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114-556: Contemporary Egyptian sources from the time of the wars against the Hyksos also refer to the latter as ꜥꜣmw . Although they have left no inscriptions in their own language, some of their personal names have turned up in Egyptian records, which are a syntactical and lexical match for West Semitic dialects. An ancient Egyptian painting in the tomb of 12th Dynasty official Khnumhotep II , at Beni Hasan ( c.  1900 BCE ), shows

228-602: A Dacian revolt against the Sarmatian tribe of Iazyges , who had enslaved them, and a Samaritan uprising. In west Asia, Artabanus II of Parthia fought a war with Rome over Armenia. The Han dynasty saw the outbreak of the Rebellion of Gongsun Shu . Roman emperor Tiberius died in AD 37, being succeeded by Caligula . An earthquake that shook Antioch in AD 37 caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators to report on

342-481: A famine took place in Judea . Josephus relates that Helena of Adiabene "went down to the city Jerusalem, her son conducting her on her journey a great way. Now her coming was of very great advantage to the people of Jerusalem; for whereas a famine did oppress them at that time, and many people died for want of what was necessary to procure food withal, queen Helena sent some of her servants to Alexandria with money to buy

456-643: A Jewish rebellion (66–73) and fought a war with Parthia from 58–63 , though the latter conflict was inconclusive. In East Asia, the Chinese Western Han dynasty was overthrown and replaced by the Xin dynasty in 9, which in turn faced its own rebel movements (namely the Red Eyebrows and Lulin ), and was replaced by the Eastern Han dynasty in 25. The Eastern Han dynasty then faced and quelled

570-613: A campaign against several cities loyal to the Hyksos, the account of which is preserved on three monumental stelae set up at Karnak . The first of the three, Carnarvon Tablet includes a complaint by Kamose about the divided and occupied state of Egypt: To what effect do I perceive it, my might, while a ruler is in Avaris and another in Kush, I sitting joined with an Asiatic and a Nubian, each man having his (own) portion of this Egypt, sharing

684-463: A chancellor ( imy-r khetemet ) as the head of their administration. The names, the order, length of rule, and even the number of Fifteenth Dynasty rulers are not known with complete certainty. After the end of their rule, the Hyksos kings were not considered legitimate rulers of Egypt and were omitted from most king lists. The fragmentary Turin King List included six Hyksos kings, however only

798-501: A collection of 124 written near the end of his life . After Seneca's death in 65, a play named Octavia was written: the Roman tragedy focuses on three days in the year 62 during which Nero divorced and exiled his wife Claudia Octavia and married another ( Poppaea Sabina ). The play also deals with the irascibility of Nero and his inability to take heed of the philosopher Seneca's advice to rein in his passions . The Pharsalia ,

912-518: A customer and a practitioner to be conducted with at least one third party witness present and bans inquiry into anyone's death. A large earthquake caused the destruction of at least twelve cities in the region of Lydia in the Roman province of Asia in Asia Minor . In China, a major flooding took place in the Yellow River in AD 11, which is credited with helping bring about the fall of

1026-625: A fork on the now-dry Pelusiac branch of the Nile. Memphis may have also been an important administrative center, although the nature of any Hyksos presence there remains unclear. According to Anna-Latifa Mourad, other sites with likely Levantine populations or strong Levantine connections in the Delta include Tell Farasha and Tell el-Maghud, located between Tell Basta and Avaris, El-Khata'na, southwest of Avaris, and Inshas . The increased prosperity of Avaris may have attracted more Levantines to settle in

1140-708: A great deal of Levantine pottery and an occupation history closely correlated to the Fifteenth Dynasty, nearby Tell el-Rataba and Tell el-Sahaba show possible Hyksos-style burials and occupation, Tell el-Yahudiyah, located between Memphis and the Wadi Tumilat, contains a large earthwork that the Hyksos may have built, as well as evidence of Levantine burials from as early as the Thirteenth Dynasty, as well as characteristic Hyksos-era pottery known as Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware The Hyksos settlements in

1254-434: A great quantity of corn, and others of them to Cyprus, to bring a cargo of dried figs. And as soon as they were come back, and had brought those provisions, which was done very quickly, she distributed food to those that were in want of it, and left a most excellent memorial behind her of this benefaction, which she bestowed on our whole nation. And when her son Izates was informed of this famine, he sent great sums of money to

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1368-404: A group of West Asiatic foreigners, possibly Canaanites , labelled as Aamu ( ꜥꜣmw ), including the leading man with a Nubian ibex labelled "Abisha the Hyksos " ( 𓋾𓈎𓈉 ḥḳꜣ-ḫꜣsw , Heqa-khasut for "Hyksos"). The Aamu from this relief are further labeled as being from the area of Shu , which may be identified, with some uncertainty, with the area of Moab in southern Palestine around

1482-484: A later Egyptian pronunciation of ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt as ḥqꜣ- šꜣsw , which was then understood to mean "lord of shepherds." It is unclear if this translation was found in Manetho; an Armenian translation of an epitome of Manetho given by the late antique historian Eusebius gives the correct translation of "foreign kings". "It is now commonly accepted in academic publications that the term Ḥqꜣ-Ḫꜣswt refers only to

1596-624: A loose and changing coalition of other Berber tribes in a war against the Romans in North Africa during the rule of the emperor Tiberius (AD 14–37). The Armenian Artaxiad dynasty was overthrown by the Romans. In China, the Red Eyebrows Rebellion erupted against Wang Mang , emperor of the Xin dynasty . In Korea, Daeso , the ruler of the kingdom of Dongbuyeo , led his armies into Goguryeo once again. This time, Muhyul ,

1710-510: A loose and changing coalition of other Berber tribes in revolt, before being defeated in AD 24. In China, the Xin dynasty collapsed and the Eastern Han dynasty was established. In Korea, Daemusin of Goguryeo annexed Dongbuyeo and killed its king Daeso . In science, the 20s saw the manufacture of pens and metal writing tools in Rome. Major disasters of this decade include a fire in Rome , and

1824-530: A maximum intensity of IX or X on the Mercalli scale struck the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum , severely damaging them. The towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum both suffered major damage, with damage to some buildings also reported from Naples and Nuceria . Seneca reported the death of a flock of 600 sheep that he attributed to the effects of poisonous gases. Later, in 64, the Great Fire of Rome began in

1938-546: A new reading of as many as 149 years, while Thomas Schneider proposed a length between 160 and 180 years. The rule of the Hyksos overlaps with that of the native Egyptian pharaohs of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties, better known as the Second Intermediate Period . The area under direct control of the Hyksos was probably limited to the eastern Nile delta . Their capital city was Avaris at

2052-541: A personal title and epithet by several pharaohs or high Egyptian officials, including the Theban official Mentuemhat , Philip III of Macedon , and Ptolemy XIII . It was also used on the tomb of Egyptian grand priest Petosiris at Tuna el-Gebel in 300 BC to designate the Persian ruler Artaxerxes III , although it is unknown if Artaxerxes adopted this title for himself. In his epitome of Manetho , Josephus connected

2166-469: A poem detailing Caesar's civil war (49–45 BC), was also written during this decade. Manning (2008) tentatively estimates the world population in AD 60 as 249 million. ( Full article... ) The 70s was a decade that ran from January 1, AD 70, to December 31, AD 79. As the decade began, the First Jewish–Roman War continued: In AD 70, the Romans besieged and sacked Jerusalem and destroyed

2280-529: A population of nearly 60 million (59,594,978 people in slightly more than 12 million households). The census is one of the most accurate surveys in Chinese history. Dionysius Exiguus assigned Jesus's birth date in AD 1, in his anno Domini era according to at least one scholar. However, most scholars think Dionysius placed the birth of Jesus in the previous year, 1 BC . Furthermore, most modern scholars do not consider Dionysius' calculations authoritative, placing

2394-588: A prince of Goguryeo, led the armies of Goguryeo in a well-planned ambush and slaughtered all of Daeso's army. Only he and a few of his men escaped home. Literary works from the 10s include works from the ancient Roman poet Ovid , Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto , while Nicolaus of Damascus wrote a biography of Emperor Augustus ( Bios Kaisaros ). In the Roman Empire, an edict was issued effecting an empire-wide ban on divinatory practices especially astrology . The edict requires any consultation between

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2508-697: A rebellion by the Trưng sisters (40–43). In 58, the Eastern Han dynasty entered a golden age with the Rule of Ming and Zhang , who were generally regarded as able administrators who cared about the welfare of the people and who promoted officials with integrity. On its northern frontier, the Chinese dynasties waged intermittent war with the Xiongnu before emerging victorious in 91. The states of Funan and Xianbei were also established in this century. The century saw

2622-547: A repetitive pattern of the attraction of Egypt for western Asiatic population groups that came in search of a living in the country, especially the Delta, since prehistoric times." He notes that Egypt had long depended on the Levant for expertise in areas of shipbuilding and seafaring, with possible depictions of Asiatic shipbuilders being found from reliefs from the Sixth Dynasty ruler Sahure . The Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt

2736-922: A toponym [...] cautiously linked with the Northern Levant and the northern region of the Southern Levant." Earlier arguments that the Hyksos names might be Hurrian have been rejected, while early-twentieth-century proposals that the Hyksos were Indo-Europeans "fitted European dreams of Indo-European supremacy, now discredited." Some have suggested that Hyksos or a part of them was of Maryannu origins as evident by their use and introduction of chariots and horses into Egypt. However, this theory has been too rejected by modern scholarship. A study of dental traits by Nina Maaranen and Sonia Zakrzewski in 2021 on 90 people of Avaris indicated that individuals defined as locals and non-locals were not ancestrally different from one another. The results were in line with

2850-463: Is "nowadays rejected by most scholars." It is likely that more recent foreign invasions of Egypt influenced him. Instead, it appears that the establishment of Hyksos rule was mostly peaceful and did not involve an invasion of an entirely foreign population. Archaeology shows a continuous Asiatic presence at Avaris for over 150 years before the beginning of Hyksos rule, with gradual Canaanite settlement beginning there c.  1800 BC during

2964-596: Is known to have had many Asiatic immigrants serving as soldiers, household or temple serfs, and various other jobs. Avaris in the Nile Delta attracted many Asiatic immigrants in its role as a hub of international trade and seafaring. The final powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian Thirteenth Dynasty was Sobekhotep IV , who died around 1725 BC, after which Egypt appears to have splintered into various kingdoms, including one based at Avaris ruled by

3078-759: Is now northern Vietnam ). In 42 AD, Han China dispatched General Ma Yuan to lead an army to strike down the Yue rebellion of the Trưng sisters . In 43 AD, the Han army fully suppressed the uprising and regained complete control. Christianity came to Egypt as the Church of Alexandria was founded with Mark the Evangelist as the first Patriarch. James the Great died in 44: One of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus , he

3192-578: Is unclear why hostilities may have started. The much later fragmentary New Kingdom tale The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre blames the Hyksos ruler Apepi/Apophis for initiating the conflict by demanding that Seqenenre Tao remove a pool of hippopotamuses near Thebes. However, this is a satire on the Egyptian story-telling genre of the "king's novel" rather than a historical text. A contemporary inscription at Wadi el Hôl may also refer to hostilities between Seqenenra and Apepi. Three years later, c. 1542 BC, Seqenenre Tao's successor Kamose initiated

3306-636: The Baths of Nero were constructed. It stood between the Pantheon and the Stadium of Domitian and were listed among the most notable buildings in the city by Roman authors and became a much-frequented venue. In his final years, Seneca the Younger wrote De Providentia (discussing the problem of evil ), De Beneficiis (discussing the award and reception of gifts and favours within society), and compiled

3420-615: The Fourteenth Dynasty . Based on their names, this dynasty was already primarily of West Asian origin. After an event in which their palace was burned, the Fourteenth Dynasty would be replaced by the Hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty , which would establish "loose control over northern Egypt by intimidation or force," thus greatly expanding the area under Avaris's control. Kim Ryholt argues that

3534-743: The Iceni ), led by Boudica , rebelled against the Roman occupation. The revolt led to the sacking of several Roman cities, but was ultimately quelled by governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus . In 63, the Roman–Parthian War came to an end with the Treaty of Rhandeia . In 66, the First Jewish-Roman War began, as Jewish rebels fought against Roman rule. Near the end of the decade in 69, the Year of

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3648-687: The Jordan River , or generally the southern Levant , just east of the Jordan and the Red Sea . This Ancient Near East –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about subjects relating to Ancient Egypt is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Hyksos The Hyksos ( / ˈ h ɪ k s ɒ s / ; Egyptian ḥqꜣ(w) - ḫꜣswt , Egyptological pronunciation : heqau khasut , "ruler(s) of foreign lands"), in modern Egyptology , are

3762-484: The Mercalli scale struck the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum , severely damaging them. The towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum both suffered major damage, with damage to some buildings also reported from Naples and Nuceria . In 79, Mount Vesuvius violently spewed forth a deadly cloud of super-heated tephra and gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), ejecting molten rock , pulverized pumice and hot ash . The event destroyed several towns and minor settlements in

3876-672: The Roman Empire (ruled by the Julio-Claudian and Flavian dynasties) continued to be in a period of relative stability known as Pax Romana , withstanding a financial crisis in 33 and a civil war in 69 . In Europe, Rome expanded into Britain and fought wars in Germania and Dacia . In Africa, Rome was challenged by Tacfarinas , who led his own Musulamii tribe and a loose and changing coalition of other Berber tribes before being defeated in 24. In West Asia, Rome defeated

3990-575: The Roman conquest of Britain continued, with Caratacus being defeated in 50 and tribes of modern Wales being subdued in 58 to 59 . In 50, the Southern Xiongnu submitted to the Chinese Han dynasty . Later in 57, the ascension of Emperor Ming heralded the beginning of a golden age . The Council of Jerusalem was held early in the decade: The council decided that Gentile converts to Christianity were not obligated to keep most of

4104-613: The Roman numeral I) through AD 100 (C) according to the Julian calendar . It is often written as the 1st century AD or 1st century CE to distinguish it from the 1st century BC (or BCE) which preceded it. The 1st century is considered part of the Classical era , epoch, or historical period . The Roman Empire , Han China and the Parthian Persia were the most powerful and hegemonic states. During this century,

4218-795: The Sarmatians , and the Dacians (see Domitian's Dacian War ). In northern Britain, the Romans defeated local tribes in the Battle of Mons Graupius (AD 83). In China, the Han–Xiongnu War continued, with the Battle of the Altai Mountains (AD 89) bringing the Northern Xiongnu to the brink of collapse. The death of Emperor Zhang of Han ended a golden age . In spring of AD 80, a fire broke out in Rome and burned large parts of

4332-474: The Second Temple . After this major victory, the Romans continued to clear pockets of Jewish resistance, with the final stronghold taken being Masada (73) . The Flavian dynasty , which included emperors Vespasian and Titus , ruled the empire during this decade. During their reign, the Romans faced military challenges from various sources, including clashes with British and Germanic tribes . However,

4446-528: The Twelfth Dynasty . Strontium isotope analysis of the inhabitants of Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period Avaris also dismissed the invasion model in favor of a migration one. Contrary to the model of a foreign invasion, the study didn't find more males moving into the region, but instead found a sex bias towards females, with a high proportion of 77% of females being non-locals. Manfred Bietak argues that Hyksos "should be understood within

4560-586: The Xin dynasty in the next decade. Manning (2008) tentatively estimates the world population in AD 10 as 241 million. ( Full article... ) The 20s decade ran from January 1, AD 20, to December 31, AD 29. In Europe, the 20s saw revolts by the Aedui , Thracian tribesmen, and the Frisians against the Roman Empire . In North Africa , Tacfarinas , a Numidian Berber deserter, led the Musulamii tribe and

4674-579: The apocryphal Acts of Peter , he was crucified head down. As for Paul, the Second Epistle to Timothy states that he was arrested in Troad and brought back to Rome, where he was imprisoned and put on trial before being executed. The White Horse Temple , the first Buddhist temple in China, was traditionally constructed in 68, though it is not recorded in contemporary sources before 289. In 62 or 64,

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4788-525: The composite bow , a theory which is disputed. The Hyksos did not control all of Egypt. They coexisted with the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties , which were based in Thebes . Warfare between the Hyksos and the pharaohs of the late Seventeenth Dynasty eventually culminated in the defeat of the Hyksos by Ahmose I , who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt . In the following centuries,

4902-595: The priesthood and the Sadducees , diminished in importance. Second Temple Judaism came to an end, while a new form of Judaism that became known as Rabbinic Judaism developed out of Pharisaic school . Furthermore, the White Horse Temple , the first Buddhist temple in China, was traditionally constructed in 68, though it is not recorded in contemporary sources before 289. Several natural disasters took place in this century. In 17, an earthquake struck

5016-593: The 30s include a popular collection of fables written by Phaedrus , a symbolic interpretation of the Old Testament (Allegory) written by Philo , and a general history of the countries known in Antiquity written by Velleius Paterculus . Manning (2008) tentatively estimates the world population in AD 30 as 247 million. ( Full article... ) The 40s decade ran from January 1, AD 40, to December 31, AD 49. Claudius became Roman Emperor in 41, following

5130-640: The Eastern Delta. Canaanite cults also continued to be worshiped at Avaris. Following the capture of Avaris, Ahmose, son of Ebana, records that Ahmose I captured Sharuhen (possibly Tell el-Ajjul ), which some scholars argue was a city in Canaan under Hyksos control. The Hyksos show a mix of Egyptian and Levantine cultural traits. Their rulers adopted the full ancient Egyptian royal titulary and employed Egyptian scribes and officials. They also used Near-Eastern forms of administration, such as employing

5244-551: The Egyptians would portray the Hyksos as bloodthirsty and oppressive foreign rulers. The term "Hyksos" is derived, via the Greek Ὑκσώς ( Hyksôs ), from the Egyptian expression 𓋾𓈎 𓈉 ( ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt or ḥqꜣw-ḫꜣswt , "heqau khasut"), meaning "rulers [of] foreign lands". The Greek form is likely a textual corruption of an earlier Ὑκουσσώς ( Hykoussôs ). The first century Jewish historian Josephus gives

5358-399: The Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus , which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire. Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti , and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi ,

5472-492: The Fifteenth Dynasty invaded and displaced the Fourteenth. However, Alexander Ilin-Tomich argues that this is "not sufficiently substantiated." Bietak interprets a stela of Neferhotep III to indicate that Egypt was overrun by roving mercenaries around the time of the Hyksos ascension to power. The length of time the Hyksos ruled is unclear. The fragmentary Turin King List says that there were six Hyksos kings who collectively ruled 108 years, however in 2018 Kim Ryholt proposed

5586-500: The Four Emperors saw a period of civil war and political instability in the Roman Empire, as four different men ( Galba , Otho , Vitellius , and Vespasian ) claimed the title of Emperor within the span of a year. Ultimately, the year ended with the ascension of Vespasian to the throne and the beginning of the Flavian Dynasty . In East Asia, the state of Funan was established, while China continued its golden age . In 62, an earthquake of an estimated magnitude of between 5 and 6 and

5700-408: The Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Manfred Bietak proposes that a king recorded as Yaqub-Har may also have been a Hyksos king of the Fifteenth Dynasty. Bietak suggests that many of the other kings attested on scarabs may have been vassal kings of the Hyksos. None of the proposed identifications besides of Apepi and Apophis is considered certain. In Sextus Julius Africanus 's epitome of Manetho,

5814-407: The Hyksos ( 𓋾𓈎𓈉 ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw, Heqa-kasut for "Hyksos"), the first known instance of the name "Hyksos". Soon after, the Sebek-khu Stele , dated to the reign of Senusret III (reign: 1878–1839 BC), records the earliest known Egyptian military campaign in the Levant. The text reads "His Majesty proceeded northward to overthrow the Asiatics. His Majesty reached a foreign country of which the name

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5928-408: The Hyksos as invaders and oppressors, this interpretation is questioned in modern Egyptology. Instead, Hyksos rule might have been preceded by groups of Canaanite peoples who gradually settled in the Nile Delta from the end of the Twelfth Dynasty onwards and who may have seceded from the crumbling and unstable Egyptian control at some point during the Thirteenth Dynasty . The Hyksos period marks

6042-455: The Hyksos by this name, instead referring to them as Asiatics ( ꜥꜣmw ), with the possible exception of the Turin King List in a hypothetical reconstruction from a fragment. The title is not attested for the Hyksos king Apepi , possibly indicating an "increased adoption of Egyptian decorum". The names of Hyksos rulers in the Turin list are without the royal cartouche and have the throwstick "foreigners" determinative. Scarabs also attest

6156-415: The Hyksos kings Khyan and Apepi, but little other evidence of Levantine habitation. Tell el-Habwa ( Tjaru ), located on a branch of the Nile near the Sinai, also shows evidence of non-Egyptian presence. However, most of the population appears to have been Egyptian or Egyptianized Levantines. Tell El-Habwa would have provided Avaris with grain and trade goods. In the Wadi Tumilat , Tell el-Maskhuta shows

6270-421: The Hyksos originated in the Levant . The Hyksos' personal names indicate that they spoke a Western Semitic language and "may be called for convenience sake Canaanites ." Kamose , the last king of the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty, refers to Apepi as a "Chieftain of Retjenu " in a stela that implies a Levantine background for this Hyksos king. According to Anna-Latifa Mourad, the Egyptian application of

6384-432: The Hyksos title, however, the majority of kings from the second intermediate period are attested once on a single object, with only three exceptions. Ryholt associates two other rulers known from inscriptions with the dynasty, Khyan and Sakir-Har . The name of Khyan's son, Yanassi , is also preserved from Tell El-Dab'a. The two best attested kings are Khyan and Apepi. Scholars generally agree that Apepi and Khamudi are

6498-478: The Hyksos were allowed to leave after concluding a treaty: Thoumosis ... invested the walls [of Avaris] with an army of 480,000 men, and endeavoured to reduce [the Hyksos] to submission by siege. Despairing of achieving his object, he concluded a treaty, under which [the Hyksos] were all to evacuate Egypt and go whither they would unmolested. Upon these terms no fewer than two hundred and forty thousand, entire households with their possessions, left Egypt and traversed

6612-420: The Hyksos with the Jews, but he also calls them Arabs. In their own epitomes of Manetho, the Late antique historians Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius say that the Hyksos came from Phoenicia . Until the excavation and discovery of Tell El-Dab'a (the site of the Hyksos capital Avaris ) in 1966, historians relied on these accounts for the Hyksos period. Material finds at Tell El-Dab'a indicate that

6726-459: The Romans were largely successful in defeating these tribes, expanding their territories and consolidating their power. Following the death of Vologases I in 78, Parthia saw internal conflict as Vologases II and Pacorus II competed for the throne. In China, the Han–Xiongnu War was re-invigorated , with the Han defeating the Northern Xiongnu in the Battle of Yiwulu (73). In 75, Emperor Ming of Han died, being succeeded by Emperor Zhang :

6840-416: The Turin King List or from other sources who may have been Hyksos rulers. According to Ryholt, kings Semqen and Aperanat , known from the Turin King List, may have been early Hyksos rulers, however Jürgen von Beckerath assigns these kings to the Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt . Another king known from scarabs , Sheshi , is believed by many scholars to be a Hyksos king, however Ryholt assigns this king to

6954-426: The Wadi Tumilat would have provided access to Sinai, the southern Levant, and possibly the Red Sea . The sites Tell el-Kabir, Tell Yehud, Tell Fawziya, and Tell Geziret el-Faras are noted by scholars other than Mourad to contain "elements of 'Hyksos culture'", but there is no published archaeological material for them. The Hyksos claimed to be rulers of both Lower and Upper Egypt ; however, their southern border

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7068-407: The archaeological evidence, suggesting Avaris was an important hub in the Middle Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean trade network, welcoming people from beyond its borders. Historical records suggest that Semitic people and Egyptians had contacts at all periods of Egypt's history. The MacGregor plaque , an early Egyptian tablet dating to 3000 BC records "The first occasion of striking the East", with

7182-462: The area, at the time part of the Roman Empire , with Pompeii and Herculaneum being the most famous examples. The total population of both cities was over twenty thousand. The remains of over 1,500 people have been found at Pompeii and Herculaneum so far, although the total death toll from the eruption remains unknown. Death toll estimates range from 13,000 to 16,000. The 0s began on January 1, AD 1 and ended on December 31, AD 9 , covering

7296-486: The area, at the time part of the Roman Empire . Pompeii and Herculaneum , obliterated and buried underneath massive pyroclastic surges and ashfall deposits , are the most famous examples. The total population of both cities was over 20,000. The remains of over 1,500 people have been found at Pompeii and Herculaneum so far, although the total death toll from the eruption remains unknown. The period also saw significant architectural and engineering accomplishments, such as

7410-405: The assassination of Caligula . In 43, he sent Aulus Plautius with four legions to Britain ( Britannia ), initiating the decades-long Roman conquest of Britain . In China, The Trưng sisters' rebellion took place in the south of Han China between 40 AD and 43 AD: In 40 AD, the Vietnamese leader Trưng Trắc and her sister Trưng Nhị rebelled against Chinese authorities in Jiaozhi (in what

7524-458: The city for three days and three nights. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64 and crucially spared the many districts of insulae , Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon , the Temple of Jupiter , the Diribitorium , parts of the Theatre of Pompey , and the Saepta Julia among others. Emperor Titus personally compensated for

7638-409: The city of Nefrusy as well as several other cities loyal to the Hyksos. On a second stele, Kamose claims to have captured Avaris, but returned to Thebes after capturing a messenger between Apepi and the king of Kush . Kamose appears to have died soon afterward (c. 1540 BC). Ahmose I continued the war against the Hyksos, most likely conquering Memphis, Tjaru , and Heliopolis early in his reign,

7752-430: The city, initiating the empire's first persecution against the Christians . In the Roman Empire, Christianity continued to spread, despite a campaign of persecution being initiated under Emperor Nero in 64. According to tradition, the apostles Peter and Paul were both martyred during this period: Traditionally, Roman authorities allegedly sentenced Peter to death by crucifixion at Vatican Hill . In accordance with

7866-413: The city, precipitating the empire's first persecution of Christians , who were blamed for the disaster. Later in 70, the siege and subsequent sack of Jerusalem and the Second Temple during the First Jewish–Roman War marked a major turning point in Jewish history. The loss of mother-city and temple necessitated a reshaping of Jewish culture to ensure its survival. Judaism's Temple-based sects, including

7980-472: The collapse of a poorly built amphitheatre in Fidenae , which killed 20,000 of the 50,000 spectators. In 27, Christianity was born as a Jewish sect in Jerusalem . Geographica , an encyclopedia of geographical knowledge created by Strabo , was finished no later than AD 23. Manning (2008) tentatively estimates the world population in AD 20 as 246 million. ( Full article... ) The 30s decade ran from January 1, AD 30, to December 31, AD 39. Jesus

8094-411: The condition of the city. In China, an epidemic broke out in K'aui-chi, causing many deaths, and Imperial official Ch'ung-li I (Zhongli Yi) provided medicine that saved many lives. Valerius Maximus wrote Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX : It is a collection of approximately a thousand short stories that Valerius wrote during the reign of Tiberius (42 BC – AD 37). Other literary works from

8208-491: The conflict as a war of national liberation. This perspective was formerly taken by scholars as well but is no longer thought to be accurate. Hostilities between the Hyksos and the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty appear to have begun during the reign of Theban king Seqenenra Taa . Seqenenra Taa's mummy shows that he was killed by several blows of an axe to the head, apparently in battle with the Hyksos. It

8322-479: The conflict until the next decade. In China, the last ruler of the Chinese Western Han dynasty ( Ruzi Ying ) was deposed, allowing Wang Mang to establish the Xin dynasty . Literary works from the 0s include works from the ancient Roman poet Ovid ; the Ars Amatoria , an instructional elegy series in three books, Metamorphoses , a poem which chronicles the history of the world from its creation to

8436-755: The construction of the Colosseum in Rome. In 75, Vespasian erected a colossal statue of Apollo , begun under Nero , and he dedicated a stage of the theatre of Marcellus. Valerius Flaccus wrote the Argonautica , an epic poem . Pliny the Elder composed the 10-volume Natural History , covering topics including astronomy , mathematics , geography , ethnography , anthropology , human physiology , zoology , botany , agriculture , horticulture , pharmacology , mining , mineralogy , sculpture , art , and precious stones . Manning (2008) tentatively estimates

8550-570: The deification of Julius Caesar within a loose mythico-historical framework, and Ibis , a curse poem written during his years in exile across the Black Sea for an offense against Augustus . Nicolaus of Damascus wrote the 15-volume History of the World . Estimates for the world population by AD 1 range from 150 to 300 million. A census was concluded in China in AD 2: final numbers showed

8664-547: The desert to Syria. ( Contra Apion I.88-89) Although Manetho indicates that the Hyksos population was expelled to the Levant, there is no archaeological evidence for this, and Manfred Bietak argues based on archaeological finds throughout Egypt that it is likely that numerous Asiatics were resettled in other locations in Egypt as artisans and craftsmen. Many may have remained at Avaris, as pottery and scarabs with typical "Hyksos" forms continued to be produced uninterrupted throughout

8778-432: The distribution of Hyksos goods with the names of Hyksos rulers in places such as Baghdad and Knossos , that Hyksos had ruled a vast empire, but it seems more likely to have been the result of diplomatic gift exchange and far-flung trade networks. The conflict between Thebes and the Hyksos is known exclusively from pro-Theban sources, and it is not easy to construct a chronology. These sources propagandistically portray

8892-464: The east, whose coming was unforeseen, had the audacity to invade the country, which they mastered by main force without difficulty or even battle. Having overpowered the chiefs, they then savagely burnt the cities, razed the temples of the gods to the ground, and treated the whole native population with the utmost cruelty, massacring some, and carrying off the wives and children of others into slavery ( Contra Apion I.75-77). Manetho's invasion narrative

9006-539: The eastern Delta. Kom el-Hisn, at the edge of the Western Delta, shows Near Eastern goods but individuals mostly buried in an Egyptian style, which Mourad takes to mean that they were most likely Egyptians heavily influenced by Levantine traditions or, more likely, Egyptianized Levantines. The site of Tell Basta (Bubastis), at the confluence of the Pelusiac and Tanitic branches of the Nile, contains monuments to

9120-428: The end of the Fifteenth Dynasty itself. However, Vera Müller writes: "Considering that S-k-r-h-r is also mentioned with three names of the traditional Egyptian titulary (Horus name, Golden Falcon name and Two Ladies name) on the same monument, this argument is somehow strange." Danielle Candelora and Manfred Bietak also argue that the Hyksos used the title officially. All other texts in the Egyptian language do not call

9234-538: The event several years earlier (see Chronology of Jesus ). ( Full article... ) The 10s decade ran from January 1, AD 10, to December 31, AD 19. In Europe, the decade saw the end of the Early Imperial campaigns in Germania when Roman forces led by Germanicus defeated Germanic tribes in the Battle of Idistaviso in AD 16. In the subsequent year, a war broke out between Maroboduus and Arminius . In Africa, Tacfarinas led his own Musulamii tribe and

9348-456: The fasts, and other specific rituals, including the rules concerning circumcision of males . The Council did, however, retain the prohibitions on eating blood , meat containing blood , and meat of animals that were strangled, and on fornication and idolatry . Literary works of this decade include De Vita Beata (which explains that the pursuit of happiness is the pursuit of reason ) and De Clementia (an instructional contrast between

9462-426: The first in which foreign rulers ruled Egypt. Many details of their rule, such as the true extent of their kingdom and even the names and order of their kings, remain uncertain. The Hyksos practiced many Levantine or Canaanite customs alongside Egyptian ones. They have been credited with introducing several technological innovations to Egypt, such as the horse and chariot , as well as the khopesh (sickle sword) and

9576-412: The first king. Recently, archaeological finds have suggested that Khyan may have been a contemporary of the Thirteenth Dynasty pharaoh Sobekhotep IV , potentially making him an early rather than a late Hyksos ruler. This has prompted attempts to reconsider the entire chronology of the Hyksos period, which as of 2018 had not yet reached any consensus. Some kings are attested from either fragments of

9690-467: The first nine years of the Common Era . It is one of two "0-to-9" decade -like timespans that contain nine years, along with the 0s BC . In Europe, the 0s saw the continuation of conflict between the Roman Empire and Germanic tribes in the Early Imperial campaigns in Germania . Vinicius , Tiberius and Varus led Roman forces in multiple punitive campaigns, before sustaining a major defeat at

9804-520: The good ruler and a tyrant), both of which were written by Seneca the Younger . Manning (2008) tentatively estimates the world population in AD 50 as 248 million. ( Full article... ) The 60s decade ran from January 1, AD 60, to December 31, AD 69. In the Roman Empire, the early part of the decade saw the beginning of the Boudican Revolt in Britannia , where several tribes (chiefly

9918-739: The hands of Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest . Concurrently, the Roman Empire fought the Bellum Batonianum against a rebelling alliance of native peoples led by Bato the Daesitiate in Illyricum , which was suppressed in AD 9. A conflict also took place in Korea, where Daeso , King of Dongbuyeo invaded Goguryeo with a 50,000-man army in AD 6. He was forced to retreat when heavy snow began to fall, stopping

10032-492: The individual foreign rulers of the late Second Intermediate Period," especially of the Fifteenth Dynasty , rather than a people. However, Josephus used it as an ethnic term. Its use to refer to the population persists in some academic papers. In Ancient Egypt, the term "Hyksos" ( ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt ) was also used to refer to various Nubian and especially Asiatic rulers both before and after the Fifteenth Dynasty. It

10146-645: The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt (fl. c. 1650–1550 BC). Their seat of power was the city of Avaris in the Nile Delta , from where they ruled over Lower Egypt and Middle Egypt up to Cusae . In the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written by the Greco-Egyptian priest and historian Manetho in the 3rd century BC, the term Hyksos is used ethnically to designate people of probable West Semitic, Levantine origin. While Manetho portrayed

10260-558: The land with me. There is no passing him as far as Memphis, the water of Egypt. He has possession of Hermopolis, and no man can rest, being deprived by the levies of the Setiu. I shall engage in battle with him and I shall slit his body, for my intention is to save Egypt, striking the Asiatics. Following a common literary device, Kamose's advisors are portrayed as trying to dissuade the king, who attacks anyway. He recounts his destruction of

10374-418: The last two kings of the dynasty, and Apepi is attested as a contemporary of Seventeenth-Dynasty pharaohs Kamose and Ahmose I . Ryholt has proposed that Yanassi did not rule and that Khyan directly preceded Apepi, but most scholars agree that the order of kings is: Khyan, Yanassi, Apepi, Khamudi. There is less agreement on the early rulers. Sakir-Har is proposed by Schneider, Ryholt, and Bietak to have been

10488-466: The latter two of which are mentioned in an entry of the Rhind mathematical papyrus . Knowledge of Ahmose I's campaigns against the Hyksos mostly comes from the tomb of Ahmose, son of Ebana , who gives a first-person account claiming that Ahmose I sacked Avaris: "Then there was fighting in Egypt to the south of this town [Avaris], and I carried off a man as a living captive. I went down into the water—for he

10602-483: The mainstream form of the religion. Many followers of Jesus of Nazareth also survived the city's destruction. They spread his teachings across the Roman Empire, giving rise to the new religion of Christianity . In the autumn of 79, Mount Vesuvius violently spewed forth a deadly cloud of super-heated tephra and gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), ejecting molten rock , pulverized pumice and hot ash . The event destroyed several towns and minor settlements in

10716-466: The merchant shops around Rome's chariot stadium, Circus Maximus . After six days, the fire was brought under control, but before the damage could be assessed, the fire reignited and burned for another three days. In the aftermath of the fire, two-thirds of Rome had been destroyed. According to Tacitus and later Christian tradition, Emperor Nero blamed the devastation on the Christian community in

10830-572: The name as meaning "shepherd kings" or "captive shepherds" in his Contra Apion (Against Apion), where he describes the Hyksos as Jews as they appeared in the Hellenistic Egyptian historian Manetho . "Their race bore the generic name of Hycsos, which means 'king-shepherds'. For hyc in the sacred language denotes 'king' and sos in the common dialect means 'shepherd' or 'shepherds'; the combined words form Hycsos. Some say that they were Arabians." Josephus's rendition may arise from

10944-459: The name in a Hyksos inscription of Sakir-Har from Avaris, the name was used by the Hyksos as a title for themselves. However, Kim Ryholt argues that "Hyksos" was not an official title of the rulers of the Fifteenth Dynasty, and is never encountered together with royal titulary , only appearing as the title in the case of Sakir-Har. According to Ryholt, "Hyksos" was a generic term encountered separately from royal titulary, and in regnal lists after

11058-476: The name of the last, Khamudi , is preserved. Six names are also preserved in the various epitomes of Manetho, however, it is difficult to reconcile the Turin King List and other sources with names known from Manetho, mainly due to the "corrupted name forms" in Manetho. The name Apepi/Apophis appears in multiple sources, however. Various other archaeological sources also provide names of rulers with

11172-461: The origination of Christianity from Palestine . In the early 30s, Roman governor Pontius Pilate sentenced Jesus to crucifixion ; his suffering and redemptive death by crucifixion would become central aspects of Christian theology concerning the doctrines of salvation and atonement . Anti-Jewish riots broke out in Alexandria in 38. In 64, the Great Fire of Rome destroyed two-thirds of

11286-479: The picture of Pharaoh Den smiting a Western Asiatic enemy. During the reign of Senusret II , c. 1890 BC, parties of Western Asiatic foreigners visiting the Pharaoh with gifts are recorded, as in the tomb paintings of 12th-dynasty official Khnumhotep II . These foreigners, possibly Canaanites or nomads , are labelled as Aamu ( ꜥꜣmw ), including the leading man with a Nubian ibex labelled as Abisha

11400-621: The principal men in Jerusalem." Literary works of this decade include the Histories of Alexander the Great (written by Quintus Curtius Rufus ), and essays by Seneca (including De Ira , Ad Marciam, De consolatione , De Brevitate Vitæ , De Consolatione ad Polybium , and Ad Helviam matrem, De consolatione ). Manning (2008) tentatively estimates the world population in AD 40 as 247 million. ( Full article... ) The 50s decade ran from January 1, 50, to December 31, 59. It

11514-407: The region of Lydia in the Roman province of Asia in Asia Minor (now part of Turkey ), causing the destruction of at least 12 cities, with Sardis being most affected. Around 44 to 48, a famine took place in Judea , precipitating assistance by Helena of Adiabene and her son, Izates II . In 62, an earthquake of an estimated magnitude of between 5 and 6 and a maximum intensity of IX or X on

11628-673: The reign of these two emperors is considered to have been a golden age . The destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple during the First Jewish–Roman War marked a major turning point in Jewish history. The loss of mother-city and temple necessitated a reshaping of Jewish culture to ensure its survival. Judaism's Temple-based sects, including the priesthood and the Sadducees , diminished in importance. A new form of Judaism that became known as Rabbinic Judaism developed out of Pharisaic school and, centuries later, eventually became

11742-431: The religious practices of the Hyksos at Avaris with those of the area around Byblos , Ugarit , Alalakh and Tell Brak , defining the "spiritual home" of the Hyksos as "in northernmost Syria and northern Mesopotamia ". The connection of the Hyksos to Retjenu also suggests a northern Levantine origin: "Theoretically, it is feasible to deduce that the early Hyksos, as the later Apophis, were of elite ancestry from Rṯnw ,

11856-493: The rulers of Sixteenth Dynasty are also identified as "shepherds" (i.e. Hyksos) rulers. Following the work of Ryholt in 1997, most but not all scholars now identify the Sixteenth Dynasty as a native Egyptian dynasty based in Thebes , following Eusebius 's epitome of Manetho; this dynasty would be contemporary to the Hyksos. First century The 1st century was the century spanning AD 1 (represented by

11970-418: The term ꜥꜣmw to the Hyksos could indicate a range of backgrounds, including newly arrived Levantines or people of mixed Levantine-Egyptian origin. Due to the work of Manfred Bietak, which found similarities in architecture, ceramics and burial practices, scholars currently favor a northern Levantine origin of the Hyksos. Based particularly on temple architecture, Bietak argues for strong parallels between

12084-595: The use of this title for pharaohs usually assigned to the Fourteenth or Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt, who are sometimes called "'lesser' Hyksos." The Theban Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt is also given the title in some versions of Manetho, a fact which Bietak attributes to textual corruption. In the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt and during the Ptolemaic Period , the term Hyksos was adopted as

12198-586: The world population in AD 70 to have been 250 million. ( Full article... ) The 80s was a decade that ran from January 1, AD 80, to December 31, AD 89. As the decade began, the Parthian Empire was in a phase of division until Pacorus II managed to consolidate his rule, eliminating the two rival contenders for his throne: Vologases II in AD 80 and Artabanus III in AD 81. Domitian became Roman emperor in AD 81: The military campaigns undertaken during his reign were generally defensive in nature, as

12312-445: Was Sekmem (...) Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretched Retenu ", where Sekmem (s-k-m-m) is thought to be Shechem and "Retenu" or " Retjenu " are associated with ancient Syria . The only ancient account of the whole Hyksos period is by the Hellenistic Egyptian historian Manetho , who exists only as quoted by others. As recorded by Josephus, Manetho describes the beginning of Hyksos rule thus: A people of ignoble origin from

12426-455: Was captured on the city side—and crossed the water carrying him. [...] Then Avaris was despoiled, and I brought spoil from there. Thomas Schneider places the conquest in year 18 of Ahmose's reign. However, excavations of Tell El-Dab'a (Avaris) show no widespread destruction of the city, which instead seems to have been abandoned by the Hyksos. Manetho, as recorded in Josephus, states that

12540-520: Was crucified early in the decade: his suffering and redemptive death would form central aspects of Christian theology concerning the doctrines of salvation and atonement . Peter the Apostle founded the Church of Antioch . Anti-Jewish riots broke out in Alexandria . A financial crisis hit Rome in AD 33. In Asia, the Western Satraps and Kushan Empire emerged. In Europe, the 30s saw

12654-467: Was marked at Hermopolis and Cusae . Some objects might suggest a Hyksos presence in Upper Egypt, but they may have been Theban war booty or attest simply to short-term raids, trade, or diplomatic contact. The nature of Hyksos control over the region of Thebes remains unclear. Most likely Hyksos rule covered the area from Middle Egypt to southern Palestine . Older scholarship believed, due to

12768-551: Was the first to be martyred according to the New Testament . Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome between 41 and 53: Silvia Cappelletti describes Claudius's motivation as the need to control the population of Rome and prevent political meetings. (He "did not have an anti-Jewish policy.") Donna Hurley explains that Suetonius includes the expulsion "among problems with foreign populations, not among religions" Between 44 and 48,

12882-549: Was the sixth decade in the Anno Domini / Common Era , if the nine-year period from 1 AD to 9 AD is considered as a "decade". The early years of the decade saw Roman and Parthian intervention in the Iberian–Armenian War , a conflict which led Tiridates I to become King of Armenia with Parthian support. This was unacceptable to Rome, and the ensuing tensions culminated in the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 . Concurrently,

12996-456: Was used at least since the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2345–2181 BC) to designate chieftains from the Syro - Palestine area. One of its earliest recorded uses is found c. 1900 BC in the tomb of Khnumhotep II of the Twelfth Dynasty to label a nomad or Canaanite ruler named " Abisha the Hyksos " (using the standard 𓋾𓈎𓈉 , ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣswt , "Heqa-kasut" for "Hyksos"). Based on the use of

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