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100-645: Cixi was part of the state of Yue in the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 B.C.). The county was set up in the Qin dynasty . At first it was called "Gouzhang" and has been using the name of "Cixi" since the Kaiyuan reign of the Tang dynasty (738 A.D.). Cixi City is located on the south of the economic circle of Yangtze River Delta, and is 60 km (37 mi) from Ningbo in the east, 148 km (92 mi) from Shanghai in

200-634: A "Maritime Silk Road" to the world, historical tideland reclamation area has become one of the areas with the most abundant land reserve resources in Zhejiang Province, and the immigration culture has several years of history. Cixi was listed as the "demonstration base for community digital learning in the national city and countryside" by the Ministry of Education in 2010 and 2011. Spring and Autumn period The Spring and Autumn period ( c.  770  – c.  481 BCE )

300-553: A Nestorian Christian Sogdian woman, Lady An (安氏), who died in 821, and her Nestorian Christian Han Chinese husband, Hua Xian (花献), who died in 827. These Han Chinese Christian men may have married Sogdian Christian women because of a lack of Han Chinese women belonging to the Christian religion, limiting their choice of spouses among the same ethnicity. Another epitaph in Luoyang of a Nestorian Christian Sogdian woman also surnamed An

400-566: A few large and powerful principalities dominated China. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu , claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue ). Amid the interstate power struggles, internal conflict was also rife: six elite landholding families waged war on each other inside Jin, political enemies set about eliminating the Chen family in Qi, and the legitimacy of

500-622: A major administrative reorganization of Luoyang city. Yanshi City was reorganized into an urban district (Yanshi District), while Jili District and Mengjin County were merged into Mengjin District. This reorganization effectively doubled the urban area of Luoyang. As its name states , the Old Town of Luoyang is located on the north bank of the Luo , a southern tributary of the middle reaches of

600-591: A military officers and openly celebrated their Christian religion and support Christian monasteries. Central Asians like Sogdians were called "Hu" (胡) by the Chinese during the Tang dynasty. Central Asian "Hu" women were stereotyped as barmaids or dancers by Han in China. Occasionally, "Hu" women would be involved in prostitution as the "Hu" women in China were at times in occupations that doubled as illicit services. During

700-401: A neighbour of Wu and Jin's nemesis in the struggle for hegemony. King Shoumeng accepted the offer, and Wu would continue to harass Chu for years to come. After a period of increasingly exhausting warfare, Qi, Qin, Jin and Chu met at a disarmament conference in 579 and agreed to declare a truce to limit their military strength. This peace did not last very long and it soon became apparent that

800-404: A sub-central city. As part of this development, authorities decided to expand the urban area of Luoyang. This not only facilitated planning and coordinated use of resources and infrastructure in Luoyang, but also allowed for better integration towards Zhengzhou, as Yanshi, Jili and Mengjin previously separated the Luoyang urban area from Zhengzhou. On 28 March 2021, the central government approved

900-505: A succession struggle in 635, the king awarded Jin with strategically valuable territory near Chengzhou. Duke Wen then used his growing power to coordinate a military response with Qi, Qin, and Song against Chu, which had begun encroaching northward after the death of Duke Huán of Qi. With a decisive Chu loss at the Battle of Chengpu in 632, Duke Wen's loyalty to the Zhou king was rewarded at an interstate conference when King Xīang awarded him

1000-494: A unified empire. On April 4, 190 AD, Chancellor Dong Zhuo ordered his soldiers to ransack, pillage, and raze the city as he retreated from the coalition set up against him by regional lords all over China. The court was subsequently moved to the more defensible western city of Chang'an (modern Xi'an). Following a period of disorder, during which warlord Cao Cao held the last Han emperor Xian in Xuchang (196–220), Luoyang

1100-583: Is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city , it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast. As of December 31, 2018, Luoyang had a population of 6,888,500 inhabitants with 2,751,400 people living in

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1200-713: Is also celebrated for the cultivation of peonies , its city flower. Since 1983, each mid-April the city hosts the Peony Culture Festival of Luoyang. More than 19 million tourists visited Luoyang during the 2014 festival. "Spring in Luoyang" ( 洛阳 春 ; Luòyáng Chūn ), an ancient Chinese composition, became popular in Korea during the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) and is still performed in its dangak (Koreanized) version Nakyangchun ( 낙양춘 ). Lou Harrison , an American composer, has also created an arrangement of

1300-519: Is among the oldest cities in China and one of the cradles of Chinese civilization . It is the earliest of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China . The name "Luoyang" originates from the city's location on the north or sunny ( "yang" ) side of the Luo River . Since the river flows from west to east and the sun is to the south of the river, the sun always shines on the north side of the river. Luoyang has had several names over

1400-613: Is not possible to know if what is meant is the Etiquette and Ceremonial (known then as the Book of Rites ) or just the concept of ritual in general. On the other hand, the existence of the Book of Changes is well-attested in the Zuozhuan , as multiple characters use it for divination and accurately quote the received text. Sima Qian claims that it was Confucius who, towards the close of

1500-506: Is one of the famous banquets passed on for generations in the history of Chinese cuisine, consists of 8 cold and 16 warm dishes all cooked in various broths, gravies, or juices. The water here has two meanings: one is that all the hot dishes have soup-tang soup water; the other is that each dish is served after another smoothly just like flowing water. It comprises a wide selection of ingredients, simple and versatile, diverse tastes, sour, spicy, sweet and salty, comfortable and delicious. Luoyang

1600-527: Is said is told from the perspective of other states, such as Duke Ai of Lu trying to enlist Yue's help in a coup against the Three Huan. Sima Qian notes that Goujian reigned on until his death, and that afterwards his descendants—for whom no biographical information is given—continued to rule for six generations before the state was finally absorbed into Chu during the Warring States period . After

1700-532: Is the most common way to get into the city from either Xi'an or Zhengzhou . Luoyang has a bus system of around 30+ lines. Taxis are also a common sight in the city. Line 1 of Luoyang Subway opened 28 March 2021. Line 2 opened on 26 December 2021. The main station for conventional rail services is Luoyang railway station on the Longhai railway . Guanlin railway station on the Jiaozuo–Liuzhou railway has

1800-553: The Zuozhuan and Analects frequently quote the Book of Poetry and Book of Documents . On the other hand, the Zuozhuan depicts some characters actually composing poems that would later be included in the received text of the Book of Poetry . In the Analects there are frequent references to "The Rites", but as Classical Chinese does not employ punctuation or any markup to distinguish book titles from regular nouns it

1900-468: The 2010 census , the 5 "built-up" urban districts held a population of 1,857,003, making it the fourth-largest city in Henan . The entire area of Luoyang's municipal government held 6,549,941 inhabitants total. With the 2017 designation of Zhengzhou as a National Central City, Henan Province in 2020 proposed a new development plan for Zhengzhou Metropolitan Area, which called for the development of Luoyang as

2000-608: The Eastern Han dynasty capital of Luoyang would be built over Chengzhou. Modern Luoyang is built over the ruins of Wangcheng, which are still visible today at Wangcheng Park. Qin Shi Huang's chief minister, Lu Buwei, was given Luoyang. Lu began programs to develop and beautify Luoyang. It is said that Liu Bang visited Luoyang and considered making it his capital but was persuaded to reconsider by his ministers to turn to Chang'an instead for his capital. In 25 AD, Luoyang

2100-531: The Five Hegemons . He was succeeded by his son King Fuchai of Wu , who nearly destroyed the Yue state, imprisoning King Goujian of Yue . Subsequently, Fuchai defeated Qi and extended Wu influence into central China. In 499, the philosopher Confucius was made acting prime minister of Lu. He is traditionally (if improbably) considered the author or editor of the Spring and Autumn annals , from which much of

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2200-490: The Guanzhong region, held nominal power, but had real control over only a small royal demesne centered on Luoyi. During the early part of the Zhou dynasty period, royal relatives and generals had been given control over fiefdoms in an effort to maintain Zhou authority over vast territory. As the power of the Zhou kings waned, these fiefdoms became increasingly independent states . The most important states (known later as

2300-834: The Qing dynasty . The population was reduced to that of an average county. However, for one last time, Luoyang city was the capital of the Republic of China for a brief period of time during the Japanese invasion. By 1949, Luoyang's population was 75,000. After the People's Republic of China was established, Luoyang was revived as a major heavy industrial hub. In the first five-year plan of China , 7 of 156 Soviet-aided major industrial programmes were launched in Luoyang's Jianxi District , including Dongfanghong Tractor Factory, Luoyang Mining Machines Factory and Luoyang Bearing Factory. Later, during

2400-481: The Third Front construction, a group of heavy industry factories was moved to or founded in Luoyang, including Luoyang Glass Factory. Industrial development significantly shifted Luoyang's demographic makeup, and about half of Luoyang's population are new immigrants after 1949 from outside the province or their descendants. The prefecture-level city of Luoyang administers 7 districts and 7 counties : During

2500-751: The War of the Eight Princes and Upheaval of the Five Barbarians under the Jin. In 311 AD, rebel forces of the Xiongnu -led Han-Zhao dynasty sacked and razed the city in an event known as the Disaster of Yongjia . For the next two centuries, Luoyang would cease as a major population hub, but remained a hotly contested region among various states to come. It was the site of a pivotal battle in 328 between

2600-654: The White Horse Temple , the first Buddhist temple in China, was founded in Luoyang. The temple still exists, though the architecture is of later origin, mainly from the 16th century. An Shigao was one of the first monks to popularize Buddhism in Luoyang. The diplomat Ban Chao restored the Silk Road during the Eastern Han dynasty, thus making Luoyang the eastern terminus of the Silk Road during

2700-678: The Xia , Shang , and Zhou dynasties . The total number of exhibits on display is 1,700. China's only tomb museum, the Luoyang Ancient Tombs Museum , opened to the public in 1987 and is situated north of the modern town. The Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory (also known as the Dengfeng Observatory or the Tower of Chou Kong) stands 80 km (50 mi) south-east of Luoyang. It was constructed in 1276 during

2800-516: The Yellow River . The districts of the modern urban center include both banks and some of the surrounding mountains. The countryside controlled by the municipal government includes still more rugged land: mountains comprise 45.51% of the total area; hills, 40.73%; and plains, 13.8%. Luoyang has a highly continental dry-winter humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cwa ). Extremes since 1951 have ranged from −18.2 °C (−1 °F) (unofficial record of −20 °C (−4 °F))

2900-599: The Yuan dynasty by Guo Shoujing as a giant gnomon for "the measurement of the sun's shadow". Prior to the Jesuit China Missions , it was used for establishing the summer and winter solstices in traditional Chinese astronomy . Luoyang is the foundation of Confucianism, the birth of Taoism, the first transmission of Buddhism, the formation of metaphysics, and the origin of neo-Confucianism. All kinds of cultural thoughts are integrated and symbiosis here, and

3000-482: The bà role had become outdated; the four major states had each acquired their own spheres of control and the notion of protecting Zhou territory had become less cogent as the control over (and the resulting cultural assimilation of) non-Zhou peoples, as well as Chu's control of some Zhou areas, further blurred an already vague distinction between Zhou and non-Zhou. In addition, new aristocratic houses were founded with loyalties to powerful states, rather than directly to

3100-407: The compass , paper making and printing among the four great inventions of ancient China were born here. Luoyang is also the cultural root and ancestral lineage of the global Chinese, more than 100 million Hakka ancestral home in the world, 70% of China's clan name originated here, Heluo culture represented by "Hetu Luoshu" is the ancestral source of Chinese civilization. Water Banquet , which

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3200-795: The Altar of the Gods of the Soils and Grains, the Altar of Heaven, and the Temple of the eminent Founder, Emperor Gao of Former Han were inaugurated. The Imperial University was restored in 29 AD. In 48 AD, the Yang Canal linked the capital to the Luo. In 56 AD, the main imperial observatory, the Spiritual Terrace, was constructed. For several centuries, Luoyang was the focal point of China. In AD 68,

3300-557: The Chu forces advanced to just outside the royal capital of Chengzhou, upon which King Zhuang sent a messenger to inquire into the heft and bulk of the Nine Cauldrons – the symbols of royal ritual authority – implying he might soon arrange to have them moved to his own capital. In the end the Zhou capital was spared, and Chu shifted focus to harassing the nearby state of Zheng. The once-hegemon state of Jin intervened to rescue Zheng from

3400-500: The Chu invaders but were resolutely defeated, which marks the ascension of Chu as the dominant state of the time. Despite his de facto hegemony, King Zhuang's self-proclaimed title of "king" was never recognized by the Zhou states. In the Spring and Autumn Annals he is defiantly referred to as Zi ( 子 , ruler; unratified lord), even at a time when he dominated most of south China. Later historians however always include him as one of

3500-539: The Five Hegemons. In addition to interstate conflict, internal conflicts between state leaders and local aristocrats also occurred. Eventually the dukes of Lu, Jin, Zheng, Wey and Qi would all become figureheads to powerful aristocratic families. In the case of Jin, the shift happened in 588 when the army was split into six independent divisions, each dominated by a separate noble family: Zhi (智), Zhao (趙), Han (韓), Wei (魏), Fan (范), and Zhonghang (中行). The heads of

3600-645: The Han dynasty. In 166 AD, the first Roman mission , sent by "the king of Da Qin [the Roman Empire], Andun" ( Marcus Aurelius Antoninus , r. 161–180 AD), reached Luoyang after arriving by sea in Rinan Commandery in what is now central Vietnam . The late 2nd century saw China decline into anarchy: The decline was accelerated by the rebellion of the Yellow Turbans , who, although defeated by

3700-708: The Han-Zhao and Later Zhao dynasties which established the latter as a hegemonic power in the north. The city changed hands several times throughout the Sixteen Kingdoms period, as it was also controlled by the Former Yan , Former Qin and Later Qin dynasties. The Jin dynasty, which had relocated south of the Yangtze river after the upheaval, was even able to recover the city on a few occasions. In winter 416, during Liu Yu's northern expedition against

3800-463: The Imperial troops in 184 AD, weakened the state to the point where there was a continuing series of rebellions degenerating into civil war, culminating in the burning of the Han capital of Luoyang on 24 September 189 AD. This was followed by a state of continual unrest and wars in China until a modicum of stability returned in the 220s, but with the establishment of three separate kingdoms, rather than

3900-538: The King of Zhou, not all sources list him as one of the Five Hegemons. When Duke Wen of Jin came to power in 636 after extensive peregrinations in exile, he capitalized on the reforms of his father, Duke Xian (r. 676–651), who had centralized the state, killed off relatives who might threaten his authority, conquered sixteen smaller states, and even absorbed some Rong and Di peoples to make Jin much more powerful than it had been previously. When he assisted King Xiang in

4000-491: The Later Qin, Luoyang fell to the Jin general Tan Daoji . In 422, the city was captured by Xianbei -led Northern Wei dynasty . The Liu Song dynasty , which succeeded the Jin, briefly recovered the city in 430, but by the 460s, Luoyang was definitively under Wei control. In 493 AD, as part of his sinicization campaign, Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei moved the capital from Datong to Luoyang, moving over 150,000 people to

4100-511: The Spring and Autumn period, edited the received versions of the Book of Poetry , Book of Documents , and Book of Rites ; wrote the "Ten Wings" commentary on the Book of Changes ; and wrote the entirety of the Spring and Autumn Annals . This was long the predominant opinion in China, but modern scholarship considers it unlikely that all five classics could be the product of one man. The transmitted versions of these works all derive from

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4200-557: The Western Zhou had concerned itself with politics, the ancestral temples, and legitimacy, in the Eastern Zhou politics came to the fore. Titles which had previously reflected lineage seniority took on purely political meanings. At the top of the bunch were Gong ( 公 ) and Hou ( 侯 ), favoured lineages of old with generally larger territories and greater resources and prestige at their disposal. The majority of rulers were of

4300-549: The Wu capital. Fuchai rushed back but was besieged and died when the city fell in 473. Yue then concentrated on weaker neighbouring states, rather than the great powers to the north. With help from Wu's enemy Chu, Yue was able to be victorious after several decades of conflict. King Goujian destroyed and annexed Wu in 473, after which he was recognized as hegemon. The Zuozhuan , Guoyu , and Shiji provide almost no information about Goujian's subsequent reign or policies. What little

4400-630: The Xia capital to the intersection of the Luo and Yi and named the city Zhenxun ( 斟鄩 ). In 1600 BC, Tang of Shang defeated Jie , the final Xia dynasty king, and built Western Bo, ( 西亳 ), a new capital on the Luo River. The ruins of Western Bo are located in Luoyang Prefecture. In 1036 BC a settlement named Chengzhou ( 成周 ) was constructed by the Duke of Zhou for the remnants of

4500-699: The Zhou capital was sacked by the Marquess of Shen and the Quanrong barbarians , the Zhou moved the capital east from the now desolated Zongzhou in Haojing near modern Xi'an to Wangcheng in the Yellow River Valley. The Zhou royalty was then closer to its main supporters, particularly Jin, and Zheng ; the Zhou royal family had much weaker authority and relied on lords from these vassal states for protection, especially during their flight to

4600-422: The Zhou kings, though this process slowed down by the end of the seventh century, possibly because territory available for expansion had been largely exhausted. The Zhou kings had also lost much of their prestige so that, when Duke Dao of Jin (r. 572–558) was recognized as bà , it carried much less meaning than it had before. In 506, King Helü ascended the throne of Wu. With the help of Wu Zixu and Sun Tzu ,

4700-399: The advice of his staff, he attacked the much larger state of Chu. The Song forces were defeated at the battle of Hong ( 泓 ) in 638, and the duke himself died in the following year from an injury sustained in the battle. After Xiang's death his successors adopted a more modest foreign policy, better suited to the country's small size. As Duke Xiang was never officially recognized as hegemon by

4800-543: The author of The Art of War , he launched major offensives against the state of Chu. They prevailed in five battles, one of which was the Battle of Boju , and conquered the capital Ying. However, Chu managed to ask the state of Qin for help, and after being defeated by Qin, the vanguard general of Wu troops, Fugai, a younger brother of Helü, led a rebellion. After beating Fugai, Helü was forced to leave Chu. Fugai later retired to Chu and settled there. King Helü died during an invasion of Yue in 496. Some sources list him as one of

4900-461: The built-up (or metro) area made of the city's five out of six urban districts (except the Jili District not continuously urbanized) and Yanshi District , now being conurbated. By the end of 2022, Luoyang Municipality had jurisdiction over 7 municipal districts, 7 counties and 1 development zone. The permanent population is 7.079 million. Situated on the central plain of China, Luoyang

5000-588: The captured Shang nobility. The Duke also moved the Nine Tripod Cauldrons to Chengzhou from the Zhou dynasty capital at Haojing . A second Western Zhou capital, Wangcheng (also: Luoyi) was built 15 km (9.3 mi) west of Chengzhou. Wangcheng became the capital of the Eastern Zhou dynasty in 771 BC. The Eastern Zhou dynasty capital was moved to Chengzhou in 510 BC. Later,

5100-417: The centuries, including Luoyi ( 洛邑 ) and Luozhou ( 洛州 ), but Luoyang has been its primary name. It has also been called Dongdu ( 東都 ; 'eastern capital') during the Tang dynasty , Xijing ( 西京 ; 'western capital') during the Song dynasty , or Jingluo ( Chinese : 京洛 ; lit. 'capital Luo'). During the rule of Wu Zetian , the only female emperor in Chinese history,

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5200-411: The city was known as Shendu ( 神都 ; 'divine capital'). Luoyang was renamed Henanfu ( 河南府 ) during the Qing dynasty but regained its former name in 1912. The greater Luoyang area has been sacred ground since the late Neolithic period . Several cities – all of which are generally referred to as "Luoyang" – have been built in this area. In 2070 BC, the Xia dynasty king Tai Kang moved

5300-408: The closest sea ports. The Hangzhou Bay New District is located in the city. Cixi is accelerating the construction of a mid-scale modern city, covering a total land area of 1,361 km (525 sq mi) with a population of 1.83 million as of the 2020 census, including 1.04 million registered permanent residents and one million temporary residents. Fifteen towns and five subdistricts are under

5400-419: The disparity in available resources. Alongside this development, there was precedent of Zhou kings "upgrading" noble ranks as a reward for service to the throne, giving the recipients a bit more diplomatic prestige without costing the royal house any land. During the decline of the royal house, although real power was wrested from their grasp, their divine legitimacy was not brought into question, and even with

5500-514: The duke and two senior ministers each in charge of five; military functions were also united with civil ones. These and related reforms provided the state, already powerful from control of trade crossroads, with a greater ability to mobilize resources than the more loosely organized states. By 667, Qi had clearly shown its economic and military predominance, and Duke Huan assembled the leaders of Lu , Song , Chen , and Zheng , who elected him as their leader. Soon after, King Hui of Zhou conferred

5600-451: The eastern capital. In Chengzhou, Prince Yijiu was crowned by his supporters as King Ping . However, with the Zhou domain greatly reduced to Chengzhou and nearby areas, the court could no longer support the six army groups it had in the past; Zhou kings had to request help from powerful vassal states for protection from raids and for resolution of internal power struggles. The Zhou court would never regain its original authority; instead, it

5700-421: The elite culture, aiming at upward social mobility, typically through the vector of officialdom. One individual well attested in the process of fixing the ranks of rulers into a coherent scheme was Zichan of Zheng , who both submitted a memorial to the king of Chu informing him of the proposed new system in 538 BCE, and argued at a 529 BCE interstate conference that tributes should be graded based on rank, given

5800-424: The encounter the duke felt he was not treated with the respect and etiquette which would have been appropriate, given that Zheng was now the chief protector of the capital. In 715, Zheng also became involved in a border dispute with Lu regarding the Fields of Xu. The fields had been put in the care of Lu by the king for the exclusive purpose of producing royal sacrifices for the sacred Mount Tai . For Zheng to regard

5900-405: The era, this partitioning left seven major states in the Zhou world: the three fragments of Jin, the three remaining great powers of Qin, Chu and Qi, and the weaker state of Yan ( 燕 ) near modern Beijing. The partition of Jin, along with the Usurpation of Qi by Tian , marks the beginning of the Warring States period . Ancient sources such as the Zuo Zhuan and the eponymous Chunqiu record

6000-473: The fief of the grandfather of the disinherited crown prince Yijiu —destroyed the Western Zhou capital at Haojing , killing King You and establishing Yijiu as king at the eastern capital Luoyi . The event ushered in the Eastern Zhou dynasty, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods. During the Spring and Autumn period, China's feudal fengjian system became largely irrelevant. The Zhou court, having lost its homeland in

6100-414: The fields as just any other piece of land was an insult to the court. By 707, relations had soured enough that the king launched a punitive expedition against Zheng. The duke counterattacked and raided Zhou territory, defeating the royal forces in the Battle of Xuge and injuring the king himself. Zheng was the first vassal to openly defy the king, kicking off the centuries of warfare without respect for

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6200-418: The first and the only empress in Chinese history – Empress Wu , moved the capital of her Zhou dynasty to Luoyang and named it as Shen Du (Capital of the God). She constructed the tallest palace in Chinese history, which is now in the site of Sui Tang Luoyang city. Luoyang was heavily damaged during the An Lushan Rebellion . Epitaphs were found dating from the Tang dynasty of a Christian couple in Luoyang of

6300-454: The first eleven years of his hegemony, Duke Huan intervened in a power struggle in Lu; protected Yan from encroaching Western Rong nomads; drove off Northern Di nomads after their invasions of Wey and Xing , providing the people with provisions and protective garrison units; and led an alliance of eight states to conquer Cai and thereby block the northward expansion of Chu . At his death in 643, five of Duke Huan's sons contended for

6400-545: The first half of the dynasty left in its wake hundreds of autonomous polities varying drastically in size and resources, nominally connected by bonds of cultural and ritual affiliation increasingly attenuated by the passage of time. Whole lineage groups moved around under socioeconomic stress, border groups not associated with the Zhou culture gained in power and sophistication, and the geopolitical situation demanded increased contact and communication. Under this new regime, an emergent systematization of noble ranks took root. Where

6500-403: The great age of Jin power, the Jin rulers began to lose authority over their ministerial lineages. A full-scale civil war between 497 and 453 ended with the elimination of most noble lines; the remaining aristocratic families divided Jin into three successor states: Han , Wei , and Zhao . This is the last event recorded in the Zuozhuan . With the absorption of most of the smaller states in

6600-467: The hegemon was obligated to protect both the weaker Zhou states and the Zhou royalty from the intruding non-Zhou peoples: the Northern Di , the Southern Man , the Eastern Yi , and the Western Rong . This political framework retained the fēngjiàn power structure, though interstate and intrastate conflict often led to declining regard for clan customs , respect for the Ji family, and solidarity with other Zhou peoples. The king's prestige legitimized

6700-475: The information for this period is drawn. After only two years he was forced to resign and spent many years wandering between different states before returning to Lu. After returning to Lu he did not resume a political career, preferring to teach. Tradition holds that it was in this time he edited or wrote the Five Classics , including the Spring and Autumn Annals . In 482, King Fuchai of Wu held an interstate conference to solidify his power base, but Yue captured

6800-514: The jurisdiction of Cixi City and there are 325 administrative villages including committees and communities. The city houses many Yue Kiln Sites , which are widely regarded as one of the origin of Chinese porcelain . Cixi has the tradition of advocating culture and emphasizing education, with several thousand years of historical relics and profound cultural background which cultivated three regional cultures, i.e. "celadon, reclamation and immigration". Shanglin Lake celadon has been sold overseas as

6900-576: The king reduced to something of a figurehead, his prestige remained supreme as Heaven's eldest son. Archaeologically excavated primary sources and received literature agree to a high degree of systematization and stability in noble titles during the Eastern Zhou, indicating an actual historical process. A 2007 survey of bronze inscriptions from 31 states found only eight polities whose rulers used varying titles of nobility to describe themselves. Luoyi Luoyang ( simplified Chinese : 洛阳 ; traditional Chinese : 洛陽 ; pinyin : Luòyáng )

7000-441: The king's court in Luoyi . The gradual Partition of Jin , one of the most powerful states, is generally considered to mark the end of the Spring and Autumn period and the beginning of the Warring States period . This periodization dates back to late Western Han ( c.  48 BCE  – c.  9 CE ). In 771 BCE, a Quanrong invasion in coalition with the states of Zeng and Shen —the latter polity being

7100-434: The last third of the Spring and Autumn period. Their first documented interaction with the Spring and Autumn states was in 584, when a Wu force attacked the small border state of Tan ( 郯 ) causing some alarm in the various Chinese courts. Jin was quick to dispatch an ambassador to the court of the Wu king, Shoumeng . Jin promised to supply Wu with modern military technology and training in exchange for an alliance against Chu,

7200-449: The middling but tiered grades Bo ( 伯 ) and Zi ( 子 ). The rulers of two polities maintained the title Nan ( 男 ). A 2012 survey found no difference in grade between Gong and Hou , or between Zi and Nan . Meanwhile, a new class of lower-tier aristocrats formed: the Shi ( 士 ), gentlemen too distantly related to the great houses to be born into a life of wielding power, but still part of

7300-497: The military leaders of the states, and helped mobilize collective defense of Zhou territory against " barbarians ". Over the next two centuries, the four most powerful states— Qin , Jin , Qi and Chu —struggled for power. These multi-city states often used the pretext of aid and protection to intervene and gain suzerainty over the smaller states. During this rapid expansion, interstate relations alternated between low-level warfare and complex diplomacy. Duke Yin of Lu ascended

7400-404: The new Luoyang on the site of the existing city using a layout inspired by his father Emperor Wen of Sui 's work in newly rebuilt Chang'an. During the Tang dynasty , Luoyang was Dongdu ( 東都 ), the "Eastern Capital", and at its height had a population of around one million, second only to Chang'an, which, at the time, was the largest city in the world. During an interval in the Tang dynasty,

7500-557: The north and 138 km (86 mi) from Hangzhou in the west. Cixi is located in the Zhejiang Province of eastern China and has a subtropical monsoon climate with an average temperature of 17 °C (63 °F). Highway connections are provided to all major cities, typical travel times are 1.5 hours or less by car, including access to the four major airports, Ningbo Lishe International Airport , Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport , Shanghai Hongqiao Airport , and Shanghai Pudong International Airport . Shanghai and Ningbo are also

7600-513: The old traditions which would characterize the period. The display of Zheng's martial strength was effective until succession problems after Zhuang's death in 701 weakened the state. In 692, there was a failed assassination attempt against King Zhuang , orchestrated by elements at court. The first hegemon was Duke Huan of Qi (r. 685–643). With the help of his prime minister, Guan Zhong , Duke Huan reformed Qi to centralize its power structure. The state consisted of 15 " townships " ( 縣 ) with

7700-422: The periphery, had power and opportunity to expand outward. A total of 148 states are mentioned in the chronicles for this period, 128 of which were absorbed by the four largest states by the end of the period. Shortly after the royal court's move to Chengzhou, a hierarchical alliance system arose where the Zhou king would give the title of hegemon ( 霸 ) to the leader of the state with the most powerful military;

7800-568: The rulers was often challenged in civil wars by various royal family members in Qin and Chu. Once all these powerful rulers had firmly established themselves within their respective dominions, the bloodshed focused more fully on interstate conflict in the Warring States period, which began in 403 BCE when the three remaining elite families in Jin—Zhao, Wei, and Han—partitioned the state. After

7900-592: The short Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period , Luoyang was the capital of the Later Liang (only for a few years before the court moved to Kaifeng ) and Later Tang dynasty. During the North Song dynasty , Luoyang was the 'Western Capital' and birthplace of Zhao Kuangyin, the founder of the Song dynasty. It served as a prominent cultural center, housing some of the most important philosophers. This prosperity

8000-601: The site by 495, and started the construction of the rock-cut Longmen Grottoes . More than 30,000 Buddhist statues from the time of this dynasty have been found in the caves. Many of these sculptures were two-faced. At the same time, the Shaolin Temple was also built by the Emperor to accommodate an Indian monk on the Mont Song right next to Luoyang City. The Yongning Temple ( 永宁寺 ), the tallest pagoda in China,

8100-457: The six families were conferred the titles of viscounts and made ministers, each heading one of the six departments of Zhou dynasty government. From this point on, historians refer to "The Six Ministers" as the true power brokers of Jin. The same happened to Lu in 562, when the Three Huan divided the army into three parts and established their own separate spheres of influence. The heads of

8200-518: The state was considered semi-barbarian and its rulers—beginning with King Wu in 704 BCE—proclaimed themselves kings in their own right. Chu intrusion into Zhou territory was checked several times by the other states, particularly in the major battles of Chengpu (632 BCE), Bi (595 BCE) and Yanling (575 BCE), which restored the states of Chen and Cai . Some version of the Five Classics existed in Spring and Autumn period, as characters in

8300-452: The three families were always among the department heads of Lu. Wu was a state in modern Jiangsu outside the Zhou cultural sphere, considered "barbarian", where the inhabitants sported short hair and tattoos and spoke an unintelligible language. Although its ruling house claimed to be a senior lineage in the Ji ancestral temple, Wu did not participate in the politics and wars of China until

8400-537: The throne , badly weakening the state so that it was no longer regarded as the hegemon. For nearly ten years, no ruler held the title. Duke Xiang of Song attempted to claim the hegemony in the wake of Qi's decline, perhaps driven by a desire to restore the Shang dynasty from which Song had descended. He hosted peace conferences in the same style as Qi had done, and conducted aggressive military campaigns against his rivals. Duke Xiang's ambitions met their end when, against

8500-472: The throne in 722. From this year on, the state of Lu kept an official chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals , which along with its commentaries is the standard source for the Spring and Autumn period. Corresponding chronicles are known to have existed in other states as well, but all but the Lu chronicle have been lost . In 717, Duke Zhuang of Zheng went to the capital for an audience with King Huan . During

8600-498: The title of bà (hegemon), giving Duke Huan royal authority in military ventures. An important basis for justifying Qi's dominance over the other states was presented in the slogan 'Revere the King, Expel the Barbarians' ( 尊王攘夷 ; zun wang rang yi ). The role of subsequent hegemons would also be framed in this way: as the primary defender and supporter of nominal Zhou authority and the existing order. Using this authority, during

8700-484: The title of bà . After the death of Duke Wen in 628, a growing tension manifested in interstate violence that turned smaller states, particularly those at the border between Jin and Chu, into sites of constant warfare; Qi and Qin also engaged in numerous interstate skirmishes with Jin or its allies to boost their own power. Duke Mu of Qin ascended the throne in 659 and forged an alliance with Jin by marrying his daughter to Duke Wen. In 624, he established hegemony over

8800-430: The twelve vassals) came together in regular conferences where they decided important matters, such as military expeditions against foreign groups or against offending nobles. During these conferences one vassal ruler was sometimes declared hegemon . As the era continued, larger and more powerful states annexed or claimed suzerainty over smaller ones. By the 6th century BCE, most small states had disappeared and just

8900-452: The various diplomatic activities, such as court visits paid by one ruler to another ( 朝 ; cháo ), meetings of officials or nobles of different states ( 會 ; 会 ; huì ), missions of friendly inquiries sent by the ruler of one state to another ( 聘 ; pìn ), emissaries sent from one state to another ( 使 ; shǐ ), and hunting parties attended by representatives of different states ( 狩 ; shou ). Because of Chu's non-Zhou origin,

9000-468: The versions edited by Liu Xin in the century following Sima Qian. While many philosophers such as Lao Tzu and Sun Tzu were active in the Spring and Autumn period, their ideas were probably not put into writing until the following Warring States period. While the aristocracy of the Western Zhou frequently interacted via the medium of the royal court, the collapse of central power at the end of

9100-529: The western Rong barbarians and became the most powerful lord of the time. However he did not chair any alliance with other states nor was he officially recognized as hegemon by the king. Therefore, not all sources accept him as one of the Five Hegemons. King Zhuang of Chu expanded the borders of Chu well north of the Yangtze River, threatening the Central States in modern Henan . At one point

9200-666: The work. Residents of Luoyang typically speak a dialect of Zhongyuan Mandarin . Although Luoyang's dialect was a prestige dialect of spoken Chinese from the Warring States period of the Zhou until the Ming dynasty , it differs from the Beijing form of Mandarin which became the basis of the standard modern dialect . Asteroid (239200) 2006 MD13 is named after Luoyang. The city can be reached by highways, trains or planes. Long-distance buses are also an option although they generally tend to take longer. High-speed rail

9300-643: Was a period in Chinese history corresponding roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou ( c.  771  – 256 BCE), characterized by the gradual erosion of royal power as local lords nominally subject to the Zhou exercised increasing political autonomy. The period's name derives from the Spring and Autumn Annals , a chronicle of the state of Lu between 722 and 481 BCE, which tradition associates with Confucius (551–479 BCE). During this period, local polities negotiated their own alliances, waged wars against one another, up to defying

9400-547: Was also built in Luoyang. The city reached a population of 600,000 at its height during the Northern Wei. The city was destroyed by the warlord Gao Huan , who captured the city and forced its population to move to his capital at Ye in 534. The old city was the site of numerous battles between Western Wei (and its successor Northern Zhou ) and Eastern Wei (and its successor Northern Qi ) between 538 and 575. When Emperor Yang of Sui took control in 604 AD he founded

9500-521: Was declared the capital of the Eastern Han dynasty on November 27 by Emperor Guangwu of Han . The city walls formed a rectangle 4 km south to north and 2.5 km west to east, with the Gu River, a tributary of the Luo River just outside the northern eastern walls. The rectangular Southern Palace and the Northern Palace were 3 km apart and connected by The Covered Way. In 26 AD,

9600-478: Was discovered and she was put in her tomb by her military officer son on 22 January, 815. This Sogdian woman's husband was surnamed He (和) and he was a Han Chinese man and the family was indicated to be multiethnic on the epitaph pillar. In Luoyang, the mixed raced sons of Nestorian Christian Sogdian women and Han Chinese men has many career paths available for them. Neither their mixed ethnicity nor their faith were barriers and they were able to become civil officials,

9700-570: Was mainly caused by Luoyang undergoing new developments and reconstruction during this period. During the Jurchen Jin dynasty , Luoyang was the "Middle Capital". Since the Yuan dynasty , Luoyang was no longer the capital of China in the rest of the ancient dynasties. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, Luoyang was razed and rebuilt twice. Its walls were destroyed by peasant rebels in the late Ming period. The city walls were then rebuilt during

9800-620: Was on January 17, 1936) to 44.2 °C (112 °F). The Longmen Grottoes south of the city were listed on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in November 2000. Guanlin—a series of temples built in honor of Guan Yu , a hero of the Three Kingdoms period —is nearby. The White Horse Temple is located 12 km (7.5 mi) east of the modern town. The Luoyang Museum (established 1958) features ancient relics dating back to

9900-543: Was relegated to being merely a figurehead of the regional states and ritual leader of the Ji clan ancestral temple. Though the king retained the Mandate of Heaven , the title held little actual power. With the decline of Zhou power, the Yellow River drainage basin was divided into hundreds of small, autonomous states, most of them consisting of a single city, though a handful of multi-city states, particularly those on

10000-452: Was restored to prominence when his son Cao Pi, Emperor Wen of the Wei dynasty , declared it his capital in 220 AD. The Jin dynasty , successor to Wei, was also established in Luoyang. At the height of Jin rule, Luoyang had a population of 600,000 and was probably the second largest city in the world after Rome . At the start of the 4th century, Luoyang was subjected to repeated attacks during

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