the epidemics are relatively muted, indicating that epidemics were

8640-410: The Delhi Sultanate and the Jaunpur Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate initially received tributes from the Bengal Sultanate between 1353 and 1359. Tributes stopped after a war and peace treaty in 1359. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam sent envoys to the neighboring Jaunpur Sultanate . He sent elephants as gifts to Sultan Malik Sarwar Khwajah-i-Jahan. The two sultanates fought a war between 1415 and 1420. The end of

8800-424: The Delhi Sultanate were maintained by his successors in the Bengal Sultanate, including the Sufi preachers Ibrahim Danishmand , Saiyid Arif Billah Muhammad Kamel, Saiyid Muhammad Yusuf and others. During the early 15th century, the Ilyas Shahi rule was challenged by Raja Ganesha , a powerful Hindu landowner, who managed to place his son (a convert to Islam), Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah , on the throne. Jalaluddin had

8960-556: The Delhi Sultanate. However, there were capable rulers among the rebels, including Yuzbak Shah (1257), Tughral Khan (1271–1282), and Shamsuddin Firoz Shah (1301–1322). The latter achieved the Conquest of Sylhet and established a strong administration in eastern and south-western Bengal. In 1325, the Delhi Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq reorganized the province into three administrative regions, with Sonargaon ruling eastern Bengal; Gauda ruling northern Bengal; and Satgaon ruling southern Bengal. Even this arrangement broke down. By 1338,

9120-510: The Earth , volcanic activity , ocean circulation , and man-made population decline . This timetable gives a basic overview of states, cultures and events which transpired roughly between the years 200 and 1500. Sections are broken by political and geographic location. This section explains events and trends which affected the geographic area of Eurasia . The civilizations within this area were distinct from one another but still endured shared experiences and some development patterns. In

9280-432: The East African city-state of Malindi being hosted in the Bengali court. Animals constituted a significant part of tributes in medieval courts. The East African envoys brought giraffes, which were also noticed by the Chinese envoys in Bengal. In Central Asia, there are records of contacts between Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and Sultan Shahrukh Mirza of the Timurid Empire. In Southeast Asia, European accounts refer to

9440-510: The Fifteenth Century chronicles the relationship between the Bengal Sultanate and Ming China. This relationship was also noted by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru in his book The Discovery of India . Political relations between China and the Indian subcontinent became nonexistent after the decline of Buddhism in India. In the 15th century, the Bengal Sultanate revived the subcontinent's relations with China through regular contacts. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah began sending envoys to

9600-405: The Hussain Shahi dynasty. This era is often regarded as the golden age of the Bengal Sultanate, in which Bengali territory included areas of Arakan , Orissa , Tripura , and Assam . Under the order of Hussain Shah, Shah Ismail Ghazi commanded the Bengali forces in the Conquest of Kamata , conquering large parts of Assam. After overthrowing the Hindu Khen dynasty , Prince Danyal was appointed

9760-533: The Islamic Delhi Sultanate conquered large portions of India, it imposed higher taxes but otherwise left local feudal structures in place. Though most of Eurasia adopted feudalism and similar systems during this era, China employed a centralized bureaucracy throughout much of the post classical period, particularly after 1000. A major factor that distinguished China from other regions was that local leaders were reluctant to self-identify by their current location; instead, they typically displayed an ambition to unite

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9920-423: The Islamic iqta' system, Indian feudalism, and Heian Japan . Some world historians generalize that societies can be called feudal if authority was fragmented, with a set of obligations between vassal and lord. After the 8th century, feudalism became more common across Europe. Even Byzantium, which had inherited the government of the Roman Empire , chose to devolve its military obligations into themes to increase

10080-500: The Islamic Empires, and the Far Eastern civilizations. In Africa, the earlier introduction of the camel allowed for a new and eventually large trans-Saharan trade , which connected Sub-Saharan West Africa to Eurasia. The Islamic Empires adopted many Greek, Roman, and Indian advances and spread them through the Islamic sphere of influence, allowing these developments to reach Europe , North and West Africa, and Central Asia. Islamic sea trade helped connect these areas, including those in

10240-417: The Islamic world, the sultanate pledged allegiance to the contemporary Abbasid Caliphate , which was at the time held by the Mamluk Sultan of Cairo . The Abbasid caliph was still considered to be the symbolic leader of Sunni Islam at the time, despite dwindling territory under direct caliphate rule. For the Bengali Sultans, relations with the caliphate provided legitimacy among the Muslim clergy. For example,

10400-413: The Jaunpur Sultan. Unable to make headway, the Delhi Sultan withdrew after concluding a peace treaty with Bengal. Under Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah , the Sultanate pushed into the Mithila region and annexed the ruling Oiniwar dynasty in 1526 with the ruler of the Oiniwars, Laksminathasimha, being killed in battle. Embassies from Portuguese India frequented Bengal after the landing of Vasco Da Gama in

10560-595: The Maldives, based on rice and cowry shells, was probably done on Arab-style baghlah ships. Chinese accounts point to Bengali ships being prominent in Southeast Asian waters. A vessel from Bengal, probably owned by the Sultan of Bengal, could accommodate three tribute missions- from Bengal, Brunei and Sumatra- and was evidently the only vessel capable of such a task. Bengali ships were the largest vessels plying in those decades in Southeast Asian waters. All large business transactions were done in terms of silver taka. Smaller purchases involved shell currency . One silver coin

10720-445: The Middle East. The Bengal Sultanate had robust foreign relations . Records show that the Bengal Sultanate exchanged embassies with states in China, Europe, Africa, Central Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. Diplomatic allies helped Bengal to fend off invasions from neighbouring kingdoms. For example, the Timurid ruler of Herat and the Ming emperor of China helped bring an end to the Bengal Sultanate–Jaunpur Sultanate War . Bengal

10880-410: The Mongols introduced Chinese gunpowder weapons to Europe or whether gunpowder weapons were independently invented in Europe. In the Mongol Empire, information from diverse cultures was brought together for large projects: for instance in 1303 the Mongol Yuan dynasty combined Chinese and Islamic cartography to make a map that likely included all of Eurasia including western Europe. This "Eurasia map"

11040-431: The Mughals and Bengal Sultans. Humayun later took refuge in the Safavid Empire in Persia. Sher Shah Suri succeeded in conquering Bengal, forming the Sur Empire , which was of Afghan origin. During this period, the Grand Trunk Road was renovated, while the Sur rulers placed successive governors in Bengal. The third governor Muhammad Khan Sur declared independence after the death of Islam Shah Suri . Muhammad Khan ended

11200-514: The Silk Road trade played a role in spreading the infamous Black Death . The disease, spread by rats, was carried by merchant ships sailing across the Mediterranean that brought the plague back to Sicily, causing an epidemic in 1347. In the Eurasian world, disease was an inescapable part of daily life. Europe in particular suffered minor outbreaks of disease every decade during the period. Using both land and sea routes, devastating pandemics could spread far beyond their initial focal point. Tracking

11360-405: The Silk Road, because Muslim rulers generally closed the Silk Road to Christian Europe to an extent that Europe would be cut off from Asia for centuries. Specifically, the political developments that affected the Silk Road included the emergence of the Turks, the political movements of the Byzatine and Sasanian Empires , and the rise of the Arabs, among others. The Silk Road flourished again in

11520-851: The Southern Hemisphere became colder between 950 and 1250. There are shorter climate periods that could be said roughly to account for large scale climate trends in the post-classical period. These include the Late Antique Little Ice Age , the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age . The extreme weather events of 536–537 were likely initiated by the eruption of the Lake Ilopango caldera in El Salvador . Sulfate emitted into

11680-437: The Sultan lived in a palace near the river port of Sonargaon. The river port had shipping links to China, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. In 1406, Ma Huan found Sonargaon as a large metropolis. Other Chinese envoys provided descriptions of a fortified walled city. Sonargaon was a center of Sufi education and Persian literature and Azam Shah even invited Hafez to settle there. The institutions founded by Abu Tawwama during

11840-416: The Sultan of Delhi attacked the newly formed Bengal Sultanate. After the siege of Ekdala Fort, Bengal agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Delhi. In 1359, Delhi again invaded Bengal after the previous peace treaty collapsed. However, negotiations ultimately resulted in a new treaty in which Delhi recognized the independence of Bengal. The Bengal Sultans also received support from South Indian allies. During

12000-714: The Suri Empire. The invasion prompted the Mughal Empire to occupy parts of Bengal. Both the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate were overrun by the Suri forces. Bengal regained its independence after Suri governors rebelled and re-established the sultanate. The first Mughal emperor Babur turned his sights on Bengal after the Battle of Panipat in 1526. At the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, Bengal reached a peace treaty with Babur. During

12160-615: The Tripuri throne. Tripura was a prominent vassal of Bengal. In the southwest, Orissa was prominent in the military history of the Bengal Sultanate. The first Bengali Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah defeated the rulers of Orissa and extended his realm up to Chilika Lake . He raided Jajpur and Cuttack. Ilyas Shah returned to Bengal with plunders from Orissa, including 44 elephants. During the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, Orissa

12320-588: The Western world and in Islamic realms, much emphasis was placed on preserving the rationalist Greek tradition of figures such as Aristotle . In the context of science within Islam there are questions as to whether Islamic scientists simply preserved accomplishments from classical antiquity or built upon earlier Greek advances. Regardless, classical European science was brought back to the Christian kingdoms due to

12480-687: The Yuan dynasty, but it was later overthrown by the Han Chinese Ming dynasty in 1368. The Genghisid rulers returned to Mongolia homeland and continued rule in the Northern Yuan dynasty . All of the original Mongol Khanates collapsed by 1500, but smaller successor states remained independent until the 1700s. Descendants of Chagatai Khan created the Mughal Empire that ruled much of India in early modern times. The conquests and

12640-474: The air initiated global cooling, migrations and crop failures worldwide, possibly intensifying an already cooler time period. Records show that the world's average temperature remained colder for at least a century afterwards. The Medieval Warm Period from 950 to 1250 occurred mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, causing warmer summers in many areas; the high temperatures would only be surpassed by

12800-502: The arches of the square units are filled with corbelled brick pendentive to make up the phase of transition for the domes. At the northwest corner of the mosque there is a royal gallery forming an upper floor, which is still standing in a dilapidated condition. It was approached from the northwest corner of the mosque through a stepped platform connected with a doorway. The gallery has a mihrab in front. Stone carving, brick-setting, terracotta, gilding, and glazed tiles were used in decorating

12960-487: The assessment of James Belich , John Darwin , Margret Frenz, and Chris Wickham , Global history may be boundless, but global historians are not. Global history cannot usefully mean the history of everything, everywhere, all the time. [...] Three approaches [...] seem to us to have real promise. One is global history as the pursuit of significant historical problems across time, space, and specialism. This can sometimes be characterized as 'comparative' history . [...] Another

13120-555: The building, and of them the former played the dominant role. The subject matters of the stone carving were chosen according to the demand of the spaces, e.g., the borders of the panels with creepers and their interior with various forms of stylised hanging patterns adapted from the chain-and-bell of the Bauddha and Jaina period. The spandrels of arches and the spaces above the frames are always dotted with rosettes, an attractive form of designs, but are all carved differently. The interior of

13280-462: The context of global history, the label of feudalism has been used to describe any agricultural society where central authority broke down to be replaced by a warrior aristocracy . Feudal societies are characterized by reliance on personal relationships with military elites, rather than a bureaucracy with a state-supported professional standing army. The label of feudalism has thus been used to describe many areas of Eurasia including medieval Europe ,

13440-633: The country in times of disunity. Beyond a broad generalization, the usefulness of the term "feudalism" is debated by contemporary historians, as the daily functions of feudalism sometimes differed greatly between world regions. Comparisons between feudal Europe and post-classical Japan have been particularly controversial. Throughout the 20th century, historians often compared medieval Europe to post-classical Japan. More recently, it has been argued that, until roughly 1400, Japan balanced its decentralized military power with more centralized forms of imperial (governmental) and monastic (religious) authority. Only in

13600-425: The domes and vaults are decorated with terracottas, those of the vaults being copies of the bamboo frames of local huts. All the frontal archways and those of the mihrabs are cusped. The most important ornamentation of the mosque is to be seen on the frontal courtyard of the mosque, only recently excavated. The ornamentation consists of mosaic roundels in blue and white colours of variegated design. The mosaic design

13760-711: The east to Varanasi in the west. In 1353, Ilyas Shah was defeated by Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq in the Siege of Ekdala Fort during the Bengal Sultanate-Delhi Sultanate War . Bengal agreed to pay a tribute to the Delhi Sultan. Despite losing control of many conquered areas, Ilyas Shah remained in firm control of Bengal. Ilyas Shah founded the Ilyas Shahi dynasty which ruled Bengal for fifteen decades. His son and successor Sikandar Shah defeated Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during

13920-439: The east. The Bengal Sultanate controlled large parts of the eastern South Asia during its five dynastic periods, reaching its peak under Hussain Shahi dynasty . Its raids and conquests reached Nepal in the north, Brahmaputra valley (modern-day Assam ) in the east, and Jaunpur and Varanasi in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. Its decline began with an interregnum by

14080-537: The east. The Islamic kingdoms had multiethnic elites. Persian and Arabic were used alongside local languages. Persian was used as a diplomatic and commercial language. Arabic was the liturgical language of the clergy. In Bengal, the Bengali language became a court language and was the main vernacular language under Muslim rule. The third Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah began expanding Bengal's influence abroad. He began to send embassies to Ming China , which continued as

14240-776: The economies and social fabric of established empires were severely destabilized. Rural societies, while still facing horrific death tolls, saw fewer socioeconomic effects. In addition, no evidence has been found of bubonic plague in India before 1600. Nevertheless, it is likely that the trauma of disease (and other natural disasters) was a major cause of profound religious and political changes in Eurasia. Different authorities reacted to disease outbreaks with strategies that they believed would best protect their power. The Catholic Church in France spoke of healing miracles; Confucian bureaucrats asserted that sudden deaths of Chinese emperors represented

14400-664: The end of the period, these three religions were between them widespread, and often politically dominant, across the Old World. Outside of Eurasia, religion or otherwise a veneration of the supernatural was also used to reinforce power structures, articulate world views and create foundational myths for society. Mesoamerican cosmological narratives are an example of this. Finally, communication and trade across Afro-Eurasia increased rapidly. The Silk Road continued to spread cultures and ideas through trade. Communication spread throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. Trade networks were established between western Europe, Byzantium, early Russia,

14560-570: The entire North Atlantic. In the 14th century, the growing season in Europe became unreliable; meanwhile in China the cultivation of oranges was driven southward by colder temperatures. Especially in Europe, the Little Ice Age had great cultural ramifications. It persisted until the Industrial Revolution , long after the post-classical period. Its causes are unclear: possible explanations include sunspots , orbital cycles of

14720-483: The esteem of pilgrimage that existed across all of Afro-Eurasia, in the words of world historian R. I. Moore "if any single institution 'made' the Eurasian Middle Ages it was pilgrimage." Nevertheless, after the 15th century, the Silk Road disappeared from regular use. This was primarily a result from the growing sea travel pioneered by Europeans, which allowed the trade of goods by sailing around

14880-619: The experience of the Crusades . As a result of Persian trade in China, and the battle of the Talas River , Chinese innovations entered the Islamic intellectual world. These include advances in astronomy and in papermaking . Paper-making spread through the Islamic world as far west as Islamic Spain , before paper-making was acquired for Europe by the Reconquista . There is debate about transmission of gunpowder regarding whether

15040-405: The five archways in the east wall, there are five semi-circular mihrabs inside the west wall. The stones of most of these mihrabs have disappeared. The interior of the mosque, measuring 21.2 by 12.2 metres (70 by 40 ft), is divided into three aisles by two rows of stone pillars, four in each row. A wide central nave has cut the aisles into halves, each half showing six equal square units with

15200-558: The global warming of the 20th/21st centuries. It has been hypothesized that the warmer temperatures allowed the Norse to colonize Greenland, due to ice-free waters. Outside of Europe there is evidence of warming conditions, including higher temperatures in China and major North American droughts which adversely affected numerous cultures. After 1250, glaciers began to expand in Greenland, affecting its thermohaline circulation , and cooling

15360-468: The governor of the new region. Hussain Shah also restored Bengali sovereignty in Chittagong and northern Arakan after the Bengal Sultanate–Kingdom of Mrauk U War of 1512–1516 . Hussain Shah minted coins with the proclamation "conqueror of Kamrupa, Kamata, Jajnagar and Orissa". According to historian Jadunath Sarkar , a 1513 inscription from Sonargaon indicates that Hussain Shah annexed a part of

15520-638: The grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei , or one of his other sons such as Tolui , Chagatai , or Jochi . After Möngke Khan died, rival kurultai councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai Khan , who then not only fought each other in the Toluid Civil War , but also dealt with challenges from descendants of other sons of Genghis. Kublai successfully took power, but civil war ensued as Kublai sought unsuccessfully to regain control of

15680-587: The growth of the Mongol Empire in Central Asia established safe trade which allowed goods, cultures, ideas, and disease to spread between Asia, Europe, and Africa. The Americas had their own trade network, but here trade was restricted by range and scope. The Mayan network spread across Mesoamerica but lacked direct connections to the complex societies of South and North America, and these zones remained separate from one another. In Oceania , some of

15840-429: The houses of the rich during dawn and play music; and they would be rewarded with wine, food and money during breakfast hours. Some men would have performances with a chained tiger. The Hindu minority did not eat beef. The streets and markets included bathing areas, eating and drinking places, and dessert shops. Betel nut was offered to guests. The population included royalty, aristocrats, natives and foreigners. Many of

16000-467: The interactions the Mongol Empire had with western Eurasia are one of the more comprehensively researched areas for historians looking to define a globalized Middle Ages. The Silk Road was a Eurasian trade route that played a large role in global communication and interaction. It stimulated cultural exchange; encouraged the learning of new languages; resulted in the trade of many goods, such as silk, gold, and spices; and also spread religion and disease. It

16160-548: The interrupting period of Delhi's rule and re-established the Bengal Sultanate under the Muhammad Shahi dynasty, which was also of Afghan origin. The Afghan Karrani dynasty was the last ruling dynasty of the sultanate. According to the Riyaz-us-Salatin , Sultan Sulaiman Khan Karrani shifted the capital from Gaur to Tanda in 1565. Sulaiman Khan Karrani annexed large parts of Orissa. During his reign,

16320-465: The invasion of Sher Shah Suri, the second Mughal emperor Humayun occupied Gaur . The third Mughal emperor Akbar launched a war against Bengal at the Battle of Tukaroi in 1575. Akbar finally defeated the last Sultan of Bengal at the Battle of Raj Mahal in 1576. The economy of the Bengal Sultanate inherited earlier aspects of the Delhi Sultanate, including mint towns, a salaried bureaucracy and

16480-588: The island chains of Polynesia engaged in trade with one another. For instance, with outrigger canoes long-distance communication of over 2,300 miles between Hawaii and Tahiti was maintained for centuries before its disruption and separation. Meanwhile, in Melanesia there is evidence of exchanges between mainland Papua New Guinea and the Trobriand Islands off its coast, most likely for obsidian . Populations moved westward until 1200, after which

16640-766: The isolated Americas, the Mississippian culture spread in North America and Mesoamerica saw the building of the Aztec Empire , while the Andean region of South America saw the establishment of the Wari Empire first and the Inca Empire later. In Oceania, ancestors of modern Polynesians were established in village communities by the 6th century, a gradual intensification of complexity took place. In

16800-459: The last Sultan Daud Khan Karrani , resulting in the Treaty of Cuttack . Mughal rule formally began with the Battle of Raj Mahal when the last reigning Sultan of Bengal was defeated by the forces of Akbar. The Mughal province of Bengal Subah was created. The eastern deltaic Bhati region remained outside of Mughal control until being absorbed in the early 17th century. The delta was controlled by

16960-530: The latter's silk; the Romans would trade for the Chinese commodity as well, offering wine in return. The Silk Road would often decline and rise again in trade from the Iron Age to the post-classical era. Following one such decline, it was reopened in Central Asia by Han dynasty general Ban Chao during the 1st century. There were vulnerabilities as well to changing political situations. The rise of Islam changed

17120-470: The least violence from anyone." As such, trade and communication between Europe, East Asia, South Asia, and West Asia required little effort. Handicraft production, art, and scholarship prospered, and wealthy merchants enjoyed cosmopolitan cities. Notable Travelers including Ibn Battuta , Rabban Bar Sauma , and Marco Polo traveled across North Africa and Eurasia freely, those that left accounts of their experiences inspired future adventurers. The Silk Road

17280-572: The loss of a dynasty's Mandate of Heaven , shifting blame away from themselves. The severe loss of manpower in the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires contributed to early Muslim conquests in the region. In the long term, overland trade in Eurasia diminished, as coastal Indian Ocean trade became more frequent. There were recurrent aftershocks of the Plague of Justinian until around 750, after which many nations saw an economic recovery. Six centuries later,

17440-539: The military command of Shah Ismail Ghazi , the Bengali army overthrew the Kamata Kingdom 's Hindu Khen dynasty in 1498, extending the Sultanate as far as Hajo and preparing to advance towards central Assam. Assamese Bhuyans eventually overthrew the local administrations within a few years and restored local rule. Bengal was overwhelmed during the pan-Indian invasion of Sher Shah Suri and became part of

17600-509: The network dissolved into much smaller economies. During post-classical times, there is evidence that many regions of the world were affected similarly by global climate conditions; however, direct effects in temperature and precipitation varied by region. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , changes did not all occur at once. Generally however, studies found that temperatures were relatively warmer in

17760-407: The number of soldiers and ships available for military service during times of crisis. There were similarities between European feudalism and the Islamic iqta' , as both featured landed classes of mounted warriors whose titles were granted by a monarch or sultan. Because of these similarities, it was common for societal structures to be preserved in the face of religious upheaval; for instance, after

17920-546: The origin of massive bubonic plagues and their potential spread between Eastern and Western Eurasia has been academically contentious. Besides bubonic plague, other diseases including smallpox also spread across cultural regions. The first plague pandemic caused by Yersinia pestis began with the 541–549 Plague of Justinian. The origin of the plague appears to have been the Tian Shan mountains in Kyrgyzstan . But

18080-478: The origin of the 541–549 epidemic remains uncertain: some historians postulate East Africa as a possible geographical origin. There is no record of a disease with the characteristics of Yersinia pestis breaking out in China before its appearance in Pelusium Egypt . The plague spread to Europe and West Asia, with a possible spread into East Asia. Established urban civilizations were massively depopulated;

18240-543: The plague. One example is the Deccan Plateau , where much of the Delhi Sultanate 's army suddenly died of a sickness in 1334. As this was 15 years before Europe's Black Death but little detail about the symptoms, it is unlikely that this was an instance of bubonic plague. Meanwhile, Yuan China suffered from major epidemics in the mid-14th century, including a recorded 90% death rate in Hebei Province. As with

18400-475: The political affairs of the country. The chief of the admiralty had various responsibilities, including shipbuilding , river transport, to fit out strong boats for transporting war elephants; to recruit seamen; to patrol the rivers and to collect tolls at ghats. The efficiency of the navy eroded during the Hussain Shahi dynasty. The Sultans also built forts, including temporary mud walled forts. In 1353,

18560-599: The post-classical period, rather it was a period of loosely organized states and other developments, but no common political patterns emerged. In Asia, China continued its historic dynastic cycle and became more complex, improving its bureaucracy. The creation of the Islamic empires established a new power in the Middle East, North Africa, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. The Mali and Songhai Empires were formed in West Africa. The fall of Roman civilization not only left

18720-403: The power of Imperial China , which established several dynasties influencing Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Religions such as Buddhism and neo-Confucianism spread in the region. Gunpowder was developed in China during the post-classical era. The Mongol Empire connected Europe and Asia, creating safe trade and stability between the two regions. In total, the population of the world doubled in

18880-665: The presence of a large number of Bengali merchants in the Malacca Sultanate . The merchants were wealthy shipowners. It is yet to be ascertained whether these merchants had a significant role in the Sultan's court. Ship-owning merchants were often royal envoys. Contacts between Bengal and the Bruneian Empire and the Sumatran Aceh Sultanate are recorded in Chinese accounts. Within the subcontinent, Bengal had both tense and peaceful relations with

19040-515: The presence of a large number of wealthy Bengali merchants and shipowners in Malacca . Historian Rila Mukherjee wrote that ports in Bengal may have been entrepots , importing goods and re-exporting them to China. A vigorous riverine shipbuilding tradition existed in Bengal. The shipbuilding tradition is evidenced in the sultanate's naval campaigns in the Ganges delta. The trade between Bengal and

19200-463: The principality of Calicut. Individual Portuguese merchants are recorded to have lived in the Bengal Sultanate's capital of Gaur. Portuguese politics played out in Gaur as a reflection of contradictions in contemporary Portugal. The Portuguese provided vivid descriptions of Gaur. They compared the affluence of Gaur with Lisbon . The city included a citadel, a royal palace and durbar , mosques, houses for

19360-621: The reign of Muhammad of Ghor . This saw the beginning of the rise of Turko - Afghans in the Indian subcontinent. Bakhityar Khalji served as a military general of the Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor. He formed the Khalji dynasty of Bengal . After the assassination of Bakhtiar Khalji by his own officer Ali Mardan in 1206, Bengal was administered by various Maliks belonging to the Khalji tribe (except

19520-541: The rich built ships and went abroad for trade. Many were agriculturalists. Punishments for breaking the law included expulsion from the kingdom, as well as bamboo flogging. Bengal received settlers from North India, the Middle East and Central Asia. They included Turks, Afghans, Persians and Arabs. An important migrant community were Persians. Many Persians in Bengal were teachers, lawyers, scholars and clerics. Mercenaries were widely imported for domestic, military and political service. One particular group of mercenaries were

19680-568: The rich, and bustling bazaars. Portuguese historian Castenhada de Lopez described the houses of Gaur as being one-storeyed with ornamental floor tiles, courtyards, and gardens. Gaur was the centre of regional politics. The Sultan of Bengal gave permission for establishing the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong . During the period of the Iberian Union , there was no official Portuguese sovereignty over Chittagong. The Portuguese trading post

19840-475: The school developed during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Outside of world history, the term is also sometimes used to avoid erroneous pre-conceptions around the terms Middle Ages , Medieval Period , and the Dark Ages (see medievalism ), though the application of the term post-classical on a global scale is also problematic, and may likewise be Eurocentric . Academic publications sometimes use

20000-427: The second Siege of Ekdala Fort in 1359. A peace treaty was signed between Delhi and Bengal, with the former recognizing the independence of the latter. Firuz Shah Tughluq gave a golden crown estimated to be worth 80,000 taka to Sikandar Shah. The peace treaty ensured Bengal's independence for two centuries. Sikandar Shah's reign lasted three decades. The Adina Mosque was built during his reign. The mosque's design

20160-439: The southern side of the west wall because of conservation works after the destruction by the earthquake of 1897 . The four exterior angles of the building are strengthened with polygonal towers, of which nine facets are visible. The cornices are curvilinear and have stone gutters to drain off the rainwater from the roof. There are five arched doorways in the eastern facade and three each on the north and south walls. Corresponding to

20320-463: The southern tip of Africa and into the Indian Ocean. The route was vulnerable to spreading plague. The Plague of Justinian originated in East Africa and had a major outbreak in Europe in 542 causing the deaths of a quarter of the Mediterranean's population. Trade between Europe, Africa, and Asia along the route was at least partially responsible for spreading the plague. Eight centuries later,

20480-472: The sultanate. Alauddin Hussain Shah gained control of Bengal in 1494 when he was prime minister. Alauddin Husain Shah founded the Hussain Shahi dynasty which had Sayyid of Arab or Afghan origin. He brought end to a period of instability. As Sultan, Hussain Shah ruled until 1519. The dynasty he founded reigned until 1538. Muslims and Hindus jointly served in the royal administration during

20640-404: The terms post-classical and late antiquity synonymously to describe the history of Western Eurasia between 250 and 800 CE. The post-classical period corresponds roughly to the period from 500 CE to 1450 CE. Beginning and ending dates might vary depending on the region, with the period beginning at the end of the previous classical period: Han China (ending in 220 CE),

20800-816: The three administrative regions had separatist Sultans , including Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah in Sonargaon; Alauddin Ali Shah in Gauda, and Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in Satgaon. Fakhruddin conquered Chittagong in 1340 and was succeeded by his son Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah in 1349. Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah (or just Ilyas Shah ) defeated Alauddin Ali Shah and secured control of Gauda. He then defeated Ikhtiyaruddin of Sonargaon. By 1352, Ilyas Shah emerged victorious among

20960-645: The time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives: the Golden Horde khanate in the northwest; the Chagatai Khanate in the west; the Ilkhanate in the southwest; and the Yuan dynasty based in modern-day Beijing . In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of

21120-472: The time period, from approximately 210 million in 500 CE to 461 million in 1500 CE. The population generally grew steadily throughout the period but endured some incidental declines due to events including the Plague of Justinian , the Mongol invasions , and the Black Death . Post-classical history is a periodization used by historians employing a world history approach to history, specifically

21280-504: The title of Shah and minting coins in Arabic and Bengali inscriptions. A close cultural and commercial relationship developed across the Bay of Bengal. Eventually, Arakan asserted its independence. The Kingdom of Mrauk U became a formidable coastal power. In southern Bengal, the island of Chandradwip hosted remnants of the pre-Islamic Hindu Deva dynasty . The kingdom was a vassal state of

21440-528: The tombs of Wali Muhammad, the builder of the mosque, and his father Ali. The glamour of the Chhoto Sona Masjid is not there as it was originally, particularly because of the stripping of the decorative mihrabs and the mosque courtyard, but the remains are nevertheless one of the most attractive monuments of Guar-Lakhnauti. Sultan of Bengal The Bengal Sultanate ( Middle Bengali : বাঙ্গালা সালতানাত , Classical Persian : سلطنت بنگاله

21600-495: The usefulness of elephants, though very slow, could not be minimised. The navy was of prime necessity in riverine Bengal. In fact, the cavalry could ensure the hold over this country for a period of six months whereas the boats backed by the paiks could command supremacy over the other half of the year. Since the time of Iwaz Khalji, who first organised a naval force in Islamic Bengal, the war boats played an important role in

21760-426: The vital part of the Bengal infantry during this period. There were occasions when the paiks also tackled political situations. The particular battle array of the foot-soldiers who used bows, arrows and guns attracted the attention of Babur. War elephants played an important part in the Bengal army. Apart from carrying war materials, elephants were also used for the movement of the armed personnel. In riverine Bengal

21920-579: The war brought a long period of peace between the neighbouring states. In 1494, the Jaunpuri Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi was given refuge in Bengal after being defeated by the Lodi dynasty of Delhi. On the coastline of the Bay of Bengal, the Bengal Sultanate became influential in the control of Arakan. Min Saw Mon , a deposed Arakanese king, fled to Bengal after a Burmese invasion. With the support of Bengali forces led by

22080-408: The world traded in the Bay of Bengal . Cotton textile exports were a unique aspect of the Bengali economy. Marco Polo noted Bengal's prominence in the textile trade. In 1569, Venetian explorer Caesar Frederick wrote about how merchants from Pegu in Burma traded in silver and gold with Bengalis. Overland trade routes such as the Grand Trunk Road connected Bengal to northern India, Central Asia and

22240-399: The world. Other notable cities included the initial royal capital of Pandua , the economic hub of Sonargaon , the Mosque City of Bagerhat , and the seaport and trading hub of Chittagong . The Bengal Sultanate was connected to states in Asia, Africa, the Indian Ocean, and Europe through maritime links and overland trade routes. The Bengal Sultanate was a major trading center on the coast of

22400-412: The year in Bengal. The cavalry was probably the weakest component of the Bengal Sultanate's army, as the horses had to be imported from foreign countries. The artillery was an important section. Portuguese historian João de Barros opined that the military supremacy of Bengal over Arakan and Tripura was due to its efficient artillery. The artillery used cannons and guns of various sizes. The paiks formed

22560-415: Was a late medieval sultanate based in the Bengal region in the eastern South Asia between the 14th and 16th century. It was the dominant power of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta , with a network of mint towns spread across the region. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states in the Indian subcontinent , including parts of Odisha in the southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in

22720-425: Was a prominent vassal of the Bengal Sultanate. In 1430, the Bengal Sultanate restored the Arakanese throne in Mrauk U after driving out Burmese invaders who came from Bagan . The Kingdom of Mrauk U paid tributes to the Sultan of Bengal for a sustained period, with the timeframe ranging between estimates of a century or a few decades. Arakanese rulers replicated the Sultan's governing techniques, including adopting

22880-428: Was a vassal state of Bengal. Northern Orissa was directly ruled by Bengal. During the Karrani dynasty, Orissa was the scene of the Battle of Tukaroi and the Treaty of Cuttack between the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate in 1575. The Sultans had a well-organised army, including cavalry, artillery, infantry and war elephants; and a navy. Due to the riverine geography and climate, it was not feasible to use cavalry throughout

23040-400: Was also a major factor in spreading religion across Afro-Eurasia. Muslim teachings from Arabia and Persia reached East Asia. Buddhism spread from India, to China, to Central Asia. One significant development in the spread of Buddhism was the carving of the Gandhara School in the cities of ancient Taxila and the Peshwar , allegedly in the mid 1st century. In addition to commercial travel was

23200-427: Was also active in regional diplomacy. For example, the ship of the Bengali embassy to China also transported the envoys of Brunei and Aceh ( Sumatra ) to China. Bengal gave consent to envoys from Portuguese India for setting up Portuguese trading posts in coastal areas. Other European visitors included Niccolo De Conti , Ludovico di Varthema and Caeser Fredrick from the Republic of Venice and Bologna . In

23360-411: Was an absolute monarchy , and took influence from Persianate traditions. Its revenue system was maintained in the Bengali language throughout the course of its history. The government employed both Muslims and Hindus, promoting a form of religious pluralism. In addition to the royal family and government body, the Sultan also relied on the support of the ulama (Islamic scholars). The Sultanate

23520-428: Was an export center for cloth and wine. At least six varieties of fine muslin and four types of wine were found in Pandua. High-quality paper was produced from the bark of Pandua's mulberry trees. Sultan Mahmud Shah of Bengal shifted the capital from Pandua to Gaur in 1450. One of the probable reasons behind the move was a change in the course of nearby rivers. The reign of Mahmud Shah witnessed greater control over

23680-424: Was based on the Great Mosque of Damascus - a style used during the introduction of Islam in new areas. During this time, much of the agricultural land was controlled by Hindu zamindars , which caused tensions with Muslim taluqdars . Bengal became the eastern frontier kingdom among medieval Islamic states. In the 14th century, Islamic kingdoms stretched from Muslim Spain in the west to the Indian subcontinent in

23840-406: Was defeated and agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Bengal. He was also made to relinquish his claims over Sylhet , which was under direct Sultanate rule. In the east, Tripura was vital to Bengal for the supply of gold, silver and other commodities. Tripura had coarse gold mines and mountain trade networks linked to the Far East. In 1464, the Sultan of Bengal helped Ratna Manikya I assume

24000-406: Was divided into administrative subdivisions such as arsa and iqlim , which were further divided into mahals , thanas and qasbas . Mint towns consisted of royal and provincial capitals where taka coins were minted, thus developing the areas as important economic urban centres within the Sultanate. With the expansion of the empire, the number of mint towns increased gradually. The following

24160-410: Was dominated by pirates who allied with the Arakanese against Bengal. The absorption of Bengal into the Mughal Empire was a gradual process. It began with the defeat of Bengal forces under Sultan Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah by the first Mughal ruler Babur at the Battle of Ghaghra. The second Mughal ruler Humayun occupied the Bengal capital of Gaur during the invasion of Sher Shah Suri against both

24320-428: Was made in Bengal from the bark of mulberry trees. The high quality of paper was compared with the lightweight white muslin cloth. Europeans & Ming Chinese referred to Bengal as "the richest country to trade with". Bengal was the eastern pole of Islamic India. Like the Gujarat Sultanate in the western coast of India, Bengal in the east was open to the sea and accumulated profits from trade. Merchants from around

24480-466: Was more emphasis on labor-saving machines and mechanisms. Slavery, which had almost vanished from medieval Europe, returned and was one of the reasons for early Portuguese exploration after 1400. The adoption of Arabic numerals may have been partially caused by the plague. Importantly, many economies became specialist, producing only certain goods, seeking expansion elsewhere for exotic resources and slave labor. While typically Western European expansion as

24640-430: Was originally surrounded by an outer wall (now restored) with a gateway in the middle of the east side. Built of brick and stone, the mosque proper forms a rectangle having outside dimensions of 25.1 metres (82 ft) from north to south and 15.9 metres (52 ft) from east to west. All the four walls are veneered externally and to some extent also internally with granite stone blocks. These stones have disappeared from

24800-429: Was proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and then under his descendants, who sent invasions in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected east and west with an enforced Pax Mongolica allowing trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged across Eurasia . The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as

24960-410: Was restored in 1432. Nine kings ruled Bengal from Pandua over the course of ten decades. They built palaces, forts, bridges, mosques, and mausoleums. Chinese envoy Ma Huan described the city at the time in his travel accounts, which state that "the city walls are very imposing, the bazaars well-arranged, the shops side by side, the pillars in orderly rows, they are full of every kind of goods". Pandua

25120-437: Was the most spoken language while Persian was an administrative and commercial language. Men wore white shirts, cotton fabrics of various colors, turbans, sarongs, lungis, dhutis, leather shoes, and belts to wrap their robes on the waist. Women wore cotton saris. Upper-class women wore gold jewelry. There were various classes of artisans, as well as physicians and fortune tellers. There was a class of musicians who would gather by

25280-416: Was the tribute payments of subordinate kingdoms which were paid in silver bullion. The third source was during military campaigns when Bengali forces sacked neighboring states. The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to Delhi, which ceased after Bengali independence and stopped the outflow of wealth. Ma Huan 's testimony of

25440-404: Was used as the primary official, diplomatic and commercial language, it was under the Sultans that Bengali first received court recognition as an official language. The cities of the Bengal Sultanate are termed as Mint Towns where the historical taka was minted . These cities were adorned with stately medieval buildings. In 1500, the royal capital of Gaur was the fifth-most populous city in

25600-696: Was worth 10,250 cowry shells. Bengal relied on shiploads of cowry shell imports from the Maldives. Due to the fertile land, there was an abundance of agricultural commodities, including bananas, jackfruits, pomegranate, sugarcane, and honey. Native crops included rice and sesame. Vegetables included ginger, mustard, onions, and garlic among others. There were four types of wines, including coconut, rice, tarry and kajang . Bengali streets were well provided with eating establishments, drinking houses and bathhouses. At least six varieties of fine muslin cloth existed. Silk fabrics were also abundant. Pearls , rugs and ghee were other important products. The finest variety of paper

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