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132-453: His controversial first mandate, marked by a political crisis and oscillating support from the PNL's leader Ion I. C. Brătianu , played a part in legislating land reform and repressed communist activities, before being brought down by the rally of opposition forces. His second term of 1926–1927 brought a much-debated treaty with Fascist Italy , and fell after Averescu gave clandestine backing to

264-479: A Second lieutenant . During his military service, Brătianu studied engineering . He left for Paris in 1883, and attended the Collège Sainte-Barbe , then took classes (without being a registered student) at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (1884–1889). Brătianu received an engineer's diploma, but not a licence to practice . In 1889, he returned to the country and was assigned orders by

396-521: A motion of no confidence to be passed on March 26; in return, Averescu obtained the support of the monarch in dissolving the Parliament, and invested his cabinet's energies into winning the early elections by enlisting the help of county -level officials (local administration came to be dominated by People's Party officials). It carried the vote with 206 seats (223 together with Take Ionescu 's Conservative-Democratic Party ). As agreements between

528-621: A neutral stance and participation alongside the Central Powers (to which Romania had committed itself); instead, the PNL called for an alignment with the Entente Forces . Despite the fact that Brătianu was again prime minister from 16 January 1914 to 9 February 1918, his policies in this respect were procrastinated. Initially, a decision on the matter was blocked by King Carol, until his death in September 1914. Afterwards, with

660-643: A reactionary group formed by the electrician Constantin Pancu , engaged in violence against communist activists in Iași (the latter were feared by Averescu as well). Nevertheless, in late 1919, Averescu and Argetoianu approached the Socialist Party of Romania and its associate, the Social Democratic Party of Transylvania and Banat , with an offer for collaboration, negotiating the matter with

792-616: A Central Powers counter-offensive that swept through Oltenia and Wallachia , occupied Bucharest, and forced all governmental structures to take refuge in Iaşi . While Moldavia remained the only region under Romanian administration and the country increased its reliance on Imperial Russia - and then on the Russian Provisional Government , the Romanian Army was able to block further Central Powers' offensives in

924-428: A German- Austrian -Bulgarian army of 910,000 in less than four months of combat. "The strictness of General Averescu is well known in his army... There is no pardon for a coward, whoever he may be. I was present a few days ago at the execution of a wealthy young cavalry reserve officer. He retired his detachment from a position without reason or order; he was tried and shot four days later. If General Averescu

1056-480: A People's Party cabinet in return for moderation. The PNL retreated its backing after finding a more convenient option in a Take Ionescu -led cabinet, and Brătianu became prime minister again from 17 January 1922 to 30 March 1926. The fourth Brătianu cabinet adopted the Constitution of 1923 , a document which confirmed universal male suffrage and minority rights as first defined by the laws of 1918; because of

1188-528: A People's Party cabinet to be formed "at a proper time". Ionescu took over as premier until late January 1922, when he was replaced by Brătianu. In early 1926, the general was again named Premier, and approached the PNR and its close ally, the Peasants' Party, proposing a merger around his leadership. This met with a stiff refusal, as it seemed that the two were about to win the elections with additional support, but

1320-608: A clarification of Romania's debt status; it also led to the signing of a five-year Friendship Treaty (September 16), widely condemned by Romanian public opinion for not having called on Italy to state its support for Romanian rule in Bessarabia , and created tension inside the Little Entente ( Yugoslavia feared that Italy had attempted to gain Romania's neutrality in case of a potential irredentist conflict). Writing at

1452-725: A complaint against the poet and journalist Bazil Gruia , claiming that the latter had libeled him by publishing, in January, an article in Chemarea which began by questioning the People's Party claim that Averescu was "the only honest comrade of the Romanian peasant" and contrasted it with the general's activities during the 1907 Revolt . The trial was held in Cluj , and Gruia was represented in court by Radu R. Rosetti . On December 1, Gruia

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1584-799: A dictatorial regime", claimed that, during his stay in Italy, the general had been decisively influenced by Radicalism and the Risorgimento movement. This, in Argetoianu's view, was the cause for his repeated involvement in conspiracies ; he recalled that, in 1919, Davila's house was the scene of regular reunion of officers, who plotted Brătianu's ousting and pondered dethroning the king (in this version of events, Averescu initially accepted to be proclaimed dictator, but, around October of that year, called on conspirators to renounce their plan). Aiming to answer most of Romania's social and political issues,

1716-586: A document convened with King Ferdinand, which suspended Parliament (the first legislative body in Greater Romania ) for ten days — the measure was intended to give Averescu the time to negotiate a new majority in the chambers. These moves caused a vocal response from the opposition: Nicolae Iorga , who was president of the Chamber of Deputies and sided with the National Party, called for

1848-593: A dynasty. In the Carpathian mountains, he built Peleș Castle in German style, which is considered one of Europe's most beautiful castles and is still one of Romania's most visited landmarks. After the Russo-Turkish War , Romania gained Northern Dobruja and Carol ordered Romanian engineer Anghel Saligny (a competitor and friend of Gustave Eiffel ) to build the first contemporary permanent bridge over

1980-754: A fusion between the Romanian National Party and the National Liberals, but negotiations broke down after disagreements over the possible leadership. Eventually, Brătianu convened with Ferdinand his return to power, and the king called on Foreign Minister Take Ionescu to resign, thus causing a political crisis that profited the PNL and put an end to the Averescu cabinet. Shows of popular support in Bucharest were called of by Averescu himself, after he had negotiated with Brătianu for

2112-443: A handful of insiders. Upon its renewal in 1892, he had to inform his prime minister and foreign minister, but Parliament and the public at large did not even know about its existence until the beginning of World War I . On 22 June 1884, the Parliament voted in favour of granting Carol and his successors a large royal estate, making the king the biggest landowner in the country. His reign established constitutional monarchy and saw

2244-585: A landslide (269 mandates) also brought a massive defeat for the PNL, who held just 16 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Although not fascist itself, the new government he formed displayed gestures of friendship towards Benito Mussolini 's Fascist Italy , a state which advertised itself as a rising force — The Nation called Averescu "Romania's Mussolini", as "an epithet which the new premier of Rumania bestowed upon himself". Contacts established (as early as June 1926, when Mihail Manoilescu had negotiated

2376-535: A loan in Rome ) were one of the major points of divergence between the policies of Averescu and those of Brătianu: the former attempted to overcome the embarrassment provoked by Mussolini when, due to Romania's debt, the Italian government had recalled the ambassador and had refused to permit King Ferdinand's pre-convened visit. The loan convened by Manoilescu and Mussolini made important concessions to Italy in return for

2508-461: A male heir, leaving his elder brother Leopold next in line to the throne. In October 1880 Leopold renounced his right of succession in favour of his son William , who in turn surrendered his claim six years later in favour of his younger brother, the future King Ferdinand . Prince Karl Eitel Friedrich Zephyrinus Ludwig of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was born on 20 April 1839 in Sigmaringen , in

2640-526: A measure which heavily affected the country's Jewish population This constitution allowed the development and modernization of the Romanian state. In a daring move, the Constitution chose to ignore the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire , which paved the way towards de jure independence. Article 82 made the throne a hereditary office of Carol's descendants "on the male line through

2772-500: A moderate version of land reform, as well as the creation of a single electoral college - a measure which would have given more accurate representation to the peasant majority. Over the following months, these policies were approved on principle by King Carol I , and even by the Conservative Party . The outbreak of the world conflict in 1914 brought a major polemic in Romanian society. The Conservatives oscillated between

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2904-470: A new beginning, of course, but a beginning based on much older foundations. During the Communist era, Carol became a target of scorn for Romanian historians, as were all other figures associated with the monarchy. He was often described as a money-hungry foreign prince who was placed on the throne by Western capitalists in order to tighten their control over the Romanian state, no more than a simple pawn of

3036-539: A prolonged siege, Osman Nuri Pasha surrendered the town on 28 November 1877. This victory sent ripples within Romanian society, elevating Carol's name among the pantheon of national heroes. The Romanian army, under Carol, continued to fight in the war, most notably the battles of Smârdan and Vidin. By early 1878, the Turks were losing the war and on the third of March they signed the Treaty of San Stefano , which recognized

3168-459: A radical version of the land reform , leading to endless debates in parliament. At the same time, the People's Party , a new and strong populist movement under General Averescu, had begun a campaign for both an urgent land reform and for bringing about the prosecution of PNL politicians as agents of the economic hardships. Faced with a choice, Brătianu approached Averescu and offered PNL support for

3300-606: A social trend rather than a political party , it also attracted former members of the Conservative Party (such as Constantin Argetoianu , Constantin Garoflid , and Take Ionescu ), military men such as Constantin Coandă , the Democratic Nationalist Party leader A. C. Cuza , the notorious supporters of dirigisme Mihail Manoilescu and Ștefan Zeletin , the moderate nationalist Duiliu Zamfirescu ,

3432-521: A symbol of the nation and its unity. While Romania did not take part in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the conflict nonetheless affected the early reign of Carol I. Since he was a German prince ruling a historically Francophile country, there was a strong feeling of distrust towards Carol during the time, who was not yet seen as Romanian. Several attempts to force the prince to abdicate took place around this time, usually led by

3564-662: A village northwest of Izmail , Ukraine ). The son of Constantin Averescu, who held the rank of sluger , he studied at the Romanian Orthodox seminary in Izmail, then at the School of Arts and Crafts in Bucharest (intending to become an engineer ). In 1876, he decided to join the Gendarmes in Izmail. Seeing action as a cavalry sergeant with the Romanian troops engaged in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 , he

3696-531: Is not as spectacular as the military one. Averescu ended up as one of the pawns maneuvered by Brătianu. Argetoianu later repeatedly expressed his distaste for Averescu's hesitant stance and openness to compromise. Initially, Brătianu approached Averescu using their shared displeasure over the Alexandru Vaida-Voevod Romanian National Party (PNR)- Peasants' Party (PȚ) cabinet; the National Liberals managed to obtain

3828-563: Is now thought of as a figure of national unity who is seen as the founder of the modern Romanian state and one of the most revered individuals in the country's history. During the 100 Greatest Romanians show broadcast by the national television in 2006, Carol I was voted the second greatest Romanian who has ever lived, after only Stephen the Great. The Carol I National Defence University and Central University Library in Bucharest, and

3960-442: Is strict with delinquents, the brave know that they will find in him their best friend and protector. His contact with the army under him is so close that he gets to know of the smallest act of bravery, and rewards, as far as possible personally, the man who has done it." Averescu was widely seen as the person behind a relatively successful resistance to further offensives on Moldavia (the single piece of territory still held by

4092-468: The Strousberg Affair which personally implicated Carol. Overall, the country still had an agrarian-focused economy and the situation of the peasantry failed to improve, leading to a major revolt in 1907, bloodily suppressed by the authorities. He married Princess Elisabeth of Wied on 15 November 1869. They only had one daughter, Maria , who died at the age of four. Carol never produced

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4224-460: The 1866 Constitution of Romania , one of the most modern constitutions of its time. Carol signed it into law two days later. Modeled closely on the Constitution of Belgium , it guaranteed private propriety, freedom of speech, total freedom of the press, it abolished the death penalty during peace time, and established separation of powers . Despite the otherwise liberal nature of the act, the constitution barred non-Christians from becoming citizens,

4356-572: The 1927 elections . Around 1930, Averescu began opposing the universal suffrage he had endorsed earlier, and issued an appeal to the intellectuals in order to have it discarded from legislation on the basis that it was easily influenced by the parties in power. He and his supporter, the pro- authoritarian poet Octavian Goga , received criticism from the left-wing Poporanist journal Viața Românească , who claimed that Averescu had in fact provoked and encouraged widespread electoral irregularities during his time in office. In November 1930, he filed

4488-662: The Allied Powers , recognizing Bessarabia's union with Romania — expressing a hope for the Bolshevik government to be overthrown, it also imposed the region's cession on a projected democratic government in Russia (while calling for further negotiations between it and Romania); throughout the interwar period , the Soviet Union refused to bind itself to the provisions of the agreement. Italy also refused to ratify

4620-526: The Austrian Empire , Karl travelled incognito by railroad from Düsseldorf to Baziaș , through Switzerland. He received there a Swiss passport from a Swiss public clerk, friend of his family, under the name of Karl Hettingen. From Baziaș he travelled by boat to Turnu Severin , since there was no railroad to Romania. As he crossed the border onto Romanian soil, he was met by Brătianu, who bowed before him and asked Karl to join him in his carriage. He

4752-660: The Comintern (arrested on suspicion of "attempt against the state's security" on May 12, 1921). This came after a long debate in Parliament over the imprisonment of Mihai Gheorghiu Bujor , a Romanian citizen who had joined the Russian Red Army in Bessarabia during the later stages of the October Revolution , and who had been tried for treason . Argetoianu, who proclaimed communism to be "over in Romania", later indicated that Averescu and other members of

4884-881: The Constitutional Front , a nationalist electoral alliance with the National Liberal Party-Brătianu , which was joined by Mihai Stelescu 's Crusade of Romanianism (an Iron Guard offshoot), and the minor party created by Grigore Forțu (the Citizen Bloc ); after the latter two parties disappeared, the Front survived in its original form until 1936, when it disbanded. Ion I. C. Br%C4%83tianu Ion Ionel Constantin Brătianu ( Romanian pronunciation: [iˈon brətiˈanu] , also known as Ionel Brătianu ; 20 August 1864 – 24 November 1927)

5016-579: The Danube , between Fetești and Cernavodă , linking the newly acquired province to the rest of the country. The bridge was, at that time, the longest in Europe and, although no longer in use, it is still intact as of 2023. The king's personal authority in military and foreign policy issues was unquestioned. In 1883 he entered into a crucial alliance with the Central Powers , which he personally arranged without discussion in Parliament or with anyone outside

5148-508: The Kaiser , who needed someone that blindly followed his orders to rule over the lower Danube . Additionally, he was depicted as an enemy of the peasantry, who tried to steal their lands and rape young peasant girls. He was usually indicated as the sole source of outrage during the 1907 Peasant Revolt . Starting with the second half of the 1970s, Carol's image was rehabilitated to some extent by Romanian historians, who distanced themselves from

5280-639: The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes . It was also at this stage that Romania and the Second Polish Republic inaugurated their military alliance ( see Polish–Romanian alliance ). The goal to create a cordon sanitaire against Bolshevist Russia also brought him and his Minister of the Interior Argetoianu to oversee repression measures against the group of Socialist Party of Romania members who voted in favor of joining

5412-783: The National-Christian Defense League formed by A. C. Cuza , his early collaborator), and probably considered assuming dictatorial powers. The cabinet clashed with Brătianu when it was discovered that it had been negotiating in secret with the disinherited Prince Carol (a traditional adversary of the PNL) as Ferdinand's health was taking a turn for the worse (Averescu later claimed that he had been asked by Brătianu: "So, after I have brought you to power, you wish to rise and dominate?"). The PNL withdrew its support, and, through an order signed by Constantin Hiott , Averescu's

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5544-461: The Old Kingdom , the traces of foreign domination in the newly acquired provinces, but most of all the state of unhealthy euphoria that had taken hold of Transylvania, who had begun, in all good faith, to believe that only she had made the union happen , all of these have created a sort of insecurity within the borders of [Greater Romania]." As the movement initially tended to describe itself as

5676-594: The Russo-Turkish War , which is known in Romanian historiography as the War of Independence . At the behest of then foreign minister Mihail Kogălniceanu and against the advice of his Crown Council, Carol decided to permit Russian troops to pass through its territory on the way to Bulgaria. This resulted in Turkish bombardments of Romanian towns on the Danube. At this point, Romania was de facto independent, being "bound to

5808-604: The Second Schleswig War , including the assault of the Fredericia citadel and Dybbøl , an experience which would be very useful to him later in the Russo-Turkish war . Although he was quite frail and not very tall, prince Karl was reported to be the perfect soldier, healthy and disciplined, and also a very good politician with liberal ideas. He was familiar with several European languages. His family

5940-599: The Tecuci regional Army Command Center in 1906. Before the First World War, he led the troops in crushing the 1907 peasants' revolt — where he engaged in using very harsh means of repression, especially when dealing with soldiers who refused to fight against the rebels — and was subsequently Minister of War in Dimitrie Sturdza 's National Liberal Party (PNL) cabinet (1907–1909). According to

6072-633: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, the Rumcherod administrative body in Odessa , led by Christian Rakovsky , ordered an offensive from the east into Romania. In order to prevent further losses, Averescu signed his name to a much-criticized temporary armistice with the Rumcherod ; eventually, Rakovsky was himself faced with a German offensive (sparked by the temporary breakdown of negotiations at Brest-Litovsk), and had to abandon both his command and

6204-443: The Treaty of Bucharest , which gained Romania the territory of Southern Dobruja , expanding the territory obtained by the country under King Carol and confirming Romania's dominant role in the region. The long rule of Carol helped the quick development of the Romanian state. Towards the end of his reign and the start of World War I , Carol wanted to enter the war on the side of the Central Powers ; however, Romanian public opinion

6336-572: The prima donna of La Scala . His future collaborator and rival Constantin Argetoianu stated that Averescu "chose Mrs. Clotilda at random". Upon his return, Averescu steadily climbed through the ranks. He was head of the Bucharest Military Academy (1894–1895), and, in 1895–1898, Romania's military attaché in the German Empire ; a colonel in 1901, he was advanced to the rank of brigadier general and became head of

6468-430: The trenches , it was through him that hopes were solidified, and he was expected of to provide a miracle for people to live a carefree and fulfilling life. His popularity was something mystical , something supernatural, and all sorts of legends had begun to surround this Messiah of the Romanian people." Although he was also Prime Minister of Romania for three mandates (1918, 1920–1921, 1926–1927), his political success

6600-628: The April Uprisings of 1876 were brutally suppressed by irregular bashi-bazouks . The international outrage at the Bulgarian massacre – particularly on the part of Russia, who saw itself as a protector of Orthodox Christians in general and Bulgarians in particular – triggered several diplomatic efforts over the next year. After the failure of these diplomatic attempts, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877, launching

6732-408: The Army, being promoted to Lieutenant . Later in that year, he joined the Romanian Railways as an engineer, working under the leadership of Anghel Saligny . He became a member of the PNL in 1895, the same year he ran in elections and was elected to the Parliament of Romania by the Ist College (of the landed gentry ) in Gorj County . In early 1899, he was in the majority that voted in favor of

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6864-408: The Catholic branch of the family. He was the second son of Prince Karl Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and his wife, Princess Josephine of Baden . After finishing his elementary studies, Karl entered the Cadet School in Münster . In 1857 he was attending the courses of the Artillery School in Berlin . Up to 1866, when he accepted the crown of Romania, he was a Prussian officer. He took part in

6996-436: The Crown Council. Averescu, who authored over 12 works on various military topics (including his memoirs from the frontline), was also an honorary member of the Romanian Academy and an Order of Michael the Brave recipient. He became a Marshal of Romania in 1930. Averescu was born in Babele, United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (later renamed to Alexandru Averescu , today Ozerne  [ ro ; uk ] ,

7128-426: The Finance Ministry reserve. With Nicolae Titulescu as Finance Minister, Averescu resumed the interventionist course in economic policies, but broke with tradition when he attempted to legislate a major increase in taxes and proposed nationalizations — with potential negative effects on the PNL-voting middle class . The National Liberals, through the voice of Alexandru Constantinescu-Porcu , helped exploit

7260-450: The Great , Michael the Brave or Alexandru Ioan Cuza . This view emerged during the second half of his reign, with the founding of the constitutional monarchy and the victory in the War of Independence making Carol a legendary personage in his own lifetime, according to historian Lucian Boia : His long reign (of forty-eight years, one more than Stephen the Great) allowed the myth to come to fruition even within his lifetime. The image of

7392-457: The Italians (still rivals of Adolf Hitler ), approached Averescu (as well as Manoilescu, Nicolae Iorga , Nichifor Crainic , Cuza, Goga, and other non-Guardist reactionaries), with an offer for collaboration ( see Comitati d'azione per l'universalità di Roma ). This apparent alliance was, in fact, marked by major dissensions — Averescu and Iorga were routinely attacked by Crainic's Calendarul . Eventually, Averescu's group formed, in 1934,

7524-461: The League's founding document called for: "A land reform, with the passage of the land which is at the moment expropriated only on principle [ - a reference to the 1917 promise for a land reform] into the effective and immediate ownership of villagers through the means of communes ; an electoral reform , through universal suffrage , direct election , secret ballot , and compulsory voting , with representation given to ethnic minorities , since

7656-421: The Ottoman Empire only by the payment of tribute (which had dropped to 1% of the country's budget) and a number of largely formal prerogatives in matters of foreign policy." On May 10, 1877, Romania declared its independence, ending the legal fiction of Ottoman suzerainty that had existed since 1861. The declaration was put forward and voted on by the Parliament and promulgated by Prince Carol. While Russia

7788-414: The PNL leader's wife, placed Averescu's ascension in the context of Greater Romania 's creation through the addition of Bessarabia , Bukovina , and Transylvania (while making use of the condescending National Liberal tone towards the Romanian National Party that was emerging triumphant in previously Austro-Hungarian Transylvania): "[The] so very harsh losses [during the war], the defeats suffered by

7920-449: The PNR and PȚ broke down (with the PNR awaiting for new developments), the PȚ joined Iorga's party, the Democratic Nationalists , in creating the Federation of National-Social Democracy (which also drew support from the group around Nicolae L. Lupu ). His mandate was marked by the signing of the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary , and initial steps leading to the creation of the Little Entente —formed by Romania with Czechoslovakia and

8052-426: The People's Party did attempt to approach Maniu for an alliance at various intervals after summer 1919 (according to Argetoianu, their attempts were frustrated by King Ferdinand I , whose relationship with Maniu was cordial at the time, and who allegedly stated "Maniu is no one else's! Maniu is mine!"). The grouping also established close links with Garda Conștiinței Naționale (GCN, "The National Awareness Guard"),

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8184-402: The People's Party, and the latter attacked Averescu for "subverting [...] the traditional respect enjoyed by the Crown". The clash led to Goga's creation of the splinter National Agrarian Party , which, although never an important force, obtained more of the vote in the 1932 elections (approx. 3% compared to Averescu's 2%). Around 1934, as the Guard proclaimed its allegiance to Nazi Germany ,

8316-465: The Romanian state), and he was considered by many of his contemporaries to have stood in contrast to what was seen as endemic corruption and incompetence. The state of affairs, together with the October Revolution in Russia, was to be blamed for the eventual Romanian surrender to the Central Powers; promoted Premier by King Ferdinand I during the period of crisis, Averescu began armistice talks with August von Mackensen in Buftea and Focșani , but

8448-427: The Second Army Corps in Craiova . In 1912, he became a major general , and, in 1911–1913, he was Chief of the General Staff . In the latter capacity, Averescu organized the actions of Romanian troops operating south of the Danube in the Second Balkan War (the campaign against Bulgaria , during which his troops met no resistance). During the World War (which Romania entered in 1916), General Alexandru Averescu led

8580-502: The Second Romanian Army in the successful defense of the Predeal Pass , and was then moved to the head of the Third Army (following the latter's defeat in the Battle of Turtucaia ). He commanded Army Group South in the Flămânda operation against the Third Bulgarian Army and other forces of the Central Powers , ultimately stopped by the German offensive (Averescu's forces did not register important losses, and orderly retreated to Moldavia , where Romanian authorities had taken refuge from

8712-401: The ascension of Ferdinand I (who was to remain a political ally of Brătianu for the rest of his life), the government started secret negotiations with the Entente, meant to condition Romania's participation with the granting of Austro-Hungarian lands with a majority Romanian population. In August 1916, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary. Minor advances into Transylvania were met with

8844-476: The base in Odessa. Averescu quit the army in the spring of 1918, aiming for a career in politics — initially, with a message that was hostile to the National Liberal Party (PNL) and its leader Ion I. C. Brătianu . He presided over the People's Party (initially named People's League ), and he was immensely popular especially among peasants after the end of the war. His force had an appealing populist message, translated into vague promises and relying on

8976-517: The basis on which the Romanian Principalities ' unification was recognized by the European powers. With him gone, the country was in danger of disintegration, as the Ottoman Empire and other powers initially accepted the unification only on the condition that it would end with his reign. As Romanian politicians searched for a successor, Karl was not their first choice. The authors of the anti-Cuza coup first approached Philip of Flanders , brother of king Leopold II of Belgium , hoping that he would bring

9108-448: The battles of Mărășești , Mărăști , and Oituz . This situation was ended by the October Revolution in Russia and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between the Bolshevik government and the Central Powers: Romania saw itself without reinforcements, agreed to an armistice , and then signed the Treaty of Bucharest in May 1918. In the meantime, Brătianu's had been replaced with the crisis government of General Alexandru Averescu , and this

9240-489: The cabinet were hesitant about the crackdown, and that he ultimately resorted to taking initiative for the arrests — thus presenting his fellow politicians with a fait accompli . The regions coming under Romania's administration at the end of the war still maintained their ad hoc administrative structures, including the Transylvanian Directory Council, set up and dominated by the PNR; Averescu ordered these dissolved in April, facing protest from local notabilities. At

9372-519: The chief of police and the county Prefect, occupying several official buildings and proclaiming the so-called Republic of Ploiești . The revolt lasted less than 24 hours and lead to the arrest of many Liberal leaders. Future republican projects were rare, especially since Brătianu became prime minister in 1876 and helped Liberals hold power until 1889, becoming loyal supporters of King Carol. Between 1875 and 1877 anti-Ottoman revolts took place in several Balkan countries, most notably Bulgaria , where

9504-465: The child-king Michael and Prince Nicholas ' regency . In November 1927, Averescu took the stand in the trial of his supporter Mihail Manoilescu , who was arrested after having incited pro-Carol sentiment; in his testimony, he backed the notion that, despite his initial anger, Ferdinand had ultimately planned to have Carol return to the throne. His grouping lost much of its supporters to the newly formed National Peasants' Party , and scored under 2% in

9636-574: The country after the abdication of the Bulgarian prince Alexander of Battenberg . Stambolov's intention was to establish a personal union between Bulgaria and Romania . Carol I was interested in the offer, but had to reject it under Russian pressure. In 1913 Romania intervened in the Second Balkan War and invaded Bulgaria. The approach of Romanian troops towards Sofia determined the Bulgarians to negotiate an armistice which resulted in

9768-405: The day had run its course. The new government would organize elections which they would invariably win. This resulted in a situation where Parliament reflected the will of the government, not vice versa as is the case in a true parliamentary democracy. Between 1886 and 1887, there was a new proposal to make Carol I the ruler of Bulgaria. He was strongly supported by Stefan Stambolov , regent of

9900-519: The document, citing, alongside various foreign interests (including its friendship with the Soviet Union), the 250 million Italian lire owed to Italian investors in Romanian state bonds . In March 1921, Argetoianu became implicated in a scandal involving the actions of his associate Aron Schuller, who had attempted to contract a 20 million lire loan with a bank in Italy, using as collateral Romanian war bonds that he had illegally obtained from

10032-426: The dynasty he had founded. His wife, Elizabeth, claimed he 'wore the crown in his sleep'. He was very meticulous and he tried to impose his style upon everyone that surrounded him. Though he was devoted to his job as Romania's ruler, he never forgot his German roots. In 48 years of rule—the longest in Romanian history—he helped Romania gain its independence, raised its prestige, helped redress its economy and established

10164-456: The early days of democracy in Romania, despite the fact that elections of that era are largely seen as being controlled. Although the framers of the Constitution intended to vest most of the power in Parliament, the King exercised considerable influence on the electoral process. He would essentially alternate power between the two parties, installing the opposition whenever he felt the ruling party of

10296-677: The effects of the reform as promised by Duca — reason why Constantin Garoflid , seen by Argetoianu as "the Conservative and theorist of large-scale landed property ", was promoted as Minister of Agriculture. Argetoianu also accused the Premier of endorsing reform in an even more radical shape, and contended that: "[...] peasants blessed «father Averescu», who gave them land, and rallied around him even tighter. Brătianu, Duca, they were nowhere mentioned except in curses. O, human gratitude!" In October 1920, Averescu reached an agreement with

10428-418: The end of 1930, Averescu was again at the center of Romanian politics, owing to Carol's favor, to the deaths of Ion I. C. and Vintilă Brătianu , and to the unexpected support he gained from the PNL dissident Gheorghe I. Brătianu . He ultimately showed himself hostile to Carol's inner circle, and especially to the king's lover Magda Lupescu ; consequently, Goga was instigated by Carol to take over as leader of

10560-557: The entry of former members of the Romanian Social-Democratic Workers' Party into the PNL. He served as Minister of Public Works (31 March 1897-March 30, 1899; 14 February 1901-July 18, 1902) and Minister of the Interior (12 March 1907-December 27, 1908) - the latter assignment was prompted by the effects of the 1907 Peasants' Revolt . In 1909, he was elected head of the National Liberals, a position he

10692-481: The future diplomat Citta Davila , the journalist D. R. Ioaniţescu , the left-wing agrarianist Petru Groza , the Bukovinian leader Iancu Flondor , and the lawyer Petre Papacostea . Additional support came from Transylvanian activists such as Octavian Goga and Teodor Mihail , who had previously left the Romanian National Party there in protest over the policies of its president Iuliu Maniu . Nevertheless,

10824-553: The general's renunciation of his goal to prosecute their party for alleged mis-management of Romania before and during the war, as well as his promise to respect the 1866 Constitution of Romania when carrying out the planned land reform . At the same time, Brătianu kept a tight relationship with King Ferdinand. On March 13, 1920, he gave news of the Vaida-Voevod cabinet's dissolution, and was widely expected to call for early elections as soon as this had happened. Instead, he read

10956-620: The highly centralised model it favored, it drew suspicion from the Transylvanian politicians that it served the goal of a National Liberal-dominated Old Kingdom (especially after the constitution was approved of through a simple vote in Parliament). At the same time, the PNL cabinet began carrying out a national-level land reform. As the elections of 1926 confirmed the rise of the National Peasants' Party (created as

11088-513: The image of the General: peasants had been promised land at the beginning of the war (and they were being rewarded with it at the very moment, through an agrarian reform that reached its full scope in 1923); they had formed the larger part of the Army, and had come to see Averescu as the one to fulfill their expectations, as well as a figure who was still commanding their allegiance. Eliza Brătianu ,

11220-473: The independence of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria. After the war, the Treaty of Berlin recognized Romania as an independent country on 13 July 1878. In addition, Romania was granted the former Ottoman territory of Northern Dobruja , an immensely valuable territorial gain that gave Romania possession of the mouth of the Danube and access to the Black Sea. From 1878, Carol held

11352-499: The influence of his wife, Marie of Edinburgh , a British princess), was more willing to listen to public opinion and brought Romania into the war on the side of the Allies in 1916. When he was elected prince of Romania, Carol was unmarried. In 1869, the prince started a trip around Europe and mainly Germany, to find a bride. During this trip he met and married Princess Elizabeth of Wied at Neuwied on 15 November 1869. Their marriage

11484-519: The institutions of his country to the Lower Danube and turn the newly unified country into a "Belgium of the East". Wary of France's oppositions, Philip, who also turned down the throne of Greece a few years earlier, refused. Soon after, Napoleon III suggested Karl, who was the brother in law of Philip. Napoleon's recommendation weighed heavily with Romanian politicians of the time, since Romania

11616-617: The king entered a top-secret military alliance with the Austro-Hungarian Empire , despite popular demands against Hungary . When World War I broke out he was unable to activate the alliance. Romania remained neutral and in 1916 joined the Allies . Domestic political life was organized around the rival Liberal and Conservative parties. During Carol's reign, Romania's industry and infrastructure were much improved, however this process also resulted in major scandals, including

11748-580: The king, suspicious of the left-wing credentials of the Peasants' Party, used his Royal Prerogative and nominated Averescu as premier (with PNL support). Averescu's party was instead joined by PNR dissidents, Vasile Goldiș and Ioan Lupaș , who represented a Romanian Orthodox segment of the Transylvanian voters (rather than the Greek Catholics supporting Iuliu Maniu ). The 1926 elections , which Averescu's cabinet organized in March and won with

11880-413: The latter would not hinder the free manifestation of political individualities; administrative decentralization ." According to Argetoianu, "in the autumn of 1919, [Averescu's] popularity had reached its peak. In the villages, people would dream of him, some swore that they had seen him descending from an airplane into their midst, others, who had fought in the war, told that they had lived by his side in

12012-400: The more propagandistic views of the last three decades. While more mainstream publications, such as school text books, continued the anti-monarchy line, some academics began describing his reign as a period of national progress and acknowledged his role in preserving the young Union . Following the collapse of Communism in 1989 , the monarchy was fully rehabilitated in the public eyes. Carol

12144-429: The noted activist Vasile Kogălniceanu , a deputy for Ilfov County , as rapporteur ; Kogălniceanu used this position to give an account of the agrarian situation in Romania, stressing the role played by his ancestor, Constantin , in abolishing Moldavian serfdom , as well as that of his father, Mihail Kogălniceanu , in eliminating corvées throughout Romania. The People's Party found itself hard pressed to limit

12276-501: The opposition mistrusted, alleging that the new owners were to be People's Party members), when Argetoianu addressed a mumbled insult to the Peasant Party's Virgil Madgearu . Ion G. Duca of the PNL expressed his sympathies to Madgearu (who had repeated out an obscene word whispered by Argetoianu), and all opposition groups appealed to Ferdinand, asking for Averescu's recall (July 14, 1921). Ferdinand then attempted to facilitate

12408-471: The ousted Prince Carol . Faced with the People Party's decline, Averescu closed deals with various right-wing forces and was instrumental in bringing Carol back to the throne in 1930. Relations between the two soured over the following years, and Averescu clashed with his fellow party member Octavian Goga over the king's attitudes. Shortly before his death, he and Carol reconciled, and Averescu joined

12540-409: The parties' reformist leaders — Ioan Flueraș , Ilie Moscovici , and Iosif Jumanca . At the time, Argetoianu claimed, his conversations with Moscovici revealed the fact that the latter was growing suspicious of the party's far left wing, where "the blanket-maker Cristescu and others were agitating". Averescu proposed merging the two parties, as a distinct section, into the People's Party; he

12672-503: The position. He led the Romanian delegation to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference , where he was a vocal supporter of the union with Transylvania and Bukovina. Although ultimately Romania received most territories it claimed, he resigned in 1919 since he would not accept a compromise on the disputed territories in Banat that had become part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . However, Romania had registered other successes - notably, Russia's exit from

12804-652: The recollections of Eliza Brătianu , a split occurred between him and the PNL after Averescu attempted to advance various political goals — the conflict erupted when he sought support with King Carol I and then, as the National Liberals deeply resented Romania's alliance with the Central Powers , he approached the Germans for backing. Subsequently, he was commander of the First Infantry Division (stationed in Turnu Severin ) and, later, of

12936-521: The republicans and radical liberals led by Ion C. Brătianu and C. A. Rosetti . Carol's alliance with the Conservatives which effectively blocked the Liberals out of government did little to quell Liberal animosity towards the prince. The most well known such incident took place on 8 August 1870, when radical liberals in the city of Ploiești started a revolt and attempted coup by arresting

13068-524: The right of first-born, perpetually excluding women and their descendants ." It also required that Carol's descendants be "raised in the Eastern Orthodox Religion." Although Carol was vested with executive power, he was not politically responsible for exercising it. His acts were only valid if they were countersigned by a minister, who then became responsible for the act in question. Nevertheless, he commanded great moral authority as

13200-748: The rivalry between the Peasants' Party and Iorga, using the latter's rejection of Constantin Stere (a conflict sparked by Stere's support for Germany during the World War); Stere won partial elections for the deputy seat in Soroca , Bessarabia, causing a political scandal which saw all parties (including the PNR) declare their dissatisfaction. The conflict worsened during a prolonged parliamentary debate over Averescu's proposal to nationalize enterprises in Reșița (an initiative

13332-456: The royal couple, Elizabeth never completely recovering from the trauma of losing her only child. After the proclamation of the Kingdom (1881), the succession was a very important matter of state. Since Carol's brother, Leopold (in 1880), and his oldest son, William (in 1886), declined their rights, the second son of Leopold, Ferdinand , was named prince of Romania and heir-presumptive to

13464-482: The same time, he ordered all troops to be demobilized . He unified currency around the Romanian leu , and imposed a land reform in the form in which it was to be carried out by the new Brătianu executive. In fact, the latter measure had been imposed by the outgoing PNL cabinet through the order of Ion G. Duca , in a manner which Argetoianu described as "destructive". As an initial step, Averescu's government appointed

13596-473: The sovereign, mediocre at first, took on a powerful brilliance in the last years of the century. An educational poster of around 1900 presents "the four pillars of the Romanian people", along with other heroes of Wallachian history. The four are Trajan and Decebalus, Cuza and Carol I. Even Michael the Brave becomes a secondary figure by comparison. Carol appears organically rooted in Romanian history; he represents

13728-638: The successful German operations). Averescu again led the Second Army to victory in the Battle of Mărăști (August 1917); his achievements, including his brief breakthrough at Mărăști, were considered impressive by public opinion and his officers. However, several military historians rate Averescu and his fellow Romanian generals very poorly, arguing that, overall, their direction of the war "could not have been worse". Despite controlling an army of 500,000 plus 100,000 Russian reinforcements, they were defeated by

13860-450: The throne, in 1886. Towards the end of Carol's life Carol and Elizabeth finally found a way to understand each other and were reported to have become good friends. Carol died on 10 October [ O.S. 27 September] 1914, at the age of 75 years old. Carol I is seen as a towering figure of national history in contemporary Romania. He is often depicted in history books as a historical leader on par with Decebalus , Stephen

13992-579: The time, Constantin Vișoianu also criticized the vague terms in which the sections of the document dealing with mutual defense had been drafted: "What have we gained from Italy through this pact? Nothing. In truth, article 3 — which does not [even] refer to Bessarabia — makes provisions for the eventuality of a violent incursion and organizes a mutual assistance system [that is] original through its Platonic love -like character." The treaty expired in 1932, and, after being prolonged by six months, it

14124-522: The title of Royal Highness ( Alteță Regală ). The war had also made possible the appearance of the Principality of Bulgaria . This young state began a search for a new prince, and Carol I was among the candidates, although he was not elected. On 15 March 1881, the constitution was amended to proclaim Romania a kingdom . Carol became the first King of Romania , while the heir-apparent or heir-presumptive would be called Prince Royal. On 10 May, Carol

14256-741: The unification of the Old Romanian Kingdom with Transylvania , Bukovina and Bessarabia ( see: Greater Romania ). In 1923, he was elected an honorary member of the Romanian Academy . Born at Florica , his father's estate in Ștefănești , Argeș County , he completed his secondary education at the Saint Sava National College in Bucharest (1882). He then volunteered for the Romanian Army 's artillery , serving for six months before becoming

14388-622: The union of the Romanian National and Peasants' parties), King Ferdinand again called on Averescu to form the government. By that moment, the general was thought by the PNL to be a convenient agent of its own policies, but Averescu's negotiations for a return of the disinherited Prince Carol after his father's imminent death made Brătianu switch his support to a broad coalition government under Barbu Ştirbey . On 21 June 1927, Brătianu returned with his fifth and final cabinet. He died in Bucharest, from complications of laryngitis , and

14520-562: The war had led to the union with Bessarabia (the Moldavian Democratic Republic ). Soon, the PNL found itself threatened by the political realities of a Greater Romania . The policy of alliances of the Romanian National Party (a mainly Transylvanian group) had brought the rapid formation of the cabinet of Alexandru Vaida-Voevod in December 1919; this cabinet, and especially its Peasants' Party group, supported

14652-501: Was a Romanian politician, leader of the National Liberal Party (PNL), Prime Minister of Romania for five terms, and Foreign Minister on several occasions; he was the eldest son of statesman and PNL leader Ion Brătianu , the brother of Vintilă and Dinu Brătianu , and the father of Gheorghe I. Brătianu . Ion I. C. Brătianu's political activities after World War I , including part of his third and fourth term, saw

14784-497: Was antisemitic and opposed the granting of Romanian citizenship to Jews. After World War I, however, antisemitism disappeared from the Liberals' political program, even forming alliances with Jewish politicians. The spectre of socialist agitation, which had led to incidents such as a major strike action in Bucharest in December 1918, brought about the fall of the Constantin Coandă cabinet, and Brătianu again occupied

14916-690: Was closely related to the Bonaparte family (one of his grandmothers was a Beauharnais , Joséphine's niece-in-law, and the other a Murat, Joachim 's niece Marie Antoinette Murat ), and they enjoyed very good relations with Napoleon III of France . The former Domnitor (ruling prince) of united Romania, Alexandru Ioan Cuza , had been expelled from the country by the leading noblemen, leaving Romania in political chaos. Cuza's double election seven years earlier, both in Wallachia and in Moldavia , had been

15048-455: Was crowned king. The 1866 Constitution was retained, with the word "prince" replaced by the word "king". The Steel Crown that was used in the coronation of Carol was forged from steel of a melted Ottoman cannon that was captured by the Romanian Army at the Pleven. Since 2016 it is depicted on the Romanian coat of arms . King Carol was a cold man who was always focused on the prestige of

15180-628: Was crowned, Karl swore this oath: "I swear to guard the laws of Romania, to maintain the rights of its People and the integrity of its territory." He took this oath in French , as he did not yet speak Romanian. In fact, it is said that, before his nomination as Domnitor, he had never heard of Romania. However, he endeared himself to his adopted country by adopting the Romanian spelling of his name, Carol. He learned to speak Romanian not long after that. On 29 June – two months after Carol's arrival – the Romanian parliament adopted

15312-550: Was decorated on several occasions, but was later moved to reserve (after failing his medical examination due to the effects of frostbite ). He was, however, reinstated later in 1878, and subsequently received a military education in Romania, at the military school of Târgoviște ( Dealu Monastery ), and in Italy , at the Military Academy of Turin . Averescu married an Italian opera singer, Clotilda Caligaris, who had been

15444-488: Was elected Prince of the Romanian United Principalities on 20 April 1866 after the overthrow of Alexandru Ioan Cuza by a palace coup d'état . In May 1877, Romania was proclaimed an independent and sovereign nation. The defeat of the Ottoman Empire (1878) in the Russo-Turkish War secured Romanian independence, and he was proclaimed King on 26 March [ O.S. 14 March] 1881. He

15576-403: Was formally elected Domnitor on 20 April. On 10 May 1866 (22 May 1866 N.S. ), Karl entered the capital of Bucharest . The news of his arrival had been transmitted by telegraph and he was welcomed by a huge crowd eager to see the new ruler. In Băneasa he was given the keys to the capital city. It was a rainy day after a long period of drought, which was taken to be a good omen by locals. As he

15708-409: Was found guilty and sentenced to 15 days in a correctional facility with reprieve, and to a fine of 3,000 lei (soon after, Gruia benefited from a pardon). Averescu was promoted to Marshal of Romania in the same year, during the time when Carol returned to rule as King — the appointment was attributed by Time to his political support for the latter's return. According to the same source, by

15840-531: Was happy to be given travelling rights inside Romanian territory, it vehemently opposed Romania actively entering the war, as this would have given them a place at the negotiation table after the war. However, after the Russian advance was halted outside the Bulgarian town of Pleven, they requested the Romanian army's urgent intervention. Carol obtained the command of the combined Russian and Romanian forces that were surrounding Pleven and following heavy fighting and

15972-615: Was held with the Crown Council , where Carol told them about the secret treaty and shared his opinion with them. However, most of the Crown Council members strongly disagreed, opting for neutrality, with prime-minister Brătianu being a particularly strong voice for preserving the peace obtained by the Treaty of Bucharest. King Carol died on 10 October [ O.S. 27 September] 1914. The new king, Ferdinand (under

16104-514: Was not renewed. Overall, the political impact of contacts was minor, given that the Italians mistrusted the Romanian movement for its traditional role as instrument for Brătianu. Referring to the parallel project to marry Princess Ileana to Prince Umberto of Italy , Averescu himself allegedly stated: "I didn't get much from Italy except a throne for a Princess of Rumania". Averescu continued to offer his support to far right groups (especially to

16236-595: Was overwhelmingly Francophile and sided with the Triple Entente . Carol had signed a secret treaty in 1883 which had linked Romania with the Triple Alliance . Although the treaty was to be activated only if Russia attacked one of the signatories, Carol was convinced that the honourable thing to do was to enter the war supporting the German Empire and his cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm II . On 3 August [ O.S. 21 July] 1914, an emergency meeting

16368-553: Was refused, and talks broke down when the general expected the Socialists to support his electoral platform. According to Eliza Brătianu (who was comparing Averescu with the French rebel soldier Georges Boulanger ), several voices inside his movement called on Averescu to lead a republican coup d'état against King Ferdinand and his wife — a move allegedly prevented only by the general's loyalism . Argetoianu, who admitted that "I shook hands with Averescu [...] expecting

16500-463: Was replaced as prime minister by his brother Vintilă Brătianu until the calling of elections . Carol I of Romania Carol I or Charles I of Romania (born Karl Eitel Friedrich Zephyrinus Ludwig von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ; 20 April 1839 – 10 October [ O.S. 27 September] 1914), was the monarch of Romania from 1866 to his death in 1914, ruling as Prince ( Domnitor ) from 1866 to 1881, and as King from 1881 to 1914. He

16632-626: Was replaced by the broad coalition government of Barbu Știrbey , Brătianu's brother-in-law. The general's deposition, confirmed by King Ferdinand on his deathbed, created a vacuum on the Right , soon filled by the Iron Guard , a fascist movement formed by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (formerly an associate of Cuza's). The People's Party involved itself in solving the dynastic crisis after Ferdinand's death in July 1927, again approaching Carol to replace

16764-650: Was soon followed by Alexandru Marghiloman 's (chosen to negotiate the peace, as the German Empire was thought to be friendly towards Marghiloman). Nonetheless, Romania never did ratify the signed treaty, and denounced it in October 1918, immediately re-entering the conflict on the Entente's side. In November, the Compiègne armistice with Germany removed all legal value of the Bucharest Treaty. Brătianu

16896-407: Was strange, with Carol being a cold and calculating man while Elizabeth was a notorious dreamer who published literature under the name of Carmen Sylva. They had one child, Princess Maria , born in 1870, who died 9 April (N.S.) 1874. She had no prospect of inheriting her father's throne; as mentioned above, the Constitution limited succession to the male line. This led to the further estrangement of

17028-429: Was strongly influenced by French culture. Napoleon was a strong supporter of Romanian independence, hoping to consolidate French influence on the Black Sea. Another factor was Karl's blood relation to the ruling Prussian family. Ion Brătianu was the Romanian politician sent to negotiate with Karl and his family the possibility of installing him on the Romanian throne. Due to the political conflict between Prussia and

17160-676: Was the first ruler of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty, which ruled the country until the proclamation of a socialist republic in 1947. During his reign, Carol I personally led Romanian troops during the Russo-Turkish War and assumed command of the Russo/Romanian army during the siege of Plevna . The country achieved internationally recognized independence via the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 and acquired Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria in 1913. In 1883

17292-451: Was to hold until his death; he first became prime minister in January 1909, and kept the office until 28 December 1910. Brătianu's policies moved the PNL towards an acceptance of land reform , but deliberations over the project continued until after World War I , with Brătianu himself showing reserves over projects that aimed to replace the 1866 Constitution of Romania with a fully democratic one. In 1913, he convinced his party to accept

17424-490: Was vehemently opposed to the terms — he resigned, leaving the Alexandru Marghiloman cabinet when it signed the Treaty of Bucharest . Despite Averescu's talks yielding no result, he was repeatedly attacked by his political adversaries for having initiated them. During the period, he also faced a Russian Bolshevik military action: just before Averescu came to power, as Russia's Leon Trotsky negotiated

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