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94-555: One version of the origin of the name "Taman" claims its Circassian origin from "temen", a swamp that corresponds to the nature of the area. The area has evolved over the past two millennia from a chain of islands into today's peninsula. In ancient times the peninsula was known to the Greeks as Sindikè chersònesus ( Greek : Σινδική χερσόνησος, peninsula of the Sindi ) and Pontic Greek colonies of Hermonassa and Phanagoria stood on

188-506: A federal subject of Russia , where they are indigenous and were about 12% of the population in 2010. In English, it still refers to all Circassians. The origin of the term "Circassian" is disputed. One view is that its root stems from Turkic languages, and means "head choppers" or "warrior killers", because of the Circassians' battle practices. Other sources argue that the term comes from Mongolian Jerkes , meaning "one who blocks

282-721: A Roman client kingdom. At the end of the 2nd century AD, King Sauromates II inflicted a critical defeat on the Scythians and included all the territories of the Crimean Peninsula in the structure of his state. The prosperity of the Bosporan Kingdom was based on the export of wheat, fish and slaves . As a result, the Kingdom became the economic center of the Black Sea and is often dubbed the ancient Jewel of

376-577: A client state. Such a re-orientation is also evidenced by the presence of Byzantine coins in the Crimea, including coinage of emperors Justin I ( r.  518–527 ) and Justinian I ( r.  527–565 ). By Justinian's time, the Bosporus was under a barbarian ruler once more: the Hunnic ruler Gordas . Though Gordas maintained good relations with Justinian, he was killed in a revolt in 527, which led

470-532: A minor role. Stemming from conditions caused by the Peloponnesian War , the city of Athens had acquired a large demand for grain, and the strain on their empire meant they could do little about Spartocids attacking the city of Nymphaeum, on which they relied on for Black Sea trade. The Spartocids were willing to trade their grain with Athens in exchange for mainland goods and silver, which presumably furthered Athenian decline. The Bosporan kingdom under

564-568: A new calendar (the " Pontic era ") introduced by Mithridates VI, starting with 297 BC to date their coins. Bosporan kings struck coinage throughout its period as a client state, which included gold staters bearing portraits of both the Roman emperor and Bosporan king. Like Roman coinage, Bosporan coinage became increasingly debased during the 3rd century. The coinage makes their lineages fairly clear to historians, though scarcely any events from their reigns are recorded. The Bosporan Kingdom covered

658-484: A path". Some believe it comes from the ancient Greek name of the region, Siraces . According to another view, its origin is Persian and combines two parts, kar ("mountain") and kās ("region", in Pahlavi ), meaning "mountainous region". The spelling Cherkess may be an abbreviation of Persian Chahār-kas ("four people"), denoting four tribes. Ali ibn al-Athir (died c. 1232/3) and Ibn Khaldun (died 1406) used

752-555: A plan to occupy the Caucasus. Although he was unable to implement this plan, he laid the political and ideological foundation for the occupation to take place. Catherine II started putting this plan into action. The Russian army was deployed on the banks of the Terek River . The Russian military tried to impose authority by building a series of forts, but these forts in turn became the new targets of raids and indeed sometimes

846-649: A smaller number were resettled into the Empire's major cities. In January 1922, the Soviet government created an autonomous oblast which was the predecessor of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic . The actions of the Russian military in acquiring Circassian land through expulsion and massacres have given rise to a movement among descendants of the expelled ethnicities for international recognition of

940-684: A vassal of the Hunnic Empire , regaining its independence after the empire's collapse in the 450s and 460s. The Byzantine historian Procopius describes the Goths of Crimea fighting against and then allying with the Utigurs , indicating that Gothic control of the region lasted for some time after the departure of the Huns. Despite the waves of barbarian domination, the late Bosporus remained an ancient Hellenistic state in language, culture and traditions;

1034-496: Is known today as Krasnaya Polyana. "Krasnaya Polyana" means red meadow. It takes its name from the Circassian blood flowing from the hill into the river. The proposal to deport the Circassians was ratified by the Russian government, and a flood of refugee movements began as Russian troops advanced in their final campaign. Circassians prepared to resist and hold their last stand against Russian military advances and troops. With

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1128-542: The Bosporan Kingdom . Circassians This is an accepted version of this page Surviving Destroyed or barely existing The Circassians or Circassian people , also called Cherkess or Adyghe ( Adyghe and Kabardian : Адыгэхэр , romanized:  Adygekher ) are a Northwest Caucasian ethnic group and nation who originated in Circassia , a region and former country in

1222-635: The Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg . These include gold work, vases imported from Athens , coarse terracottas , textile fragments, and specimens of carpentry and marquetry . The whole area was dotted with Greek cities: in the west, Panticapaeum ( Kerch )—the most significant city in the region, Nymphaeum and Myrmekion ; on the east Phanagoria (the second city of the region), Kepoi , Hermonassa , Portus Sindicus and Gorgippia. These Greek colonies were originally settled by Milesians in

1316-681: The Kingdom of Alania . Between the 10th and 13th centuries Georgia had influence on the Adyghe Circassian peoples. In the medieval era there was a Circassian kingdom called Zichia ( Adyghe : Адзыгъэй ; Greek : Ζιχία ) or Zekchia. In 1382, Circassian slaves took the Mamluk throne, the Burji dynasty took over and the Mamluks became a Circassian state. The Mongols, who started invading

1410-1094: The North Caucasus . As a consequence of the Circassian genocide , which was perpetrated by the Russian Empire during the Russo-Circassian War in the 19th century, most of the Circassian people were exiled from their ancestral homeland and consequently began living in what was then the Ottoman Empire —that is, modern-day Turkey and the rest of the Middle East . In the early 1990s, the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization estimated that there are as many as 3.7 million Circassians in diaspora in over 50 countries. The two Circassian languages —western Adyghe and eastern Kabardian —are natively spoken by

1504-480: The Sindi (from central Crimea) and other branches of the Maeotae . Surviving material (texts, inscriptions and coins) do not supply enough information to reconstruct a complete chronology of kings of the region. Satyrus (431–387 BC), successor to Spartocus, established his rule over the whole region, adding Nymphaeum to his kingdom and besieging Theodosia , which was wealthy because, unlike other cities in

1598-500: The Sirace king Aripharnes , brought twenty thousand Scythian cavalry and even more infantry. The northern Black Sea underwent what some historians refer to as a "long Hellenistic Age" due to the institutions typically associated with the era occurring independently from the greater Greek world. Their relatively isolated position, and constant contact/conflict with barbarians along their borders, allowed monarchs with traditions rooted in

1692-551: The Spartocid kings was heavily influenced by the mixing of local Scythian and Greeks at all levels of society, particularly in the nobility. In an internal conflict between Satyrus II and his brother Eumelus , the royal Bosporan army was said to contain no more than two thousand Greeks, and an equal number of Thracians fighting as mercenaries. The vast majority of the army was Scythian, with ten thousand cavalry and more than twenty thousand infantry reported. Eumelus, allied with

1786-635: The Yegeruqway and the Zhaney . Circassians have played major roles in areas where they settled: in Turkey , those of Circassian origin have had massive influence, being instrumental in the Turkish War of Independence and among the elites of Turkey's intelligence agency. In Jordan , they founded the capital city Amman , and continue to play a major role in the country. In Syria , they served as

1880-477: The 10th and 11th centuries, which in turn gave way to Tatar domination. From time to time Byzantine Greek officers built fortresses and exercised authority at Bosporus, which constituted an archbishopric . A relevant Byzantine usage of the term is found in a newly discovered seal of a general of the early 11th century as of " Πο ⟨σ⟩ φορ(ου) ", i.e., of the Cimmerian Bosporos. Also, in

1974-653: The 15th century, the Guizolfi (Ghisolfi) family, founded by the Genoese Jew Simeone de Guizolfi, ruled the peninsula on behalf of Gazaria. The rulership of the region by Jewish consuls , commissioners or princes has sparked much debate over the extent to which Khazar Judaism survived in southern Russia during this period. The Khanate of Crimea seized the Taman Peninsula in 1483. It fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1783 and became an Ottoman Sanjak under

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2068-649: The 17th century, under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and of the Ottoman Empire , large numbers of Circassians converted to Islam from Christianity. In 1708, Circassians paid tribute to the Ottoman sultan in order to prevent Tatar raids, but the sultan did not fulfill the obligation and the Tatars raided all the way to the center of Circassia, robbing everything they could. For this reason, Kabardian Circassians announced that they would never pay tribute to

2162-591: The 18th century stereotype of the Circassian beauty . Feudalism began to emerge among Circassians by the 4th century. As a result of Armenian, Greek and Byzantine influence, Christianity spread throughout the Caucasus between the 3rd and 5th centuries. During that period, Circassians (known at the time as Kassogs ) began to accept Christianity as a national religion, but did not abandon all elements of their indigenous religious beliefs . Circassians established many states, but could not achieve political unity. From around 400, wave after wave of outsiders began to invade

2256-658: The 7th and 6th centuries BC. Phanagoria (c. 540 BC) was a colony of Teos , and the foundation of Nymphaeum may have had a connection with Athens ; at least it appears to have been a member of the Delian League in the 5th century. The Bosporan Kingdom was located between the Crimean and Taman peninsulas centered around the Kerch Strait , known in antiquity as the Cimmerian Bosporus, from which

2350-576: The Adyghe warriors as courageous and well-experienced. It encouraged them to settle in various near-border settlements of the Ottoman Empire in order to strengthen the empire's borders. According to Walter Richmond , Circassia was a small independent nation on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. For no reason other than ethnic hatred, over the course of hundreds of raids the Russians drove

2444-437: The Black Sea. The profit of the trade supported a class whose conspicuous wealth is still visible from newly discovered archaeological finds, excavated, often illegally, from numerous burial barrows known as kurgans . The once-thriving cities of the Bosporus left extensive architectural and sculptural remains, while the kurgans continue to yield spectacular Greco-Sarmatian objects, the best examples of which are now preserved in

2538-540: The Bosporan Kingdom was restored to Asander and Dynamis by Caesar's great nephew and heir Octavian . Asander ruled as an archon and later as king until his death in 17 BC. After the death of Asander, Dynamis was compelled to marry a Roman usurper called Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa intervened and established Polemon I of Pontus (16–8 BC) in his place. Polemon married Dynamis in 16 BC and she died in 14 BC. Polemon ruled as king until his death in 8 BC. After

2632-526: The Bosporan grain exports: Leucon I of Bosporus created privileges for Athenian ships at Bosporan ports. The Attic orators make numerous references to this. In return the Athenians granted Leucon Athenian citizenship and made decrees in honour of him and his sons. After his defeat by Roman General Pompey in 66 BC, King Mithridates VI of Pontus fled with a small army from Colchis (modern Georgia) over

2726-545: The Bosporan king Cotys I . It is possible that Nero wanted to minimize the power of local client rulers and wanted the Bosporans to be subsumed into the Roman empire. The Bosporan Kingdom was incorporated as part of the Roman province of Moesia Inferior from 63 to 68. In 68, the new Roman emperor Galba restored the Bosporan Kingdom to Rhescuporis I , the son of Cotys I. Following the Jewish diaspora , Judaism emerged in

2820-522: The Caucasus Mountains to Crimea and made plans to raise yet another army to take on the Romans. His eldest living son, Machares , regent of Cimmerian Bosporus, was unwilling to aid his father, so Mithridates had Machares killed, acquiring the throne for himself. Mithridates then ordered the conscriptions and preparations for war. In 63 BC, Pharnaces , the youngest son of Mithridates, led a rebellion against his father, joined by Roman exiles in

2914-621: The Caucasus in 1223, destroyed some of the Circassians and most of the Alans. The Circassians lost most of their lands during the ensuing Golden Horde attacks and had to retreat to the back of the Kuban River. In 1395 Circassians fought violent wars against Tamerlane , and although they won the wars, Tamerlane plundered Circassia. Prince Inal , who owned land in the Taman peninsula during the 1400s, established an army and declared that his goal

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3008-448: The Circassian army of 20,000 Circassian horsemen and a fully equipped Russian army of 100,000 men. Circassian warriors attacked the Russian army and tried to break through the line, but most were shot down by Russian artillery and infantry. The remaining fighters continued to fight as guerillas and were soon defeated. All 20,000 Circassian horsemen died in the war. The war ended officially on May 21, 1864. The place where this war took place

3102-493: The Circassian people have lived in and near the mountains for thousands of years. The word Circassian ( / s ər ˈ k æ s i ə n z / sər- KASS -ee-ənz ) is an exonym , Latinized from Russian Cherkess ( Russian : Черкес ; Adyghe : Чэркэс/Шэрджэс ), which is of debated origin. The term, in Russian, was traditionally applied to all Circassians before Soviet times, but it has since usually referred only to Circassians living in northern Karachay-Cherkessia ,

3196-464: The Circassian people. Khabzeism is their ethnic religion , which was historically practiced in Circassia since ancient times, but Sunni Islam became the dominant religion among them around the 17th century, following a long period of Islamization . Circassia has been repeatedly invaded since ancient times; its isolated terrain coupled with the strategic value external societies have placed on

3290-523: The Circassians are of Turkic origin, but no scientific evidence supports this claim and it has been strongly denied by ethnic Circassians, impartial research, linguists, and historians around the world. The Circassian language does not share notable similarities to the Turkish language, except for borrowed words. According to various historians, the Circassian origin of the Sind-Meot tribes refutes

3384-401: The Circassians from their homeland and deported them to the Ottoman Empire. At least 600,000 people lost their lives to massacre, starvation, and the elements while hundreds of thousands more were forced to leave their homeland. By 1864, three-fourths of the population was annihilated, and the Circassians had become one of the first stateless peoples in modern history. As of 2020, Georgia was

3478-476: The Crimea, it is possible that Rhescuporis was overthrown by a Sarmatian or Alan tribal leader, who established his own dynasty on the Bosporan throne. It is known that the Goths later held power in the Crimea, from c. 380 onwards, since a 404 letter to John Chrysostom , archbishop of Constantinople , refers to the local ruler as a rex Gothiorum ("king of the Goths"). The Gothic Bosporan realm likely became

3572-699: The Crimean Khan and the Ottoman Sultan again. The Ottomans sent their army of at least 20,000 men to Kabardia under the leadership of the Crimean Khan Kaplan-Girey to conquer the Circassians and ordered that he collect the tribute. The Ottomans expected an easy victory against the Kabardinians, but the Circassians won because of the strategy set up by Kazaniko Jabagh during the battle of Kanzhal . The Crimean army

3666-842: The Eyalet of Kaffa. In 1791, during the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92) , it passed into the control of the Russian Empire . Russia ceded it back to the Ottomans in 1792. It finally passed to Russia in 1828. For much of the succeeding century, the area was sparsely populated. The largest settlement was the Cossack town (later a stanitsa ) of Taman , succeeded by the port town of Temryuk in modern times. The peninsula contains small mud volcanoes and deposits of natural gas and petroleum . Shallow desalinated lakes and local estuaries inhabited by fish and game, overgrown with thick reeds of

3760-676: The G2-YY1215 haplogroup is larger on the Western Caucasus and decreases to the east, while G2-YY9632 has the opposite tendency. R1a-M198* is shared with Balkars , Karachays and Kuban Cossacks . The Circassian language , also known as Cherkess, is in the Northwest Caucasian language family . Archaeological findings, mainly of dolmens in Northwest Caucasus region , indicate a megalithic culture in

3854-559: The German retreat from the Kuban bridgehead . In 2018, archaeologists discovered the remains of ancient Greek musical instruments , a harp and a lyre . The instruments were discovered while examining an ancient necropolis located near the Volna settlement. Archaeologists say that a Greek polis existed there from the second quarter of the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD, which belonged to

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3948-763: The Northwest Caucasus. The ancestors of present-day Circassians are known as the Sinti - Maeotian tribes. Archaeological research shows that these tribes were the indigenous people of the Caucasus. Some researchers have claimed there may be links between Circassians and Indo-European-speaking communities, and some have argued that there are connections between Circassians and Hatti , who are from ancient Anatolian peoples, but these theories are not widely accepted. According to genetic tests performed on Circassians, their closest relatives are Ingush , Chechens , Georgians and Abkhazians . Turkish nationalist groups and proponents of modern-day Pan-Turkism have claimed that

4042-498: The Ottoman Empire or still languished on the Circassian coast awaiting transit, even as far greater numbers arrived following the Russo-Circassian War's conclusion. What was intended to be an orderly, gradual expulsion quickly eroded over the following months, as the Ottomans overcrowded boats and neglected previously enforced safety regulations. Numerous boats sank, unable to safely accommodate these larger loads, while

4136-437: The Ottomans had anticipated, easily reaching tens of thousands at a time. Conditions on the beaches were dismal, as those waiting for Ottoman-chartered ships contended with insufficient supplies of food and shelter, occasional raids from Russian soldiers, and outbreaks of typhus and smallpox that were only exacerbated by the cramped and unsanitary conditions. By 1864, hundreds of thousands of Circassians had either already entered

4230-405: The Russian military also systematically destroyed crops and livestock and killed Circassian civilians. Circassians responded by creating a tribal federation encompassing all tribes of the area. In 1840 Karl Friedrich Neumann estimated the Circassian casualties at around one and a half million. Some sources state that hundreds of thousands of others died during the exodus. Several historians use

4324-705: The Taman peninsula is bound by the Greater Caucasus half of the Caucasus Mountains . Greek colonization in the Black sea region dates back into the Greek Dark Ages , from which there is ample evidence of cultural and economic exchange as well as hostility between Greek and local populations, such as the Thracians , Dacians , and later Scythians . Scythian expansion and unification in

4418-470: The area, called in the help of Diophantus , general of King Mithridates VI of Pontus , leaving him his kingdom. Paerisades was killed by a Scythian named Saumacus who led a rebellion against him. The Spartocids were well known as a line of enlightened and wise princes; although Greek opinion could not deny that they were, strictly speaking, tyrants , they are always described as dynasts. They maintained close relations with Athens , their best customer for

4512-403: The capital city of Shashe (Sochi) on June 25, 1861. Haji Qerandiqo Berzedj was appointed as the head of the assembly. This assembly asked for help from Europe, arguing that they would be forced into exile soon. However, before the result was achieved, Russian General Kolyobakin invaded Sochi and destroyed the parliament and no country opposed this. In May 1864, a final battle took place between

4606-401: The claim that the Circassians are of Turkic ethnic origin. German racial theorists, after comparing skull shapes, declared that Europeans, North Africans, and Caucasians were of a common race, termed "Caucasian" or later " Caucasoid ". Scientific racism emphasized the so-called "superior beauty" of the Circassian people, referring to them as "how God intended the human race to be", leading to

4700-485: The core of Mithridates's Pontic army. Mithridates VI withdrew to the citadel in Panticapaeum , where he committed suicide. Pompey buried Mithridates VI in a rock-cut tomb in either Sinope or Amasia , the capital of the Kingdom of Pontus . After the death of Mithridates VI (63 BC), Pharnaces II (63–47 BC) supplicated to Pompey, and then tried to regain his dominion during Julius Caesar's Civil War , but

4794-467: The death of Polemon, Aspurgus , the son of Dynamis and Asander, succeeded Polemon. The Bosporan Kingdom of Aspurgus was a client state of the Roman Empire , protected by Roman garrisons. Aspurgus (8 BC – AD 38) founded a dynasty of kings which endured with a couple of interruptions until AD 341. Aspurgus adopted the Roman name "Tiberius Julius" when he received Roman citizenship and enjoyed

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4888-529: The early 12th century reference is made of the Byzantine Empire's reassertion of control over the Cimmerian Bosporos ( Κιμμέριον Βόσπορον) . Although considered rare among collectors prior to the demise of the Soviet Union in 1991, Bosporan coins are now well known on the international coin markets, hinting at the quantities produced. Several large series were produced by Bosporan cities from

4982-497: The eastern half of Crimea and the Taman peninsula , and extended along the east coast of the Maeotian marshes to Tanais at the mouth of the Don in the north-east, a great market for trade with the interior. Throughout the period there was perpetual war with the native tribes of Scythians and Sarmatians , and in this the Bosporan Kingdom was supported by its Roman suzerains, who lent the assistance of garrisons and fleets. In AD 62 for reasons unknown, Roman emperor Nero deposed

5076-440: The emperor to send armies to the Bosporus, conquering the lands of the kingdom and establishing imperial control there. The Bosporan cities enjoyed a revival, under Byzantine and Bulgarian protection. The ancient Greek city of Phanagoria became the capital of Old Great Bulgaria between 632 and 665. The town of Tmutarakan , on the eastern side of the strait, became the seat of the Kievan Rus principality of Tmutarakan in

5170-501: The end of his reign by the Goths and the Huns , there is no concrete evidence for this. There is an inscription by a Bosporan ruler named Douptounos from c. 483, nearly a century and a half after Rhescuporis VI, which makes it unlikely that the kingdom and its line of kings came to an end in the mid-4th century. Additionally, archaeological data from the time indicate a period with a growing economy rather than societal collapse. Because of evidence of their increasing prominence in

5264-673: The ethnic Circassian population are affected. Considering these rates, calculations including those taking into account the Russian government's own archival figures, have estimated a loss 600,000–1,500,000. Ivan Drozdov , a Russian officer who witnessed the scene at Qbaada in May 1864 as the other Russians were celebrating their victory remarked: On the road, our eyes were met with a staggering image: corpses of women, children, elderly persons, torn to pieces and half-eaten by dogs; deportees emaciated by hunger and disease, almost too weak to move their legs, collapsing from exhaustion and becoming prey to dogs while still alive. The Ottoman Empire regarded

5358-426: The family name, more recent historians have posited he was likely of Greco-Scythian descent, as was typical of the region. Spartocus founded a dynasty which seems to have endured until c. 110 BC, known as the Spartocids . The Spartocids left many inscriptions, indicating that the earliest members of the house ruled under the titles of archons of the Greek cities and kings of various minor native tribes, notably

5452-515: The fifth century BC led to many of these settlements being wiped out or turned into Scythian protectorates, as was the case in the city of Olbia . It has been suggested that this pressure allowed the Archeanactid dynasty to create the first Bosporan state, lasting from 480-438 BC, at which point it was overthrown by the Spartocid Dynasty , beginning a period of economic expansion. The Black Sea Greeks before this period had dealt largely in goods like animals, slaves, furs, and fish, with grain playing

5546-413: The highlanders actually captured and held the forts. Under Yermolov, the Russian military began using a strategy of disproportionate retribution for raids . Russian troops retaliated by destroying villages where resistance fighters were thought to hide, as well as employing assassinations, kidnappings, and the execution of whole families. Because the resistance was relying on sympathetic villages for food,

5640-460: The historic lands of Circassia: Genetically, the Adyghe have shared ancestry partially with neighboring peoples of the Caucasus , with some influence from other regions. The most prevalent SNP haplotypes among all Circassian tribes is G2 -YY1215 (43%); others are R1a -M198* (13%), G2-YY9632 (9%), J2-M172* (7%), sharing a single common ancestor 3,000 years ago, with the largest demographic growth between 2,000 and 1,500 years ago. Prevalence of

5734-487: The kingdom adopted a double nature of presenting themselves as archons to Greek subjects and as kings to barbarians, which some historians consider unique in ancient history. The Bosporan Kingdom became the longest surviving Roman client kingdom . The 1st and 2nd centuries AD saw a period of a new golden age of the Bosporan state. It was briefly incorporated as part of the Roman province of Moesia Inferior from AD 63 to 68 under Emperor Nero , before being restored as

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5828-406: The kingdom fell in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe , a temperate grassland ideal for nomadic pastoralism . The south-eastern Crimean coastline is flanked by the Crimean mountains , with the highest peak being Roman-Kosh at 1,545 meters (5,069 ft.). Towards the west, the mountains drop steeply to the Black Sea, while to the east, they slowly develop into a steppe landscape. The southwestern coast of

5922-426: The kingdom's name is derived. To south sat the Black Sea , a crossroads connecting Southeast Europe to the west, the Eurasian steppes to the north, the Caucasus and Central Asia to the east, Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to the south, and Greece to the southwest. To the north is the Sea of Azov , sometimes considered part of the Black Sea, with shallow waters and abundant rivers flowing toward it. Most of

6016-409: The lands of the Adyghe people , who were also known as the Kasogi (or Kassogs) at the time. They were conquered first by the Bulgars (who originated on the Central Asian steppes ). Outsiders sometimes confused the Adyghe people with the similarly named Utigurs (a branch of the Bulgars). After the Khazar state dissolved, the Adyghe people were integrated around the end of the 1st millennium AD into

6110-419: The local material culture from the third to sixth centuries is distinguished both by its great complexity and by syncretism , intertwining both ancient and new barbarian elements. Through some means, the Goths appear to have left or been driven away, leading to the resumption of local self-rule in the late 5th century under rulers such as Douptounos, who re-oriented the kingdom towards the Byzantine Empire as

6204-469: The mid-7th century. Following the breakup of the Khazar Khaganate in c. 969, the peninsula formed part of a Khazar Jewish successor state under a ruler named David . By the late 980s, it came largely into the possession of the Kievan Rus and of the Russian Principality of Tmutarakan before falling to the Kipchaks c. 1100. The Mongols seized the area in 1239 and it became a possession of Genoa , along with Gazaria in Crimea , in 1419. For most of

6298-547: The modern day: the Abaza family . In Israel , Bibras Natcho is the captain of the Israeli national soccer team . In Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union , historical Circassia was divided into the republics of Adygea , Kabardino-Balkaria , Karachay-Cherkessia , and Krasnodar Krai , and southwestern parts of Stavropol Krai . Accordingly, Circassians have been designated as Adygeans in Adygea, Kabardians in Kabardino-Balkaria, Cherkess in Karachay-Cherkessia, and Shapsug in Krasnodar Krai; all four are essentially

6392-431: The name Cherkess/Circassians. In Persian sources, Charkas/Cherkes is used to refer to the "actual" Circassians of the northwest Caucasus, and in some occasions as a general designation for Caucasians who live beyond Derbent (Darband). Despite a common self-designation and a common Russian name, Soviet authorities divided the nation into four different peoples and applied four designations to Circassians remaining in

6486-425: The name has been settled as Cherkess . It is the same or similar in many world languages that cite these languages. The Encyclopaedia Islamica adds: "The Cherkess: the Kabardians and the western Adyghe people share a common language, which is spoken by the north-western Caucasian people, and belongs to the family known as Abkhazian-Adyghe". In Medieval Oriental and European texts, the Adyghe people were known by

6580-409: The only country to classify the events as genocide, while Russia actively denies the Circassian genocide, and classifies the events as a simple migration of "undeveloped barbaric peoples". As early as 1859, the Russian government had sought potential avenues for expelling the native Circassian population, and found a solution in the Ottoman Empire. Despite their numerous historical and ongoing disputes,

6674-489: The overcrowded conditions helped disease spread even further among both the Circassian migrants and the Ottoman crews. Upon their arrival, the Emigrant Commission attempted to relocate most of the new arrivals as quickly as possible to alleviate the strain on Ottoman port cities, and began to settle the Circassians throughout the Ottoman Empire. The exiled Circassians were resettled in the Empire's remaining Balkan territories, in Ottoman Syria and Transjordan, and Anatolia, while

6768-496: The patronage of the first two Roman Emperors , Augustus and Tiberius . All of the following kings adopted these two Roman names followed by a third name, of Thracian (Kotys, Rhescuporis or Rhoemetalces) or local origin (such as Sauromates, Eupator, Ininthimeus, Pharsanzes, Synges, Terianes, Theothorses or Rhadamsades). The Roman client kings of the dynasty had descended from King Mithridates VI of Pontus and his first wife, his sister Laodice , through Aspurgus. The kings adopted

6862-571: The peninsula, as did the later city of Tmutarakan . The Maeotae and Sindi settled in the area from ancient times. In the classical period it became part of the Bosporan kingdom ; its inhabitants included Sarmatians , Greeks , Anatolian settlers from Pontus , and Jews . In the 4th century CE the area fell to the Huns ; it was later the capital of Great Bulgaria and fell to the Khazars in

6956-465: The perpetration of genocide. On 20 May 2011 the Georgian parliament voted in a 95 to 0 declaration that Russia had committed genocide when it engaged in massacres against Circassians in the 19th century. Adyghe society prior to the Russian invasion was highly stratified. While a few tribes in the mountainous regions of Adygeya were fairly egalitarian, most were broken into strict castes. The highest

7050-610: The phrase "Circassian massacres" for the consequences of Russian actions in the region. In a series of sweeping military campaigns lasting from 1860 to 1864... the northwest Caucasus and the Black Sea coast were virtually emptied of Muslim villagers. Columns of the displaced were marched either to the Kuban [River] plains or toward the coast for transport to the Ottoman Empire... One after another, entire Circassian tribal groups were dispersed, resettled, or killed en masse. Circassians established an assembly called "Great Freedom Assembly" in

7144-441: The refusal to surrender, Circassian civilians were targeted one by one by the Russian military with thousands massacred and the Russians started to raid and burn Circassian villages, destroy the fields to make it impossible to return, cut trees down and drive the people towards the Black Sea coast. Although it is not known exactly how many people are affected, researchers have suggested that at least 75%, 90%, 94%, or 95–97% of

7238-952: The region have greatly shaped the Circassian national identity as a whole. The Circassian flag consists of a green field charged with 12 gold stars and, in the centre, three crossed black arrows. The stars represent the 12 Circassian tribes: the Abzakh , the Besleney , the Bzhedugh , the Hatuqway , the Kabardians , the Mamkhegh , the Natukhaj , the Shapsugh , the Chemirgoy , the Ubykh ,

7332-465: The region to establish independent kingdoms from those of the successor states.   According to Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the region was governed between 480 and 438 BC by a line of kings called the Archaeanactidae , probably a ruling family, usurped by a tyrant called Spartocus (438–431 BC). While Spartocus was traditionally considered to be a Thracian due to

7426-403: The region, and Jewish communities developed in some of the cities of the region (especially Tanais ). The Jewish or Thracian influence on the region may have inspired the foundation of a cult to the "Most High God", a distinct regional cult which emerged in the 1st century AD, which professed monotheism without being distinctively Jewish or Christian. The balance of power among the local tribes

7520-495: The region, it had a port which was free of ice throughout the year, allowing it to trade grain with the rest of the Greek world, even in winter. Satyrus' son Leucon (387–347 BC) eventually took the city. He was succeeded jointly by his two sons, Spartocus II, and Paerisades; Spartocus died in 342 BC, allowing Paerisades to reign alone until 310 BC. After Paerisades' death, a war of succession between his sons Satyrus and Eumelus

7614-503: The retrieval and resettlement of the Circassians throughout the Ottoman Empire. The process of expulsion had already begun even before the end of the Russo-Circassian war; the first Circassians had begun to arrive in small numbers as early as 1859, mainly consisting of wealthier aristocrats. Even prior to the end of the Russo-Circassian War, expelled Circassians had begun to crowd the Circassian coast in far greater numbers than

7708-416: The same people. Today, approximately 800,000 Circassians remain in historical Circassia, while 4,500,000 live elsewhere. The Circassians refer to themselves as Adyghe (also transliterated as Adyga, Adiga, Adige, Adığe, Adyge , Adygei ). According to one view, the name derives from Atyghe ( Adyghe : Iатыгъэ , romanized:  'atığə ) meaning "high [in altitude]" to signify a mountaineer, as

7802-544: The shore, create a swampy, impassable area. Mikhail Lermontov disparagingly describes the town of Taman in his novel, A Hero of Our Time . The German Wehrmacht and the Romanian Army occupied the Taman Peninsula in 1942; the Soviet Red Army recovered it in 1943. The story of the motion picture Cross of Iron revolves around conflicts that arise within the leadership of a Wehrmacht regiment during

7896-496: The term Jahārkas , but the Persian hypothesis remains uncertain. In early Russian sources, Circassians are called Kasogi , but one view holds that the modern term "Cherkes" derives from Kerket , the name of one of the ancient Circassian tribes. In languages spoken geographically close to the Caucasus, the native people originally had other names for the Circassians (such as Georgian : ჯიქი, Jiqi ), but with Russian influence,

7990-643: The two empires negotiated on the impending migrations and resettlements. The Russians promised a gradual process that would see the Ottomans ultimately receive fewer than 100,000 Circassians. The Circassians would first be moved, or coerced to move, to the Circassian Black Sea coast, from which Ottoman boats would take them to designated ports in Anatolia. The recently formed Ottoman Muhacirin Komisyonu , or Emigrant Commission, would coordinate both

8084-516: The volunteer guards of the Allies upon their entry into the country and still have high positions. In Libya , they serve in high military positions. In Egypt , they were part of the ruling class. The largest Circassian clan in the country also contributed to Egyptian and Arabic cultural literary, intellectual, and political life starting with the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha in Egypt and continuing to

8178-562: The war in Abkhazia, officially conquered Northern Abkhazia and the Abkhaz people recognized his rule. One of the stars on the flag of Abkhazia represents Inal. He divided his lands between his sons and grandchildren in 1453 and died in 1458. After that, Circassian tribal principalities were established, including Chemguy , founded by Temruk; Besleney , founded by Beslan; Kabardia , founded by Qabard; and Shapsug , founded by Zanoko. In

8272-536: Was an ancient Greco- Scythian state located in eastern Crimea and the Taman Peninsula on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus, centered in the present-day Strait of Kerch . It was the first truly 'Hellenistic' state, in the sense that a mixed population adopted the Greek language and civilization, under aristocratic consolidated leadership. Under the Spartocid dynasty , the aristocracy of

8366-509: Was defeated by Caesar at Zela and was later killed by his former governor and son-in-law Asander . Before the death of Pharnaces II, Asander had married Pharnaces II's daughter Dynamis . Asander and Dynamis were the ruling monarchs until Caesar commanded a paternal uncle of Dynamis, Mithridates II to declare war on the Bosporan Kingdom and claimed the kingship for himself. Asander and Dynamis were defeated by Caesar's ally and went into political exile. However, after Caesar's death in 44 BC,

8460-667: Was destroyed in one night on 17 September 1708. The Crimean Khan Kaplan-Giray barely managed to save his life, and was humiliated, all the way to his shoes taken, leaving his brother, son, field tools, tents and personal belongings. In 2013, the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences recognized that the Battle of Kinzhal Mountain with the paramount importance in the national history of Circassians, Balkarians and Ossetians. In 1714, Peter I established

8554-583: Was fought. Satyrus defeated his younger brother Eumelus at the Battle of the River Thatis in 310 BC but was then killed in battle, giving Eumelus the throne. Eumelus' successor was Spartocus III (303–283 BC) and after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the family names, so it is impossible to assign them a definite order. The last of them, however, Paerisades V, unable to make headway against increasingly violent attacks from nomadic tribes in

8648-422: Was severely disturbed by westward migration in the 3rd–4th centuries. In the 250s AD, the Goths and Borani were able to seize Bosporan shipping and even raid the shores of Anatolia . There are no known coins from the Bosporan Kingdom after the last ones minted by Rhescuporis VI in 341, which makes constructing a chronology very difficult. Though the kingdom is traditionally believed to have been destroyed at

8742-567: Was the caste of the "princes", followed by a caste of lesser nobility, and then commoners, serfs, and slaves. In the decades before Russian rule, two tribes overthrew their traditional rulers and set up democratic processes, but this social experiment was cut short by the end of Adyghe independence. Kabardian Bosporan Kingdom The Bosporan Kingdom , also known as the Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus ( Ancient Greek : Βασιλεία τοῦ Κιμμερικοῦ Βοσπόρου , romanized :  Basileía tou Kimmerikou Bospórou ; Latin : Regnum Bospori ),

8836-422: Was to unite the Circassians under a single state. They were divided into many states at that time, but after declaring his own princedom, Inal conquered all of Circassia one by one. Circassian nobles and princes tried to prevent Inal's rise, but Inal and his supporters defeated 30 Circassian lords. After successfully uniting the Circassians, Inal still wanted to include the closely related Abkhazians. Inal, who won

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