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117-438: The afterlife or life after death is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's stream of consciousness or identity continues to exist after the death of their physical body. The surviving essential aspect varies between belief systems; it may be some partial element, or the entire soul or spirit, which carries with it one's personal identity. In some views, this continued existence takes place in

234-478: A cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations. Typically, these traditions locate hell in another dimension or under the Earth's surface and often include entrances to hell from the land of the living. Other afterlife destinations include purgatory and limbo . Traditions that do not conceive of the afterlife as a place of punishment or reward merely describe hell as an abode of

351-609: A life review period occurring immediately after death and before entering the afterlife's planes of existence (before the silver cord is broken), followed by a judgment , more akin to a final review or end report over one's life. Heaven , the heavens, Seven Heavens , pure lands , Tian , Jannah , Valhalla , or the Summerland , is a common religious, cosmological , or transcendent place where beings such as gods , angels , jinn , saints , or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned , or live. According to

468-586: A narrative device is strongly associated with the modernist movement. The term was first applied in a literary context, transferred from psychology, in The Egoist , April 1918, by May Sinclair , in relation to the early volumes of Dorothy Richardson 's novel sequence Pilgrimage . Amongst other modernist novelists who used it are James Joyce in Ulysses (1922) and William Faulkner in The Sound and

585-403: A spiritual realm, while in others, the individual may be reborn into this world and begin the life cycle over again in a process referred to as reincarnation , likely with no memory of what they have done in the past. In this latter view, such rebirths and deaths may take place over and over again continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or otherworld . Major views on

702-740: A king who sits on a throne at the highest of the heavens. In the Manichaean description, this being, the "Great King of Honor", becomes a deity who guards the entrance to the World of Light placed at the seventh of ten heavens. In the Aramaic Book of Enoch, the Qumran writings, overall, and in the original Syriac section of Manichaean scriptures quoted by Theodore bar Konai , he is called malkā rabbā d-iqārā ("the Great King of Honor"). Mani

819-440: A man, to bring back his soul from the pit to... the light of the living' (Job 33:29–30)." Reincarnation, called gilgul , became popular in folk belief and is found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews . Among a few kabbalists, it was posited that some human souls could end up being reincarnated into non-human bodies. These ideas were found in several Kabbalistic works from the 13th century and among many mystics in

936-526: A more diverse set of ideas developed. In some texts, Sheol is considered to be the home of both the righteous and the wicked, separated into respective compartments; in others, it was considered a place of punishment, meant for the wicked dead alone. When the Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek in ancient Alexandria around 200 BC, the word " Hades " (the Greek underworld ) was substituted for Sheol. This

1053-493: A period of reflection on their earthly actions and are made aware of what they have done wrong. Some view this period as "re-schooling", with the soul gaining wisdom as one's errors are reviewed. Others view this period as spiritual discomfort caused by past wrongs. At the end of this period, not longer than one year, the soul then takes its place in the world to come. Although discomforts are made part of certain Jewish conceptions of

1170-490: A reform of Zarathrusta's ancient teachings. This was of great fascination to the king, for it perfectly fit Sabuhr's dream of creating a large empire that incorporated all people and their different creeds. Thus, Manichaeism became widespread and flourished throughout the Sasanian Empire for thirty years. An apologia for Manichaeism ascribed to ibn al-Muqaffa' defended its phantasmagorical cosmogony and attacked

1287-745: A religion. It was his "Twin" who brought Mani to self-realization . Mani claimed to be the Paraclete of the Truth promised by Jesus in the New Testament. Manichaeism's views on Jesus are described by historians: Jesus in Manichaeism possessed three separate identities: (1) Jesus the Luminous, (2) Jesus the Messiah and (3) Jesus patibilis (the suffering Jesus). (1) As Jesus

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1404-678: A report that the proclamation of Manichaeism as the state religion was met with enthusiasm in Ordu-Baliq. In an inscription in which the Kaghan speaks for himself, he promised the Manichaen high priests (the "Elect") that if they gave orders, he would promptly follow them and respond to their requests. An incomplete manuscript found in the Turfan Oasis gives Boku Tekin the title of zahag-i Mani ("Emanation of Mani" or "Descendant of Mani"),

1521-575: A revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his "Twin" ( Imperial Aramaic : תאומא tɑʔwmɑ , from which is also derived the Greek name of Thomas the Apostle , Didymus; the "twin"), Syzygos ( Koinē Greek : σύζυγος "spouse, partner", in the Cologne Mani-Codex ), "Double," "Protective Angel," or "Divine Self." This spirit taught him wisdom that he then developed into

1638-808: A sacred forest in Otuken . The conversion to Manichaeism led to an explosion of manuscript production in the Tarim Basin and Gansu (the region between the Tibetan and the Huangtu plateaus), which lasted well into the early 11th century. In 840, the Uyghur Khaganate collapsed under the attacks of the Yenisei Kyrgyz , and the new Uyghur state of Qocho was established with a capital in the city of Qocho . Al-Jahiz (776–868 or 869) believed that

1755-434: A sequence of human and animal forms. Traditional Hinduism teaches that each life helps the soul (jivas) learn until the soul becomes purified to the point of liberation . All major Indian religions , namely Buddhism , Hinduism , Jainism , and Sikhism have their own interpretations of the idea of reincarnation. The human idea of reincarnation is found in many diverse ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/ metempsychosis

1872-410: A soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana . Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (heaven, hell, or other) is referred to as otherworld . Hell , in many religious and folkloric traditions, is a place of torment and punishment in the afterlife. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hell as an eternal destination , while religions with

1989-673: A spokesman for the Egyptian Culture Ministry claimed it had unearthed a large red granite door in Luxor with inscriptions by User , a powerful adviser to the 18th Dynasty Queen Hatshepsut who ruled between 1479 BC and 1458 BC, the longest of any woman. It believes the false door is a 'door to the Afterlife'. According to the archaeologists, the door was reused in a structure in Roman Egypt . The Greek god Hades

2106-666: A thought relating to the past, present or the future) as well as various mental events that get generated, namely, feelings, perceptions and intentions/behaviour. These mental events are also described as being influenced by other factors such as attachments and past conditioning. Further, the moment-by-moment manifestation of the "stream of consciousness" is described as being affected by physical laws, biological laws, psychological laws, volitional laws, and universal laws. In his lectures circa 1838–1839 Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet described "thought" as "a series of acts indissolubly connected"; this comes about because of what he asserted

2223-691: A title of majestic prestige among the Manichaeans of Central Asia. Nonetheless, and despite the apparently willing conversion of the Uyghurs to Manichaeanism, traces and signs of the previous shamanistic practices persisted. For instance, in 765, only two years after the official conversion, during a military campaign in China, the Uyghur troops called forth magicians to perform a number of specific rituals. Manichaean Uyghurs continued to treat with great respect

2340-697: Is an "ancient, mainstream belief in Judaism". The Zohar makes frequent and lengthy references to reincarnation. Onkelos , a righteous convert and authoritative commentator of the same period, explained the verse, "Let Reuben live and not die ..." (Deuteronomy 33:6) to mean that Reuben should merit the World to Come directly and not have to die again as a result of being reincarnated. Torah scholar, commentator and kabbalist, Nachmanides (Ramban 1195–1270), attributed Job's suffering to reincarnation, as hinted in Job's saying "God does all these things twice or three times with

2457-400: Is an illusion I do not mean that consciousness does not exist. I mean that consciousness is not what it appears to be. If it seems to be a continuous stream of rich and detailed experiences, happening one after the other to a conscious person, this is the illusion." However, she also says that a good way to observe the "stream of consciousness" may be to calm the mind in meditation. The criticism

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2574-455: Is based on the stream of perception data from the senses rather than about consciousness itself. Also, it is not explained the reason why some things are conscious at all. Suggestions have also been made regarding the importance of separating "two levels of analyses" when attempting to understand the "stream of consciousness". Baars is in agreement with these points. The continuity of the "stream of consciousness" may in fact be illusory, just as

2691-612: Is called a Manichaean , Manichean , or Manichee , the last especially in older sources. Mani was an Iranian born in 216 CE in or near Ctesiphon (now al-Mada'in , Iraq) in the Parthian Empire . According to the Cologne Mani-Codex , Mani's parents were members of the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the Elcesaites . Mani composed seven works, six of which were written in

2808-543: Is determined directly by the actions of the individual in the ended life. Theist immortalists generally believe some afterlife awaits people when they die. Members of some generally non-theistic religions believe in an afterlife without reference to a deity. Many religions, such as Christianity , Islam , and various pagan belief systems, believe in the soul's existence in another world, while others, like many forms of Hinduism and Buddhism , believe in reincarnation. In both cases, these religions hold that one's status in

2925-573: Is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th- and 11th-century Muslim historians like al-Biruni and ibn al-Nadim in his al-Fihrist ; the latter "ascribed to Mani the claim to be the Seal of the Prophets." However, given the Islamic milieu of Arabia and Persia at the time, it stands to reason that Manichaens would regularly assert in their evangelism that Mani, not Muhammad , was the "Seal of

3042-513: Is known in Greek mythology as the king of the underworld , a place where souls live after death. The Greek god Hermes , the messenger of the gods, would take the dead soul of a person to the underworld (sometimes called Hades or the House of Hades). Hermes would leave the soul on the banks of the River Styx , the river between life and death. Charon , also known as the ferry-man, would take

3159-586: Is no reference to reincarnation in the Talmud or any prior writings, according to rabbis such as Avraham Arieh Trugman, reincarnation is recognized as being part and parcel of Jewish tradition. Trugman explains that it is through oral tradition that the meanings of the Torah, its commandments, and stories are known and understood. The classic work of Jewish mysticism, the Zohar, is quoted liberally in all Jewish learning; in

3276-522: Is not uncommon among many Jews, including Orthodox. Other well-known rabbis who are reincarnationists include Yonassan Gershom , Abraham Isaac Kook , Talmud scholar Adin Steinsaltz, DovBer Pinson, David M. Wexelman, Zalman Schachter , and many others. Reincarnation is cited by authoritative Biblical commentators, including Ramban (Nachmanides), Menachem Recanti, and Rabbenu Bachya. Among the many volumes of Yitzchak Luria, most of which come down from

3393-653: Is noteworthy that Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life in a province of the Persian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no longer be any doubt that the Iranian names of Sām , Narīmān , etc., that appear in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition, written by Mani in

3510-517: Is reflected in the New Testament where Hades is both the underworld of the dead and the personification of the evil it represents. The Talmud offers several thoughts relating to the afterlife. After death, the soul is brought for judgment. Those who have led pristine lives immediately enter the Olam Haba or world to come . Most do not enter the world to come immediately but experience

3627-551: The Babylonian Talmud ), Mandaean (the language of Mandaeism ), and Syriac, which was the language of Mani as well as the Syriac Christians . While Manichaeism was spreading, existing religions such as Zoroastrianism were still prevalent, and Christianity was gaining social and political influence. Although having fewer adherents, Manichaeism won the support of many high-ranking political figures. With

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3744-691: The Book of Enoch literature), and by the Syriac dualist -Gnostic writer Bardaisan (who lived a generation before Mani). With the discovery of the Mani-Codex, it also became clear that he was raised in the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcasaites and possibly influenced by their writings. According to biographies preserved by ibn al-Nadim and the Persian polymath al-Biruni , Mani received

3861-568: The Fields of Aaru , Osiris demanded work as restitution for the protection he provided. Statues were placed in the tombs to serve as substitutes for the deceased. Arriving at one's reward in afterlife was a demanding ordeal, requiring a sin-free heart and the ability to recite the spells, passwords, and formulae of the Book of the Dead . In the Hall of Two Truths, the deceased's heart was weighed against

3978-630: The Greco-Roman world because of it. Mani taught how the soul of a righteous individual returns to Paradise upon dying, but "the soul of the person who persisted in things of the flesh – fornication, procreation, possessions, cultivation, harvesting, eating of meat, drinking of wine – is condemned to rebirth in a succession of bodies." Mani began preaching at an early age and was possibly influenced by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements such as Mandaeism , Aramaic translations of Jewish apocalyptic works similar to those found at Qumran (e.g.,

4095-479: The Hebrew Bible , is a place of darkness ( Job 10 :21–22) to which all the dead go—both the righteous and the unrighteous—regardless of the moral choices made in life (Genesis 35:37; Book of Ezekiel 32; Isaiah 16; Job 30 :23), a place of stillness ( Psalm 88 :13, 94 :17; Ecclesiastes 9:10), at the longest possible distance from Heaven ( Job 11 :8; Amos 9 :2; Psalm 139 :8). The inhabitants of Sheol were

4212-686: The Manichaean alphabet that was used in all of the Manichaean works written within the Sasanian Empire , whether they were in Syriac or Middle Persian , as well as most of the works written within the Uyghur Khaganate . The primary language of Babylon (and the administrative and cultural language of the Empire) at that time was Eastern Middle Aramaic , which included three main dialects: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (the language of

4329-508: The Rosh and Leon de Modena . Saadia Gaon, in Emunoth ve-Deoth (Hebrew: "beliefs and opinions"), concludes Section VI with a refutation of the doctrine of metempsychosis (reincarnation). While rebutting reincarnation, Saadia Gaon further states that Jews who hold to reincarnation have adopted non-Jewish beliefs. By no means do all Jews today believe in reincarnation, but belief in reincarnation

4446-448: The Shu feather of truth and justice taken from the headdress of the goddess Ma'at . If the heart was lighter than the feather, they could pass on, but if it were heavier they would be devoured by the demon Ammit . Egyptians also believed that being mummified and put in a sarcophagus (an ancient Egyptian "coffin" carved with complex symbols and designs, as well as pictures and hieroglyphs)

4563-527: The dead live again in the Fields of Yalu and accompany the Sun on its daily ride. Due to the dangers the afterlife posed, the Book of the Dead was placed in the tomb with the body as well as food, jewelry, and 'curses'. They also used the "opening of the mouth". Ancient Egyptian civilization was based on religion. The belief in the rebirth after death became the driving force behind funeral practices; for them, death

4680-457: The entire world , calling his teachings the "Religion of Light". Manichaean writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was twelve years old and again when he was 24, and over this period, he grew dissatisfied with the Elcesaites , the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect he was born into. Some researchers also point to an important Jain influence on Mani as extreme degrees of asceticism and some specific features of Jain doctrine made

4797-612: The fideism of Islam and other monotheistic religions. The Manichaeans had sufficient structure to have a head of their community. Tolerance toward Manichaeism decreased after the death of Sabuhr I. His son, Ohrmazd , who became king, still allowed for Manichaeism in the empire, but he also greatly trusted the Zoroastrian priest, Kirdir. After Ohrmazd's short reign, his oldest brother, Wahram I , became king. Wahram I held Kirdir in high esteem, and he also had many different religious ideals than Ohrmazd and his father, Sabuhr I. Due to

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4914-541: The late-Aramaic Syriac language . The seventh, the Shabuhragan , was written by Mani in Middle Persian and presented by him to Sasanian emperor Shapur I . Although there is no proof Shapur I was a Manichaean, he tolerated the spread of Manichaeism and refrained from persecuting it within his empire's boundaries. According to one tradition, Mani invented the unique version of the Syriac script known as

5031-609: The struggle between a good , spiritual world of light , and an evil , material world of darkness . Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came. Mani's teaching was intended to "combine", succeed, and surpass the teachings of Platonism , Christianity , Zoroastrianism , Buddhism , Marcionism , Hellenistic and Rabbinic Judaism , Gnostic movements , Ancient Greek religion , Babylonian and other Mesopotamian religions , and mystery cults . It reveres Mani as

5148-414: The will of God . Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come . In Hinduism , heaven is termed Svarga loka . There are seven positive regions and seven negative regions to which the soul can go after death. After completing its stay in the respective region, the soul is subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma . This cycle can be broken after

5265-599: The "shades" ( rephaim ), entities without personality or strength. Under some circumstances, they were thought to be able to be contacted by the living (as the Witch of Endor contacts the shade of Samuel for Saul ), but such practices were forbidden ( Deuteronomy 18:10). Whereas the Hebrew Bible appears to describe Sheol as the permanent place of the dead, in the Second Temple period (roughly 500 BC – 70 AD),

5382-587: The "stream of consciousness" ( Pali ; viññāna-sota ) where it is referred to as the Mind Stream . The practice of mindfulness , which is about being aware moment-to-moment of one's subjective conscious experience aid one to directly experience the "stream of consciousness" and to gradually cultivate self-knowledge and wisdom. Buddhist teachings describe the continuous flow of the "stream of mental and material events" that include sensory experiences (i.e., seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touch sensations, or

5499-418: The "stream of consciousness." Bernard Baars has developed Global Workspace Theory which bears some resemblance to stream of consciousness. Conceptually understanding what is meant by the "present moment," "the past" and "the future" can aid one to systematically understand the "stream of consciousness." Susan Blackmore challenged the concept of stream of consciousness. "When I say that consciousness

5616-485: The Book of Enoch entitled The Book of Giants . Mani quoted the latter directly and expanded upon it, becoming one of the six original Syriac writings of the Manichaean Church. Besides short references by non-Manichaean authors through the centuries, no original sources of The Book of Giants (which is actually part six of the Book of Enoch) were available until the 20th century. Scattered fragments of both

5733-681: The Buddha of Infinite Light, does not appear in Chinese Manichaeism and seems to have been replaced by another deity. Manichaeism reached Rome through the apostle Psattiq in 280, who was also in Egypt in 244 and 251. It flourished in the Faiyum in 290. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 during the time of Pope Miltiades . In 291, persecution arose in the Sasanian Empire with

5850-574: The Buddhist sangha . The Kushan monk Lokakṣema began translating Pure Land Buddhist texts into Chinese in the century prior to Mani arriving there. The Chinese texts of Manichaeism are full of uniquely Buddhist terms taken directly from these Chinese Pure Land scriptures, including the term " pure land " ( Chinese : 淨土 ; pinyin : jìngtǔ ) itself. However, the central object of veneration in Pure Land Buddhism, Amitābha ,

5967-562: The Earth, looking down at the small planet, from far away. In Book VI of Virgil 's Aeneid , the hero, Aeneas , travels to the underworld to see his father. By the River Styx, he sees the souls of those not given a proper burial, forced to wait by the river until someone buries them. While down there, along with the dead, he is shown the place where the wrongly convicted reside, the fields of sorrow where those who committed suicide and now regret it reside, including Aeneas' former lover,

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6084-755: The East in Ming China , there is a growing corpus of evidence that shows Manichaeism persists in some areas of China, especially in Fujian , where numerous Manichaean relics have been discovered over time. The currently known sects are notably secretive and protective of their belief system, in an effort to remain undetected. This stems from fears relating to persecution and suppression during various periods of Chinese history. While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived. An adherent of Manichaeism

6201-425: The Fury (1929). Manicheanism Manichaeism ( / ˌ m æ n ɪ ˈ k iː ɪ z əm / ; in Persian : آئین مانی Āʾīn-ī Mānī ; Chinese : 摩尼教 ; pinyin : Móníjiào ) is a Gnostic former major world religion , founded in the 3rd century CE by the Parthian prophet Mani (216–274 CE), in the Sasanian Empire . Manichaeism teaches an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing

6318-443: The Luminous ... his primary role was as supreme revealer and guide and it was he who woke Adam from his slumber and revealed to him the divine origins of his soul and its painful captivity by the body and mixture with matter. (2) Jesus the Messiah was an historical being who was the prophet of the Jews and the forerunner of Mani. However, the Manichaeans believed he was wholly divine, and that he never experienced human birth, as

6435-473: The Manichaeans [...] have set up new and hitherto unheard-of sects in opposition to the older creeds so that they might cast out the doctrines vouchsafed to us in the past by the divine favour for the benefit of their own depraved doctrine. They have sprung forth very recently like new and unexpected monstrosities among the race of the Persians – a nation still hostile to us – and have made their way into our empire, where they are committing many outrages, disturbing

6552-400: The Prophets". In reality, for Mani the metaphorical expression "Seal of Prophets" is not a reference to his finality in a long succession of prophets as it is used in Islam, but rather as final to his followers (who testify or attest to his message as a "seal"). Other sources of Mani's scripture were the Aramaic originals of the Book of Enoch , 2 Enoch , and an otherwise unknown section of

6669-409: The Song dynasty, the Manichaeans were derogatorily referred by the Chinese as Chīcài shìmó ( Chinese : 吃菜事魔 , meaning that they "abstain from meat and worship demons"). An account in Fozu Tongji , an important historiography of Buddhism in China compiled by Buddhist scholars during 1258–1269, says that the Manichaeans worshipped the "White Buddha" and their leader wore a violet headgear, while

6786-417: The Syriac language. By comparing the cosmology of the books of Enoch to the Book of Giants, as well as the description of the Manichaean myth, scholars have observed that the Manichaean cosmology can be described as being based, in part, on the description of the cosmology developed in detail within the Enochic literature. This literature describes the being that the prophets saw in their ascent to Heaven as

6903-403: The Uyghur Khaganate in 840. In the east it spread along trade routes as far as Chang'an , the capital of Tang China . After the Tang dynasty, some Manichaean groups participated in peasant movements . Many rebel leaders used religion to mobilize followers. In Song and Yuan China, remnants of Manichaeism continued to leave a legacy contributing to sects such as the Red Turbans . During

7020-401: The Uyghurs in Turfan may be detected in fragments of Uyghur Manichaean manuscripts. In fact, Manicheism continued to rival the influence of Buddhism among the Uyghurs until the 13th century. The Mongols gave the final blow to the Manichaeism among the Uyghurs. Manichaeism spread to Tibet during the Tibetan Empire . There was a serious attempt made to introduce the religion to the Tibetans as

7137-427: The Zohar, the idea of reincarnation is mentioned repeatedly. Trugman states that in the last five centuries, the concept of reincarnation, which until then had been a much-hidden tradition within Judaism, was given open exposure. Shraga Simmons commented that within the Bible itself, the idea [of reincarnation] is intimated in Deut. 25:5–10, Deut. 33:6 and Isaiah 22:14, 65:6. Yirmiyahu Ullman wrote that reincarnation

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7254-602: The Zoroastrians. Due to the appeal of its teachings, many Sasanians adopted the ideas of its theology and some even became dualists. Not only were the citizens of the Sasanian Empire intrigued by Manichaeism, but so was the ruler at the time of its introduction, Sabuhr l . As the Denkard reports, Sabuhr, the first King of Kings , was very well-known for gaining and seeking knowledge of any kind. Because of this, Mani knew that Sabuhr would lend an ear to his teachings and accept him. Mani had explicitly stated while introducing his teachings to Sabuhr, that his religion should be seen as

7371-421: The afterlife derive from religion, esotericism , and metaphysics . Some belief systems, such as those in the Abrahamic tradition , hold that the dead go to a specific place (e.g., paradise or hell ) after death, as determined by their god, based on their actions and beliefs during life. In contrast, in systems of reincarnation, such as those of the Indian religions , the nature of the continued existence

7488-410: The afterlife is determined by their conduct during life. Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each death. This concept is also known as rebirth or transmigration and is part of the Saṃsāra /karma doctrine of cyclic existence. Samsara refers to the process in which souls ( jivas ) go through

7605-429: The afterlife, the concept of eternal damnation is not a tenet of the Jewish afterlife. According to the Talmud, extinction of the soul is reserved for a far smaller group of malicious and evil leaders whose very evil deeds go way beyond norms or who lead large groups of people to utmost evil. This is also part of Maimonides' 13 principles of faith . Maimonides describes the Olam Haba in spiritual terms, relegating

7722-467: The assistance of the Sasanian Empire, Mani began missionary expeditions. After failing to win the favour of the next generation of Persian royalty and incurring the disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani is reported to have died in prison awaiting execution by the Persian emperor Bahram I . The date of his death is estimated at 276–277 CE. Mani believed that the teachings of Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus were incomplete, and that his revelations were for

7839-444: The beginning of his proselytizing career, Richard Foltz postulates Buddhist influences in Manichaeism: Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the "elect") and lay followers (the "hearers") who supported them, appears to be based on that of

7956-511: The beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to earth or incarnate , and earthly beings can ascend to heaven in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases, enter heaven alive. Heaven is often described as a "higher place", the holiest place, a paradise , in contrast to hell or the underworld or the "low places", and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity , goodness , piety , faith or other virtues or right beliefs or

8073-488: The brain functions involved in this model and may help shed light on how we understand signs or symbols and reference these to our semiotic registers. In literature, stream of consciousness writing is a literary device which seeks to portray an individual's point of view by giving the written equivalent of the character's thought processes, either in a loose interior monologue, or in connection to his or her sensory reactions to external occurrences. Stream-of-consciousness as

8190-413: The captive soul is exquisitely expressed in one of the Coptic Manichaean psalms. Augustine of Hippo also noted that Mani declared himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ". Manichaean tradition is also noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras such as the Buddha, Krishna , and Zoroaster in addition to Jesus himself. Academics note that much of what

8307-412: The competition to replace classical polytheism before the spread of Islam . Under the Roman Dominate , Manichaeism was persecuted by the Roman state and was eventually stamped out in the Roman Empire. Manichaeism survived longer in the east than it did in the west. Although it was thought to have finally faded away after the 14th century in South China , contemporary to the decline of the Church of

8424-405: The continuity of a movie is illusory. Nevertheless, the seriality of mutually incompatible conscious events is well supported by objective research over some two centuries of experimental work. A simple illustration would be to try to be conscious of two interpretations of an ambiguous figure or word at the same time. When timing is precisely controlled, as in the case of the audio and video tracks of

8541-527: The dead , the grave, a neutral place (for example, Sheol or Hades ) located under the surface of Earth. The afterlife played an important role in Ancient Egyptian religion , and its belief system is one of the earliest known in recorded history. When the body died, parts of its soul known as ka (body double) and the ba (personality) would go to the Kingdom of the Dead. While the soul dwelt in

8658-531: The dead: the faithful saints who await resurrection in Paradise , the merely virtuous who await their reward, the wicked who await punishment, and the wicked who have already been punished and will not be resurrected on Judgment Day. The Book of Enoch is considered apocryphal by most denominations of Christianity and all of Judaism. The book of 2 Maccabees clearly describes the dead waiting for future resurrection and judgment, along with prayers and offerings for

8775-514: The deceased to alleviate their sins. The author of the Gospel of Luke recounts the story of Lazarus and the rich man , which shows people in Hades awaiting the resurrection either in comfort or torment. The author of the Book of Revelation writes about God and the angels versus Satan and demons in an epic battle at the end of times when all souls are judged. There is mention of ghostly bodies of

8892-516: The emperor issued a series of edicts to suppress Manichaeism and punish its followers. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) converted to Christianity from Manichaeism in the year 387. This was shortly after the Roman emperor Theodosius I issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 and shortly before he declared Christianity the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire in 391. Due to

9009-497: The final prophet after Zoroaster , the Buddha and Jesus . Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far through Aramaic -speaking regions. It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire . It was briefly the main rival to early Christianity in

9126-483: The flames. We direct their followers, if they continue recalcitrant, shall suffer capital punishment, and their goods be forfeited to the imperial treasury. And if those who have gone over to that hitherto unheard-of, scandalous and wholly infamous creed, or to that of the Persians, are persons who hold public office, or are of any rank or of superior social status, you will see to it that their estates are confiscated and

9243-483: The followers wore white costumes. Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song government and were eventually quelled. After that, all governments were suppressive against Manichaeism and its followers, and the religion was banned in Ming China in 1370. While it had long been thought that Manichaeism arrived in China only at the end of the seventh century, a recent archaeological discovery demonstrated that it

9360-603: The future heroes of Rome who will live if Aeneas fulfills his destiny in founding the city. Other eschatological views populate the ancient-Greek worldview. For instance, Plato argued for reincarnation in several dialogues, including the Timaeus . The Poetic and Prose Eddas , the oldest sources for information on the Norse concept of the afterlife, vary in their description of the several realms that are described as falling under this topic. The most well-known are: Sheol , in

9477-493: The heavy persecution, the religion almost disappeared from Western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century. According to his Confessions , after nine or ten years of adhering to the Manichaean faith as a member of the group of "hearers", Augustine of Hippo became a Christian and potent adversary of Manichaeism (which he expressed in writing against his Manichaean opponent Faustus of Mileve ), seeing their beliefs that knowledge

9594-528: The hostility to the flesh and sexual activity, and his dualistic theology. Some Sogdians in Central Asia believed in the religion. Uyghur khagan Boku Tekin (759–780) converted to the religion in 763 after a three-day discussion with its preachers, the Babylonian headquarters sent high-rank clerics to Uyghur, and Manichaeism remained the state religion for about a century before the collapse of

9711-452: The influence of Mahāvīra's religious community more plausible than even the Buddha. Fynes (1996) argues that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of plant souls, were transmitted from Western Kshatrapa territories to Mesopotamia and then integrated into Manichaean beliefs. Mani wore colorful clothing abnormal for the time that reminded some Romans of a stereotypical Persian magus or warlord , earning him ire from

9828-438: The influence of Kirdir, Zoroastrianism was strengthened throughout the empire, which in turn caused Manichaeism to be diminished. Wahram sentenced Mani to prison, and he died there. Under the eighth-century Abbasid Caliphate , Arabic zindīq and the adjectival term zandaqa could denote many different things, but it seems to have primarily—or at least initially—signified a follower of Manichaeism; however its true meaning

9945-519: The late 16th century. Martin Buber 's early collection of stories of the Baal Shem Tov 's life includes several that refer to people reincarnating in successive lives. Among well-known (generally non-kabbalist or anti-kabbalist) rabbis who rejected the idea of reincarnation are Saadia Gaon , David Kimhi , Hasdai Crescas , Yedayah Bedershi (early 14th century), Joseph Albo , Abraham ibn Daud ,

10062-775: The mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Kabbalah , the Cathars , Alawites , the Druze , and the Rosicrucians . The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of neoplatonism , Orphism , Hermeticism , Manicheanism , and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of scholarly research. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation. Rosicrucians speak of

10179-683: The media and are taken for granted by unassuming Jews." Mainstream Christianity professes belief in the Nicene Creed , and English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use include the phrase: "We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come." When questioned by the Sadducees about the resurrection of the dead (in a context relating to who one's spouse would be if one had been married several times in life), Jesus said that marriage would be irrelevant after

10296-565: The murder of the apostle Sisin by Emperor Bahram II and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. Then, in 302, the first official reaction and legislation against Manichaeism from the Roman state was issued under Diocletian . In an official edict called the De Maleficiis et Manichaeis compiled in the Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum and addressed to the proconsul of Africa , Diocletian wrote: We have heard that

10413-457: The notion as follows: He was enormously skeptical about using introspection as a technique to understand the stream of consciousness. "The attempt at introspective analysis in these cases is in fact like seizing a spinning top to catch its motion, or trying to turn up the gas quickly enough to see how the darkness looks." However, the epistemological separation of two levels of analyses appears to be important in order to systematically understand

10530-503: The offenders sent to the (quarry) at Phaeno or the mines at Proconnesus . And in order that this plague of iniquity shall be completely extirpated from this our most happy age, let your devotion hasten to carry out our orders and commands. By 354, Hilary of Poitiers wrote that Manichaeism was a significant force in Roman Gaul . In 381, Christians requested Theodosius I to strip Manichaeans of their civil rights . Starting in 382,

10647-654: The original Aramaic Book of Giants (which were analyzed and published by Józef Milik in 1976) and the Manichaean version of the same name (analyzed and published by Walter Bruno Henning in 1943) were discovered along with the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Judaean desert in the 20th century and the Manichaean writings of the Uyghur Manichaean kingdom in Turpan . Henning wrote in his analysis of them: It

10764-542: The other hand, was real and immanent. This was symbolized by the mystic placing of the Cross whereby the wounds of the passion of our souls are set forth. On this mystical Cross of Light was suspended the Suffering Jesus (Jesus patibilis) who was the life and salvation of Man. This mystica crucifixio was present in every tree, herb, fruit, vegetable and even stones and the soil. This constant and universal suffering of

10881-412: The peaceful lifestyle that Manicheism brought to the Uyghurs was responsible for their later lack of military skills and eventual decline. This, however, is contradicted by the political and military consequences of the conversion. After the migration of the Uyghurs to Turfan in the ninth century, the nobility maintained Manichaean beliefs for a while before converting to Buddhism. Traces of Manicheism among

10998-400: The pen of his primary disciple, Chaim Vital, are insights explaining issues related to reincarnation. His Shaar HaGilgulim ("The Gates of Reincarnation") is a book devoted exclusively to the subject of reincarnation in Judaism. Rabbi Naftali Silberberg of The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute notes that "Many ideas that originate in other religions and belief systems have been popularized in

11115-564: The physical realities surrounding the notions of his conception and his birth filled the Manichaeans with horror. However, the Christian doctrine of virgin birth was also regarded as obscene. Since Jesus the Messiah was the light of the world, where was this light, they reasoned, when Jesus was in the womb of the Virgin? Jesus the Messiah, they believed, was truly born only at his baptism, as it

11232-495: The prophesied physical resurrection to the status of a future miracle unrelated to the afterlife or the Messianic era . According to Maimonides, an afterlife continues for the soul of every human being: soul now separated from the body in which it was "housed" during its earthly existence. The Zohar describes Gehenna not as a place of punishment for the wicked but as a place of spiritual purification for souls. Although there

11349-413: The prophets and the transfiguration . The non-canonical Acts of Paul and Thecla speak of the efficacy of prayer for the dead so that they might be "translated to a state of happiness". Hippolytus of Rome pictures the underworld ( Hades ) as a place where the righteous dead, waiting in the bosom of Abraham for their resurrection, rejoice at their future prospect; the unrighteous are tormented at

11466-697: The religion during the first century of Islamic rule. During the early caliphates, Manichaeism attracted many followers. It had a significant appeal among Muslim society, especially among the elites. A part of Manichaeism that specifically appealed to the Sasanians was the Manichaean gods' names. The names Mani had assigned to the gods of his religion show identification with those of the Zoroastrian pantheon, even though some divine beings he incorporates are non-Iranian. For example, Jesus, Adam, and Eve were named Xradesahr, Gehmurd, and Murdiyanag. Because of these familiar names, Manichaeism did not feel completely foreign to

11583-586: The resurrection as the resurrected will be like the angels in Heaven. Jesus also maintained that the time would come when the dead would hear the voice of the Son of God , and all who were in the tombs would come out; those who have heard his "[commandments] and believes in the one who sent [Him]" to the "resurrection of life", but those who do not to the "resurrection of condemnation". The Book of Enoch describes Sheol as divided into four compartments for four types of

11700-436: The same movie, seriality appears to be compulsory for potentially conscious events presented within the same 100 ms interval. J. W. Dalton has criticized the global workspace theory on the grounds that it provides, at best, an account of the cognitive function of consciousness, and fails even to address the deeper problem of its nature, of what consciousness is , and of how any mental process whatsoever can be conscious:

11817-480: The sight of the " lake of unquenchable fire " into which they are destined to be cast. Gregory of Nyssa discusses the long-before-believed possibility of purification of souls after death. Pope Gregory I repeats the concept, articulated over a century earlier by Gregory of Nyssa, that the saved suffer purification after death. In connection with this, he wrote of "purgatorial flames." Stream of consciousness (psychology) Early Buddhist scriptures describe

11934-481: The so-called " hard problem of consciousness ". A. C. Elitzur has argued, however, "While this hypothesis does not address the 'hard problem', namely, the very nature of consciousness, it constrains any theory that attempts to do so and provides important insights into the relation between consciousness and cognition.", as much as any consciousness theory is constrained by the natural brain perception limitations. New work by Richard Robinson shows promise in establishing

12051-427: The soul across the river to Hades, if the soul had gold: Upon burial, the family of the dead soul would put coins under the deceased's tongue. Once crossed, the soul would be judged by Aeacus , Rhadamanthus and King Minos . The soul would be sent to Elysium , Tartarus , or Asphodel Fields . The Elysian Fields were for the ones that lived pure lives. It consisted of green fields, valleys and mountains, everyone there

12168-662: The text Criteria of the Authentic Scriptures (a text attributed to the Tibetan Emperor Trisong Detsen ) makes a great effort to attack Manichaeism by stating that Mani was a heretic who engaged in religious syncretism into a deviating and inauthentic form. Manichaeans in Iran tried to assimilate their religion along with Islam in the Muslim caliphates . Relatively little is known about

12285-488: The tranquility of our people and even inflicting grave damage to the civic communities. We have cause to fear that with the passage of time they will endeavour, as usually happens, to infect the modest and tranquil of an innocent nature with the damnable customs and perverse laws of the Persians as with the poison of a malignant (serpent) ... We order that the authors and leaders of these sects be subjected to severe punishment, and, together with their abominable writings, burnt in

12402-476: The underworld. The Romans had a similar belief system about the afterlife, with Hades becoming known as Pluto . In the ancient Greek myth about the Labours of Heracles , the hero Heracles had to travel to the underworld to capture Cerberus , the three-headed guard dog, as one of his tasks. In Dream of Scipio , Cicero describes what seems to be an out of body experience , of the soul traveling high above

12519-469: The warriors and shades, Tartarus (where the titans and powerful non-mortal enemies of the Olympians reside) where he can hear the groans of the imprisoned, the palace of Pluto , and the fields of Elysium where the descendants of the divine and bravest heroes reside. He sees the river of forgetfulness, Lethe , which the dead must drink to forget their life and begin anew. Lastly, his father shows him all of

12636-404: Was a fourth "law of thought" known as the "law of reason and consequent" : In this context the words "necessarily infer" are synonymous with "imply" . In further discussion Hamilton identified "the law" with modus ponens ; thus the act of "necessarily infer" detaches the consequent for purposes of becoming the (next) antecedent in a "chain" of connected inferences. William James asserts

12753-483: Was a temporary interruption rather than complete cessation of life. Eternal life could be ensured by means like piety to the gods, preservation of the physical form through mummification , and the provision of statuary and other funerary equipment. Each human consisted of the physical body, the ka , the ba , and the akh . The Name and Shadow were also living entities. To enjoy the afterlife, all these elements had to be sustained and protected from harm. On 30 March 2010,

12870-571: Was already known there in the second half of the 6th century. The nomadic Uyghur Khaganate lasted for less than a century (744–840) in the southern Siberian steppe, with the fortified city of Ordu-Baliq on the Upper Orkhon River as its capital. Before the end of the year (763), Manichaeism was declared the official religion of the Uyghur state. Boku Tekin banned all the shamanistic rituals that had previously been in use. His subjects likely accepted his decision. That much results from

12987-526: Was also influenced by writings of the gnostic Bardaisan (154–222 CE), who, like Mani, wrote in Syriac and presented a dualistic interpretation of the world in terms of light and darkness in combination with elements from Christianity. Mani was heavily inspired by Iranian Zoroastrian theology. Noting Mani's travels to the Kushan Empire (several religious paintings in Bamyan are attributed to him) at

13104-617: Was held by historic Greek figures, such as Pythagoras and Plato . It is a common belief of various ancient and modern religions, such as Spiritism , theosophy , and Eckankar . It is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia , and South America. Although the majority of denominations within the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include

13221-455: Was on that occasion that the Father openly acknowledged his sonship. The suffering, death and resurrection of this Jesus were in appearance only as they had no salvific value but were an exemplum of the suffering and eventual deliverance of the human soul and a prefiguration of Mani's own martyrdom. (3) The pain suffered by the imprisoned Light-Particles in the whole of the visible universe, on

13338-485: Was peaceful and contented, and the Sun always shone there. Tartarus was for the people that blasphemed against the gods or were rebellious and consciously evil. InTartarus, the soul would be punished by being burned in lava or stretched on racks. The Asphodel Fields were for a varied selection of human souls including those whose sins equaled their goodness, those who were indecisive in their lives, and those who were not judged. Some heroes of Greek legend are allowed to visit

13455-403: Was that it was all my own self, and my own impiety had divided me against myself. My sin was all the more incurable because I did not think myself a sinner. Some modern scholars have suggested that Manichaean ways of thinking influenced the development of some of Augustine's ideas, such as the nature of good and evil, the idea of hell, the separation of groups into elect, hearers, and sinners, and

13572-400: Was the key to salvation as too passive and unable to affect any change in one's life. I still thought that it is not we who sin but some other nature that sins within us. It flattered my pride to think that I incurred no guilt and, when I did wrong, not to confess it ... I preferred to excuse myself and blame this unknown thing which was in me but was not part of me. The truth, of course,

13689-522: Was the only way to have an afterlife. What are referred to as the Coffin Texts , are inscribed on a coffin and serve as a guide for the challenges in the afterlife. The Coffin texts are more or less a duplication of the Pyramid Texts , which would serve as a guide for Egyptian pharaohs or queens in the afterlife. Only if the corpse had been properly embalmed and entombed in a mastaba , could

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