Misplaced Pages

#550449

154-483: A second meaning is more specific, and concerns the late medieval and early modern nation of France , wherein the seneschal ( French : sénéchal ) was also a royal officer in charge of justice and control of the administration of certain southern provinces called seneschalties , holding a role equivalent to a northern French bailiff ( bailli ). In the United Kingdom the modern meaning of seneschal

308-775: A Pole (1978), a German (2005), and an Argentinian (2013). During the first millennium, popes were elected unanimously (at least in theory). After a decree by the Synod of Rome in 1059, some factions contended that a simple majority sufficed to elect. In 1179, the Third Council of the Lateran settled the question by calling for unanimity, but permitting the Pope to be elected by two-thirds majority, "if by chance, through some enemy sowing tares, there cannot be full agreement." As cardinals were not allowed to vote for themselves (after 1621),

462-492: A cardinal who has to use the lavatory may leave the conclave and later be readmitted; a cardinal who leaves for any reason other than illness may not return to the conclave. Although in the past cardinal electors could be accompanied by attendants (" conclavists "), now only a nurse may accompany a cardinal who for reasons of ill-health, as confirmed by the Congregation of Cardinals, needs such assistance. The secretary of

616-414: A choice, they were required to send a delegation to Constantinople requesting the emperor's consent, which was necessary before the individual elected could take office. Travel to and from Constantinople caused lengthy delays. When Pope Benedict II (684–685) complained about them, Emperor Constantine IV (in office 654–685) acquiesced, ending the requirement for emperors to confirm elections. Thereafter,

770-546: A codification of the ancient Catholic law that only Catholics can be elected popes, to the exclusion of non-Catholics, including former Catholics who have become public and manifest heretics. Pope Urban VI in 1378 became the last pope elected from outside the College of Cardinals. The last person elected as pope who was not already an ordained priest or deacon was the cardinal-deacon Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, elected as Pope Leo X in 1513. His successor, Pope Adrian VI ,

924-418: A compound of * sini - (cf. Gothic sineigs "old", sinista "oldest") and scalc "servant", ultimately a calque of Late Latin senior scholaris "senior guard". The scholae in the late Roman Empire referred to the imperial guard, divided into senior ( seniores ) and junior ( juniores ) units. The captain of the guard was known as comes scholarum . When Germanic tribes took over

1078-460: A fourth immediately follows. No changes in these rules were made by Benedict XVI in 2007. These rules were followed (so far as is known, given the secrecy of a conclave) in electing Pope Francis in March 2013. The scrutiny phase of the election is as follows: The cardinal electors proceed, in order of precedence, to take their completed ballots (which bear only the name of the individual voted for) to

1232-401: A papal bull that introduced regulations relating to the enclosure of the conclave and other procedures. Gregory XV issued two bulls that covered the most minute of details relating to the election; the first, in 1621, concerned electoral processes, while the other, in 1622, fixed the ceremonies to be observed. In December 1904 Pope Pius X issued an apostolic constitution consolidating almost all

1386-512: A part of France. North of the Loire, the King of France at times fought or allied with one of the great principalities of Normandy, Anjou, Blois-Champagne, Flanders and Burgundy. The duke of Normandy was overlord of the duke of Brittany. South of the Loire were the principalities of Aquitaine, Toulouse and Barcelona. Normandy became the strongest power in the north, while Barcelona became the strongest in

1540-467: A pope is ill or aged and shortlists of potential candidates appear in the media. A cardinal who is considered to be a prospect for the papacy is described informally as a papabile (an adjective used substantively: the plural form is papabili ), a term coined by Italian-speaking Vatican watchers in the mid-20th century, literally meaning "pope-able". The death of the pope is verified by the cardinal camerlengo , or chamberlain, who traditionally performed

1694-403: A pope. The Third Lateran Council had initially set the requirement that two-thirds of the cardinals were needed to elect a pope in 1179. This requirement had varied since then, depending on whether the winning candidate was allowed to vote for himself, in which cases the required majority was two-thirds plus one vote. Aeterni Patris Filius prohibited this practice and established two-thirds as

SECTION 10

#1732772969551

1848-465: A practice which grew out of Late Antiquity. This practice would develop into the system of vassalage and feudalism in the Middle Ages. Originally, vassalage did not imply the giving or receiving of landholdings (which were granted only as a reward for loyalty), but by the eighth century the giving of a landholding was becoming standard. The granting of a landholding to a vassal did not relinquish

2002-611: A series of expulsions in the 14th century, caused considerable suffering for French Jews; see History of the Jews in France . During the Middle Ages in France, Medieval Latin was the primary medium of scholarly exchange as well as the liturgical language of the Catholic Church ; it was also the language of science, literature, law, and administration. From 1200 on, vernacular languages began to be used in administrative work and

2156-413: A steady increase of aristocratic and monastic control of the land, at the expense of landowning peasants. At the same time, the traditional notion of "unfree" dependents and the distinction between "unfree" and "free" tenants was eroded as the concept of serfdom (see also History of serfdom ) came to dominate. From the mid-8th century on, particularly in the north, the relationship between peasants and

2310-521: Is a gathering of the College of Cardinals convened to elect a bishop of Rome , also known as the pope. Catholics consider the pope to be the apostolic successor of Saint Peter and the earthly head of the Catholic Church . Concerns around political interference led to reforms after the interregnum of 1268–1271 and Pope Gregory X 's decree during the Second Council of Lyons in 1274 that

2464-491: Is a symbol of the end of the pope's reign. During the sede vacante , as the papal vacancy is known, certain limited powers pass to the College of Cardinals, which is convoked by the dean of the College of Cardinals. All cardinals are obliged to attend the general congregation of cardinals, except those whose health does not permit, or who are over eighty (but those cardinals may choose to attend if they please as non-voting members). The particular congregation, which deals with

2618-492: Is divisible by three, with a rounding up to two-thirds plus one otherwise. Paul VI reinstated Pius XII's procedure thirteen years later, but John Paul II overturned it again. In 1996, John Paul II's constitution allowed election by absolute majority if deadlock prevailed after thirty-three or thirty-four ballots (thirty-four ballots if a ballot took place on the first afternoon of the conclave). In 2007 Benedict XVI rescinded John Paul II's change (which had effectively abolished

2772-419: Is elected, or no ballot had taken place, a maximum of four ballots are held on each successive day: two in each morning and two in each afternoon. Before voting in the morning and again before voting in the afternoon, the electors take an oath to obey the rules of the conclave. If no result is obtained after three vote days of balloting, the process is suspended for a maximum of one day for prayer and an address by

2926-937: Is often translated by historians as "seneschal". The Seneschal of Tynwald is an administrative role to the Parliament of the Isle of Man, part of the staff of the Clerk of Tynwald’s Office. The Seneschal role was formed in 2006 and is part of the Tynwald Corporate Services Office. The Seneschal manages the Messengers and Gardyn Coadee. The Seneschal of Sark presides over the Court of the Seneschal, which hears civil and some criminal cases. Formerly, officers known as Seneschal Dapifers were involved in

3080-724: Is primarily as an ecclesiastical term, referring to a cathedral official. The Medieval Latin discifer ( dish-bearer ) was an officer in the household of later Anglo-Saxon kings, and it is sometimes translated by historians as seneschal, although the term was not used in England before the Norman Conquest . The term, first attested in 1350–1400, was borrowed from Anglo-Norman seneschal "steward", from Old Dutch * siniscalc "senior retainer" (attested in Latin siniscalcus (692 AD), Old High German senescalh ),

3234-406: Is required to elect the new pope. The most recent papal conclave occurred in 2013 , when Jorge Mario Bergoglio was elected as Pope Francis , succeeding the retiring Pope Benedict XVI . The procedures for the election of the pope developed over almost two millennia . Until the College of Cardinals was created in 1059, the bishops of Rome, like those in other areas, were elected by acclamation of

SECTION 20

#1732772969551

3388-658: The English Channel , both for reasons of trade and of flight from the Anglo-Saxon invasions of England, and established themselves in Armorica in northwest France. Their dialect evolved into the Breton language in more recent centuries, and they gave their name to the peninsula they inhabited: Brittany . Attested since the time of Julius Caesar , a non-Celtic people who spoke a Basque -related language inhabited

3542-536: The Estates General , and also to an effective end to serfdom. From the 12th and 13th centuries on, France was at the center of a vibrant cultural production that extended across much of western Europe, including the transition from Romanesque architecture to Gothic architecture and Gothic art ; the foundation of medieval universities (such as the universities of Paris (recognized in 1150), Montpellier (1220), Toulouse (1229), and Orleans (1235)) and

3696-609: The Holy Roman Emperor , who had the duty of providing security and public peace in Rome. A major change came in 1059, when Pope Nicholas II decreed in In Nomine Domini that the cardinals were to elect a candidate to take office after receiving the assent of the clergy and laity. The cardinal bishops were to meet first and discuss the candidates before summoning the cardinal priests and cardinal deacons for

3850-666: The Investiture Controversy led to the abolition of the emperor's role. In 1122 the Holy Roman Empire acceded to the Concordat of Worms , accepting the papal decision. From about 1600, certain Catholic monarchs claimed a jus exclusivae (right of exclusion), i.e. a veto over papal elections, exercised through a crown-cardinal . By an informal convention, each state claiming the veto could exercise

4004-669: The Novempopulania ( Aquitania Tertia ) in southwestern France, though the language gradually lost ground to the expanding Romance during a period spanning most of the Early Middle Ages. This Proto-Basque influenced the emerging Latin-based language spoken in the area between the Garonne and the Pyrenees , eventually resulting in the dialect of Occitan called Gascon . Scandinavian Vikings invaded France from

4158-656: The Ostrogothic Kings of Italy and in 533, Pope John II formally recognised the right of the Ostrogothic monarchs to ratify elections. By 537 the Ostrogothic monarchy had been overthrown, and power passed to the Byzantine emperors . A procedure was adopted whereby officials were required to notify the Exarch of Ravenna upon the death of a pope before proceeding with the election. Once the electors arrived at

4312-525: The Roman emperors once held considerable sway in the elections of popes. In 418, Emperor Honorius settled a controversial election, upholding Pope Boniface I over the challenger Antipope Eulalius . On the request of Boniface I, Honorius ordered that in future cases, any disputed election would be settled by a fresh election. After the demise of the Western Roman Empire , influence passed to

4466-477: The Romance languages into three groups by their respective words for "yes": Nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil ("For some say oc , others say si , others say oïl "). The oïl languages – from Latin hoc ille , "that is it" – were spoken primarily in northern France, the oc languages – from Latin hoc , "that" – in southern France, and

4620-667: The cardinal electors should be locked in seclusion cum clave ( Latin for "with a key") and not permitted to leave until a new pope had been elected. Conclaves are now held in the Sistine Chapel of the Apostolic Palace in Vatican City. Since the Apostolic Age , the bishop of Rome, like other bishops, has been chosen by the consensus of the clergy and laity of the diocese . The body of electors

4774-410: The infirmarii return to the chapel, the ballots are counted to ensure that their number matches with the number of ill cardinals; thereafter, they are deposited in the appropriate receptacle. This oath is taken by all cardinals as they cast their ballots. If no one is chosen on the first scrutiny, then a second scrutiny immediately follows. A maximum total of four scrutinies can be taken each day, two in

Seneschal - Misplaced Pages Continue

4928-517: The si languages – from Latin sic , "thus" – on the Italian and Iberian peninsulas . Modern linguists typically add a third group within France around Lyon , the "Arpitan" or " Franco-Provençal language ", whose modern word for "yes" is ouè . The Gallo-Romance group in the north of France, consisting of langues d'oïl such as Picard , Walloon , and Francien , were influenced by Germanic languages spoken by

5082-483: The 10th to the 11th centuries, the urban development of the country expanded (particularly on the northern coasts): new ports appeared and dukes and counts encouraged and created new towns. In other areas, urban growth was slower and centered on the monastic houses. In many regions, market towns ( burgs ) with limited privileges were established by local lords. In the late 11th century, " communes ", governing assemblies, began to develop in towns. Starting sporadically in

5236-400: The 11th century. The traditional rights of "free" peasants—such as service in royal armies (they had been able to serve in the royal armies as late as Charlemagne's reign) and participation in public assemblies and law courts—were lost through the 9th to the 10th centuries, and they were increasingly made dependents of nobles, churches and large landholders. The mid-8th century to 1000 also saw

5390-403: The 12th century. The economic and demographic crises of the 14th–15th centuries ( agricultural expansion had lost many of the gains made in the 12th and 13th centuries ) reversed this trend: landlords offered serfs their freedom in exchange for working abandoned lands, ecclesiastical and royal authorities created new "free" cities ( villefranches ) or granted freedom to existing cities, etc. By

5544-459: The 14th century, before the arrival of the Black Death, the total population of the area covered by modern-day France has been estimated at 16 million. The population of Paris is controversial. Josiah Russell argued for about 80,000 in the early 14th century, although he noted that some other scholars suggested 200,000. The higher count would make it by far the largest city in western Europe;

5698-466: The 5th century on, personally attended on the king, as specifically stated in the Codex Theodosianus of 413 ( Cod. Theod. VI. 13. 1; known as comes scholae ). The warband, once sedentary, became first the king's royal household , and then his great officers of state , and in both cases the seneschal is synonymous with steward. In late medieval and early modern France , the seneschal

5852-548: The 9th century onwards and established themselves mostly in what would come to be called Normandy . The Normans took up the langue d'oïl spoken there, although Norman French remained heavily influenced by Old Norse and its dialects. They also contributed many words to French related to sailing and farming. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the Normans' language developed into Anglo-Norman . Anglo-Norman served as

6006-671: The Cardinal received his dinner, each dish underwent a careful inspection by the prelates on guard, in order that no letter should be concealed in it. These ceremonies have not been observed since the nineteenth century. In the Knights Templar , seneschal was the title used by the second-in-command of the Order after the Grand Master . [REDACTED] The dictionary definition of seneschal at Wiktionary France in

6160-753: The Carolingian period, by the 11th century and continuing into the 13th century, the lay (secular) public in France—both nobles and peasants—was largely illiterate , except for (at least to the end of the 12th century) members of the great courts and, in the south, smaller noble families. This situation began to change in the 13th century, where we find highly literate members of the French nobility like Guillaume de Lorris , Geoffrey of Villehardouin (sometimes referred to as Villehardouin), and Jean de Joinville (sometimes referred to as Joinville). Similarly, due to

6314-407: The College of Cardinals that Austria opposed the election of Mariano Rampolla . Consequently, the college elected Giuseppe Sarto as Pope Pius X , who issued the constitution Commissum nobis six months later, declaring that any cardinal who communicated his government's veto in the future would suffer excommunication latae sententiae . To resolve prolonged deadlocks in papal elections in

Seneschal - Misplaced Pages Continue

6468-487: The College of Cardinals, the master of papal liturgical celebrations, two masters of ceremonies , two officers of the Papal Sacristy and an ecclesiastic assisting the dean of the College of Cardinals are also admitted to the conclave. Priests are available to hear confessions in different languages; two doctors are also admitted. Finally, a strictly limited number of servant staff are permitted for housekeeping and

6622-652: The Emperor was only required to be notified. The last pope to notify a Byzantine emperor was Pope Zachary in 741. In the 9th century, the Holy Roman Empire came to exert control over papal elections. While Charlemagne (emperor from 800 to 814) and Louis the Pious (emperor from 813 to 840) did not interfere with the Church, Lothair I (emperor from 817 to 855) claimed that an election could only take place in

6776-510: The Empire, the scholae were merged or replaced with the Germanic king's warband (cf. Vulgar Latin * dructis , OHG truht , Old English dryht ) whose members also had duties in their lord's household like a royal retinue . The king's chief warbandman and retainer (cf. Old Saxon druhting , OHG truhting , truhtigomo OE dryhtguma , dryhtealdor ), from

6930-625: The French kingdom was more or less a fiction. The "domaine royal" of the Capetians was limited to the regions around Paris , Bourges and Sens . The great majority of French territory was part of Aquitaine , the Duchy of Normandy , the Duchy of Brittany , the Comté of Champagne , the Duchy of Burgundy , the County of Flanders and other territories (for a map, see Provinces of France ). In principle,

7084-446: The French system of peers. Peerage was attached to a specific territorial jurisdiction, either an episcopal see for episcopal peerages or a fief for secular. Peerages attached to fiefs were transmissible or inheritable with the fief, and these fiefs are often designated as pairie-duché (for duchies) and pairie-comté (for counties). By 1216 there were nine peers: A few years later and before 1228 three peers were added to make

7238-599: The Gallo-Roman urban network of cities survived (albeit much changed) into the Middle Ages as regional centers and capitals: certain cities had been chosen as centers of bishoprics by the church (for example, Paris , Reims , Aix , Tours , Carcassonne and Narbonne , Auch , Albi , Bourges , Lyon , etc.), others as seats of local (county, duchy) administrative power (such as Angers , Blois , Poitiers , Toulouse ). In many cases (such as with Poitiers ) cities were seats of both episcopal and administrative power. From

7392-687: The Middle Ages The Kingdom of France in the Middle Ages (roughly, from the 10th century to the middle of the 15th century) was marked by the fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire and West Francia (843–987); the expansion of royal control by the House of Capet (987–1328), including their struggles with the virtually independent principalities (duchies and counties, such as the Norman and Angevin regions), and

7546-522: The Rhine. This was used as a pretext for an aggressive policy and repeated invasions. The belief, however, had mere basis in reality for not all of these territories were part of the Kingdom and the authority of the King within his kingdom would be quite fluctuant. The lands that composed the Kingdom of France showed great geographical diversity; the northern and central parts enjoyed a temperate climate while

7700-565: The Romans; one was "noble" if he or she possessed significant land holdings, had access to the king and royal court, could receive honores and benefices for service (such as being named count or duke ). Their access to political power in the Carolingian period might also necessitate a need for education. Their wealth and power was also evident in their lifestyle and purchase of luxury goods, and in their maintenance of an armed entourage of fideles (men who had sworn oaths to serve them). From

7854-595: The Sacred College. These were often prominent nobility, or monks who were not priests, and in all cases, celibacy was required. With the death of Teodolfo Mertel in 1899, this practice was ended. In 1917, the Code of Canon Law promulgated that year, explicitly stated that all cardinals must be priests. Since 1962, all cardinals have been bishops, with the exception of a few priests who were made cardinals after 1975 and being 80 years of age or older, were dispensed from

SECTION 50

#1732772969551

8008-562: The See of Rome. Bishops of dioceses were sometimes elected while still catechumens , such as the case of St. Ambrose , who became Bishop of Milan in 374. In the wake of the violent dispute over the 767 election of Antipope Constantine II , Pope Stephen III held the synod of 769, which decreed that only a cardinal priest or cardinal deacon could be elected, specifically excluding those that are already bishops. Church practice deviated from this rule as early as 817 and fully ignored it from 882 with

8162-469: The Seneschal Dapifer, who was charged with the very important duty of seeing that the Cardinal's food was not poisoned! ... The dishes were enclosed in hampers or tin boxes, covered with green or violet drapery, and ... were carried in state through the entrance halls, preceded by the mace of the Cardinal. The Seneschal Dapifer, bearing a serviette on his shoulder, preceded the dishes.... Before

8316-667: The actual vote. The Second Council of the Lateran in 1139 removed the requirement for obtaining the assent of the lower clergy and the laity, while the Third Council of the Lateran in 1179 gave equal rights to the entire College of Cardinals when electing a new pope. Through much of the Middle Ages and Renaissance the Catholic Church had only a small number of cardinals at any one time, as few as seven under either Pope Alexander IV (1254–1261) or Pope John XXI (1276–1277). The difficulty of travel further reduced

8470-753: The afternoon in the Pauline Chapel in the Apostolic Palace and process to the Sistine Chapel while singing the Litany of the Saints . The cardinals will also sing the " Veni Creator Spiritus ", invoking the Holy Spirit , then take an oath to observe the procedures set down by the apostolic constitutions; to, if elected, defend the liberty of the Holy See ; to maintain secrecy; and to disregard

8624-416: The age limit slightly, so that cardinals who turn 80 before a papal vacancy (not before conclave start) can not serve as electors; this eliminated the idea of scheduling the conclave to include or exclude a cardinal who is very close to the age limit (and in 2013, Cardinal Walter Kasper , 79 when the papacy became vacant, participated in the conclave at age 80). Originally, lay status did not bar election to

8778-451: The altar, where the scrutineers stand. Before casting the ballot, each cardinal elector takes the following Latin oath: Testor Christum Dominum, qui me iudicaturus est, me eum eligere, quem secundum Deum iudico eligi debere. I call as my witness Christ the Lord who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who before God I think should be elected. If any cardinal elector is in

8932-503: The area north of the Loire was dominated by six or seven of these virtually independent states. ) After 1000, these counties in turn began to break down into smaller lordships, as smaller lords wrest control of local lands in the so-called "feudal revolution" and seized control over many elements of comital powers (see vassal/feudal below). Secondly, from the 9th century on, military ability was increasingly seen as conferring special status, and professional soldiers or milites , generally in

9086-489: The attempts of Pope John XXIII (1958–1963) to broaden the representation of nations in the College of Cardinals, that number has increased. In 1970 Paul VI ruled that cardinals who reach the age of eighty before the start of a conclave are ineligible to participate. In 1975 he limited the number of cardinal electors to 120. Though this remains the theoretical limit, all of his successors have exceeded it for short periods of time. John Paul II (in office 1978–2005) also changed

9240-559: The authority of the Holy Roman Emperor (at the time Henry IV ), but only as a concession made by the pope, declaring that the Holy Roman Emperor had no authority to intervene in elections except where permitted to do so by papal agreements. Pope Gregory VII (in office 1073–1085) was the last pope to submit to the interference of the Holy Roman Emperors. The breach between him and the Holy Roman Empire caused by

9394-411: The ballots were designed to ensure secrecy while at the same time preventing self-voting. In 1945 Pope Pius XII removed the prohibition on a cardinal voting for himself, increasing the requisite majority to two-thirds plus one at all times. He eliminated as well the need for signed ballots. His successor John XXIII immediately reinstated the two-thirds majority if the number of cardinal electors voting

SECTION 60

#1732772969551

9548-485: The cardinals are to be lodged in a purpose-built edifice in Vatican City, the Domus Sanctae Marthae , but are to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel. Several duties are performed by the dean of the College of Cardinals , who is always a cardinal bishop. If the dean is not entitled to participate in the conclave owing to age, his place is taken by the vice-dean, who is also always a cardinal bishop. If

9702-446: The cardinals present have taken the oath, the master of papal liturgical celebrations orders all individuals other than the cardinal electors and conclave participants to leave the chapel. Traditionally, he stands at the door of the Sistine Chapel and calls out: " Extra omnes! " ( Latin for 'Outside, all [of you]'). He then closes the door. In modern practice, the master of papal liturgical celebrations does not have to stand at

9856-430: The ceremony of the papal conclave during the election of a new Pope, to see to mealtimes for the cardinal electors while ensuring secrecy. Cardinals regularly had meals sent in from their homes with much pageantry accompanying the conveyance of food: Towards noon each day, the Cardinal's gentlemen proceeded to his house and conveyed his dinner to the Vatican in a state coach. They were accompanied by an officer, known as

10010-399: The chapel, but cannot proceed to the altar due to infirmity, the last scrutineer may go to him and take his ballot after the oath is recited. If any cardinal elector is by reason of infirmity confined to his room, the infirmarii go to their rooms with ballot papers and a box. Any such sick cardinals complete the ballot papers and then take the oath and drop the ballot papers into the box. When

10164-416: The chief justice of the royal courts of appeal in their areas and were occasionally seconded by vice-seneschals. The equivalent post throughout most of northern France was the bailiff ( bailli ), who oversaw a bailiwick ( bailliage ). Under rulers of England In Anglo-Saxon England dish-bearers (in Medieval Latin discifer or dapifer ) were nobles who served at royal feasts. The term

10318-550: The communal movement and growing trade. The 13th to 14th centuries were a period of significant urbanization. Paris was the largest city in the realm, and indeed one of the largest cities in Europe, with an estimated population of 200,000 or more at the end of the century. The second-largest city was Rouen ; the other major cities (with populations over 10,000) were Orléans , Tours , Bordeaux , Lyon , Dijon , and Reims . In addition to these, there also existed zones with an extended urban network of medium to small cities, as in

10472-411: The concession of the usufruct of lands (a beneficatium or " benefice " in the documents) for the lifetime of the vassal, or, sometimes extending to the second or third generation. By the middle of the 10th century, feudal land grants (fee, fiefs) had largely become hereditary. The eldest son of a deceased vassal would inherit, but first he had to do homage and fealty to the lord and pay a " relief " for

10626-423: The conditions under which the fief could be transmitted (e.g. only male heirs) for princes of the blood who held an apanage . By 1328 all apanagists would be peers. The number of lay peerages increased over time from 7 in 1297 to 26 in 1400, 21 in 1505, and 24 in 1588. France was a very decentralised state during the Middle Ages. At the time, Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not

10780-420: The coronation in early periods, due to the fact that most lay peerages were forfeited to or merged in the crown, delegates were chosen by the king, mainly from the princes of the blood. In later periods peers also held up by poles a baldaquin or cloth of honour over the king during much of the ceremony. In 1204 the Duchy of Normandy was absorbed by the French crown, and later in the 13th century two more of

10934-405: The creation and extension of administrative/state control (notably under Philip II Augustus and Louis IX ) in the 13th century; and the rise of the House of Valois (1328–1589), including the protracted dynastic crisis against the House of Plantagenet and their Angevin Empire , culminating in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) (compounded by the catastrophic Black Death in 1348), which laid

11088-570: The cross) with a small silver hammer and chisel into the ring, disfiguring it so it may no longer be used for signing and sealing official papal documents. In his book, Light of the World: The Pope, the Church and the Signs of the Times , Benedict XVI espoused the idea of resignation on health grounds, which already had some theological respectability. The cardinals hear two sermons before

11242-639: The crusades, and French knights founded and ruled the Crusader states . An example of the legacy left in the Middle East by these nobles is the Krak des Chevaliers ' enlargement by the Counts of Tripoli and Toulouse . The history of the monarchy is how it overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and established absolute sovereignty over France in the 16th century. A number of factors contributed to

11396-418: The day-to-day matters of the Church, includes the cardinal camerlengo and the three cardinal assistants—one cardinal bishop, one cardinal priest and one cardinal deacon—chosen by lot. Every three days, new cardinal assistants are chosen by lot. The camerlengo and assistants are responsible, among other things, for maintaining the election's secrecy. The congregations must make certain arrangements in respect of

11550-473: The door of the Sistine Chapel—during the 2013 conclave , the master Guido Marini stood in front of the altar and gave the command through a microphone and only went to the chapel doors to close them after the outsiders had left. The master himself may remain, as may one ecclesiastic designated by the congregations prior to the commencement of the election. The ecclesiastic makes a speech concerning

11704-458: The earlier years, local authorities often resorted to the forced seclusion of the cardinal electors, such as first in the city of Rome in 1241 , and possibly before that in Perugia in 1216 . In 1269 , when the forced seclusion of the cardinals alone failed to produce a pope, the city of Viterbo refused to send in any materials except bread and water. When even this failed to produce a result,

11858-575: The earliest Frankish invaders. From the time of Clovis I on, the Franks expanded their rule over northern Gaul. Over time, the French language developed from either the Oïl languages found around Paris and Île-de-France (the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common characteristics found in all Oïl languages (the lingua franca theory). The langue d'oc , consisting of

12012-494: The election of Pope Marinus I , the Bishop of Caere . Nicholas II, in the synod of 1059, formally codified existing practice by decreeing that preference was to be given to the clergy of Rome, but leaving the cardinal bishops free to select a cleric from elsewhere if they so decided. The Council of 1179 rescinded these restrictions on eligibility. On 15 February 1559, Paul IV issued the papal bull Cum ex apostolatus officio ,

12166-518: The election: one before actually entering the conclave, and one once they are settled in the Sistine Chapel. In both cases, the sermons are meant to lay out the current state of the Church, and to suggest the qualities necessary for a pope to possess in that specific time. The first preacher in the 2005 conclave was Raniero Cantalamessa , the preacher of the papal household and a member of the Capuchin Franciscan order, who spoke at one of

12320-528: The end of the 15th century, serfdom was largely extinct; henceforth "free" peasants paid rents for their own lands, and the lord's demesne was worked by hired labor. This liberated the peasantry to a certain degree, but also made their lives more precarious in times of economic uncertainty. For lords who rented out more and more of their holdings for fixed rents, the initial benefits were positive, but over time they found themselves increasingly cash-strapped as inflationary pressures reduced their incomes. Much of

12474-446: The entourage of sworn lords, began to establish themselves in the ranks of the aristocracy (acquiring local lands, building private castles, seizing elements of justice), thereby transforming into the military noble class historians refer to as " knights ". The Merovingians and Carolingians maintained relations of power with their aristocracy through the use of clientele systems and the granting of honores and benefices, including land,

12628-531: The first three become scrutineers, the second three infirmarii and the last three revisers. New scrutineers, infirmarii and revisers are not selected again after the first scrutiny; the same nine cardinals perform the same task for the second scrutiny. After lunch, the election resumes with the oath to obey the rules of the conclave taken anew when the cardinals again assemble in the Sistine Chapel. Nine names are chosen for new scrutineers, infirmarii , and revisers. The third scrutiny then commences, and if necessary,

12782-410: The following ballots, only the two names who received the most votes in the last ballot shall be eligible in a runoff election where a two-thirds majority is still required. The two people voted on, even if cardinal electors, shall not themselves have the right to vote. The process of voting comprises three phases: the "pre-scrutiny", the "scrutiny", and the "post-scrutiny". During the pre-scrutiny,

12936-570: The independent Vatican City State. Since 1846, when the Quirinal Palace was used, the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican has served as the location of the election. Popes have often fine-tuned the rules for the election of their successors: Pope Pius XII 's Vacantis Apostolicae Sedis (1945) governed the conclave of 1958, Pope John XXIII 's Summi Pontificis electio (1962) that of 1963, Pope Paul VI 's Romano Pontifici eligendo (1975)

13090-638: The instructions of secular authorities on voting. The senior cardinal reads the oath aloud in full; in order of precedence (where their rank is the same, their seniority is taken as precedence), the other cardinal electors repeat the oath, while touching the Gospels . The oath is: Et ego [given name] Cardinalis [surname] spondeo, voveo ac iuro. Sic me Deus adiuvet et haec Sancta Dei Evangelia, quae manu mea tango. And I, [given name] Cardinal [surname], so promise, pledge and swear. So help me God and these Holy Gospels which I now touch with my hand. After all

13244-588: The invaders. Discussion of the size of France in the Middle Ages is complicated by distinctions between lands personally held by the king (the " domaine royal ") and lands held in homage by another lord. The notion of res publica inherited from the Roman province of Gaul was not fully maintained by the Frankish kingdom and the Carolingian Empire , and by the early years of the Direct Capetians ,

13398-491: The land (a monetary recognition of the lord's continuing proprietary rights over the property). By the 11th century, the bonds of vassalage and the granting of fiefs had spread throughout much of French society, but it was in no ways universal in France: in the south, feudal grants of land or of rights were unknown. In its origin, the feudal grant had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and

13552-425: The land became increasingly characterized by the extension of the new "bipartite estate" system ( manorialism ), in which peasants (who were bound to the land) held tenant holdings from a lord or monastery (for which they paid rent), but were also required to work the lord's own " demesne "; in the north, some of these estates could be quite substantial. This system remained a standard part of lord-tenant relations into

13706-762: The language of the ruling classes and commerce in England from the time of the conquest until the Hundred Years' War , by which time the use of French-influenced English had spread throughout English society. Also around this time period, many words from the Arabic language entered French, mainly indirectly through Medieval Latin , Italian and Spanish. There are words for luxury goods ( élixir, orange ), spices ( camphre, safran ), trade goods ( alcool, bougie, coton ), sciences ( alchimie, hasard ), and mathematics ( algèbre, algorithme ). While education and literacy had been important components of aristocratic service in

13860-437: The languages which use oc or òc for "yes", was the language group spoken in the south of France and northeastern Spain . These languages, such as Gascon and Provençal , have relatively little Frankish influence. The Middle Ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects spoken in France. From the 4th to 7th centuries, Brythonic -speaking peoples from Cornwall , Devon , and Wales travelled across

14014-402: The last election by acclamation that of Pope Innocent XI in the 1676 conclave . Universi Dominici gregis formally abolished the long-unused methods of acclamation and compromise in 1996, making scrutiny the only approved method for the election of a new pope. For a significant part of the Church's history, powerful monarchs and governments influenced the choice of its leaders. For example,

14168-469: The late 10th, and increasingly in the 12th century, many towns and villages were able to gain economic, social or judicial privileges and franchises from their lords (exemptions from tolls and dues, rights to clear land or hold fairs, some judicial or administrative independence, etc.). The seigneurial reaction to expanding urbanism and enfranchisement was mixed; some lords fought against the changes, but some lords gained financial and political advantages from

14322-402: The late 9th to the late 10th century, the nature of the noble class changed significantly. First off, the aristocracy increasingly focused on establishing strong regional bases of landholdings, on taking hereditary control of the counties and duchies, and eventually on erecting these into veritable independent principalities and privatizing various privileges and rights of the state. (By 1025,

14476-660: The law courts, but Latin would remain an administrative and legal language until the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) prescribed the use of French in all judicial acts, notarized contracts, and official legislation. The vast majority of the population, however, spoke a variety of vernacular languages derived from vulgar Latin , the common spoken language of the Western Roman Empire. The medieval Italian poet Dante , in his Latin De vulgari eloquentia , classified

14630-405: The lay peerages were absorbed by the crown (Toulouse 1271, Champagne 1284), so in 1297 three new peerages were created, the County of Artois , the Duchy of Anjou and the Duchy of Brittany , to compensate for the three peerages that had disappeared. Thus, beginning in 1297 the practice started of creating new peerages by letters patent , specifying the fief to which the peerage was attached, and

14784-416: The local clergy and people. Procedures similar to the present system were introduced in 1274 when Gregory X promulgated Ubi periculum following the action of the magistrates of Viterbo during the interregnum of 1268–1271. The process was further refined by Gregory XV with his 1621 bull Aeterni Patris Filius , which established the requirement of a two-thirds majority of cardinal electors to elect

14938-485: The lord's mill, etc. (what Georges Duby called collectively the " seigneurie banale " ). Power in this period became more personal and it would take centuries for the state to fully reimpose its control over local justice and fiscal administration (by the 15th century, much of the seigneur's legal purview had been given to the bailliages , leaving them only affairs concerning seigneurial dues and duties, and small affairs of local justice) This "fragmentation of powers"

15092-399: The lord's property rights, but only the use of the lands and their income; the granting lord retained ultimate ownership of the fee and could, technically, recover the lands in case of disloyalty or death. In the 8th-century Frankish empire , Charles Martel was the first to make large scale and systematic use (the practice had remained until then sporadic) of the remuneration of vassals by

15246-523: The lords of these lands owed homage to the French king for their possession, but in reality the king in Paris had little control over these lands, and this was to be confounded by the uniting of Normandy, Aquitaine and England under the Plantagenet dynasty in the 12th century. Philip II Augustus undertook a massive French expansion in the 13th century, but most of these acquisitions were lost both by

15400-430: The lower count would put it behind Venice with 100,000 and Florence with 96,000. The Black Death killed an estimated one-third of the population from its appearance in 1348. The concurrent Hundred Years' War slowed recovery. It would be the mid-16th century before the population recovered to mid-fourteenth century levels. In the early Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning, but increasing persecution, and

15554-526: The masters of ceremonies prepare ballot papers bearing the words Eligo in Summum Pontificem ('I elect as Supreme Pontiff') and provide at least two to each cardinal elector. As the cardinals begin to write down their votes, the secretary of the College of Cardinals, the master of papal liturgical celebrations and the masters of ceremonies exit; the junior cardinal deacon then closes the door. The junior cardinal deacon then draws by lot nine names;

15708-615: The meetings of the cardinals held before the actual day when the conclave began. Cardinal Tomáš Špidlík , a former professor at the Pontifical Oriental Institute and a non-voting member (due to age) of the College of Cardinals, spoke just before the doors were finally closed for the conclave. On the morning of the day designated by the congregations of cardinals, the cardinal electors assemble in Saint Peter's Basilica to celebrate Mass . Then they gather in

15862-460: The middle-ages when their capitals became centres of bishoprics . These religious provinces would survive until the French revolution. During the Roman Empire , southern Gaul was more heavily populated and because of this more episcopal sees were present there at first while in northern France they shrank greatly in size because of the barbarian invasions and became heavily fortified to resist

16016-423: The more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of a " liege lord " was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century. Medieval French kings conferred the dignity of peerage upon certain of his preëminent vassals , both clerical and lay. Some historians consider Louis VII (1137–1180) to have created

16170-538: The norm until 1294, when Pope Celestine V reinstated the 1274 rules. Long interregna followed: in 1314–1316 during the Avignon Papacy , where the original conclaves were dispersed by besieging mercenaries and not reconvened for almost two years; and in 1415–1417, as a result of the Western Schism . It is noteworthy that until 1899, it was a regular practice to generally include a few lay members in

16324-646: The number arriving at conclaves. The small electorate magnified the significance of each vote and made it all but impossible to displace familial or political allegiances. Conclaves lasted months and even years. In his 1274 decree requiring the electors be locked in seclusion, Gregory X also limited each cardinal elector to two servants and rationed their food progressively when a conclave reached its fourth and ninth days. The cardinals disliked these rules; Pope Adrian V temporarily suspended them in 1276 and John XXI's Licet felicis recordationis revoked them later that same year. Lengthy elections resumed and continued to be

16478-564: The outpouring of French vernacular literature from the 12th century on ( chanson de geste , chivalric romance , troubadour and trouvère poetry, etc.), French eventually became the "international language of the aristocracy". In the Middle Ages in France, the vast majority of the population—between 80 and 90 percent—were peasants. Traditional categories inherited from the Roman and Merovingian period (distinctions between free and unfree peasants, between tenants and peasants who owned their own land, etc.) underwent significant changes up to

16632-785: The outside world under grave circumstances, prior to approval of the college, to fulfill their duties: the Major Penitentiary , the cardinal vicar for the Diocese of Rome , and the vicar general for the Vatican City State . Before the conclave that elected Pope Francis, the Sistine Chapel was "swept" to detect any hidden " bugs " or surveillance devices (there were no reports that any were found, but in previous conclaves press reporters who had disguised themselves as conclave servants were discovered). Universi Dominici gregis specifically prohibits media such as newspapers,

16786-404: The people for their general approval or disapproval. This lack of precision in the election procedures occasionally gave rise to rival popes or antipopes . The right of the laity to reject the person elected was abolished by a synod held in the Lateran in 769, but restored to Roman noblemen by Pope Nicholas I during a synod of Rome in 862. The pope was also subjected to oaths of loyalty to

16940-491: The periods preceding or following it. Historians refer to this as the " Medieval Warm Period ", lasting from about the 10th century to about the 14th century. Part of the French population growth in this period (see below) is directly linked to this temperate weather and its effect on crops and livestock. At the end of the Middle Ages, France was the most populous region in Europe—having overtaken Spain and Italy by 1340. In

17094-406: The pope's burial, which by tradition takes place within four to six days of the pope's death, leaving time for pilgrims to see the dead pontiff, and occurs within a nine-day period of mourning known as the novemdiales ( Latin for 'nine days'). The congregations also fix the date and time of the commencement of the conclave. The conclave normally takes place fifteen days after the death of

17248-437: The pope, but the congregations may extend the period to a maximum of twenty days in order to permit other cardinals to arrive in the Vatican City. A vacancy in the papal office may also result from a papal resignation . Until the resignation of Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, no pope had resigned since Gregory XII in 1415. In 1996 Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic constitution Universi Dominici gregis , anticipated

17402-501: The pope. Universi Dominici gregis explicitly provides that even if a synod or an ecumenical council is in session at the time of a pope's death, it may not perform the election. Upon the pope's death, either body's proceedings are suspended, to be resumed only upon the order of the new pope. It is considered poor form to campaign for the position of pope. There is always much outside speculation about which cardinals have serious prospects of being elected. Speculation tends to mount when

17556-742: The possibility of resignation when he specified that the procedures he set out in that document should be observed "even if the vacancy of the Apostolic See should occur as a result of the resignation of the Supreme Pontiff". In the case of a papal resignation, the Ring of the Fisherman is placed in the custody of the Cardinal Camerlengo ; in the presence of the College of Cardinals , the Cardinal Camerlengo marks an X (for

17710-503: The preparing and serving of meals. Secrecy is maintained during the conclave; the cardinals as well as the conclavists and staff are forbidden to disclose any information relating to the election. Cardinal electors may not correspond or converse with anyone outside the conclave, by post, radio, telephone, internet, social media or otherwise, and eavesdropping is an offense punishable by automatic excommunication ( latae sententiae ). Only three cardinal electors are permitted to communicate with

17864-406: The presence of imperial ambassadors. In 898 riots forced Pope John IX to recognise the superintendence of the Holy Roman Emperor. At the same time, the Roman nobility also continued to exert great influence, especially during the tenth-century period known as saeculum obscurum (Latin for "the dark age"). In 1059 the same papal bull that restricted suffrage to the cardinals also recognised

18018-557: The previous rules, making some changes, Vacante sede apostolica . John Paul II instituted several reforms in 1996. The location of the conclaves became fixed in the fourteenth century. Since the end of the Western Schism in 1417, they have taken place in Rome (except in 1799–1800, when French troops occupying Rome forced the election to be held in Venice ), and normally in what, since the Lateran Treaties of 1929, has become

18172-596: The principle of male primogeniture, later popularized as the Salic law . The authority of the king was more religious than administrative. The 11th century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like Normandy , Flanders or Languedoc enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The Capetians , as they were descended from the Robertians , were formerly powerful princes themselves who had successfully unseated

18326-400: The problems facing the Church and on the qualities the new pope needs to have. After the speech concludes, the ecclesiastic leaves. Following the recitation of prayers, the senior cardinal asks if any doubts relating to procedure remain. After the clarification of the doubts, the election may commence. Cardinals who arrive after the conclave has begun are admitted nevertheless. A sick cardinal or

18480-399: The radio, and television. Wi-Fi access is blocked in Vatican City and wireless signal jammers are deployed at the Sistine Chapel to prevent any form of electronic communications to or from the cardinal electors. On the afternoon of the first day, one ballot (referred to as a "scrutiny") may be held, but is not required. If a ballot takes place on the afternoon of the first day and no-one

18634-408: The reign of Charlemagne, who was considered the model king and shining example for knighthood and nobility. The dozen pairs played a role in the royal sacre or consecration , during the liturgy of the coronation of the king, attested to as early as 1179, symbolically upholding his crown, and each original peer had a specific role, often with an attribute. Since the peers were never twelve during

18788-463: The requirement of episcopal ordination. It was in 1975 that Paul VI decreed that those 80 years of age or older were not allowed to vote in papal conclaves. In 1587 Pope Sixtus V limited the number of cardinals to 70, following the precedent of Moses who was assisted by 70 elders in governing the Children of Israel : 6 cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons. Beginning with

18942-492: The rest and important cities were founded on their banks but they were separated by large forests, marsh, and other rough terrains. Before the Romans conquered Gaul, the Gauls lived in villages organised in wider tribes. The Romans referred to the smallest of these groups as pagi and the widest ones as civitates . These pagi and civitates were often taken as a basis for the imperial administration and would survive up to

19096-475: The right once per conclave. Therefore, a crown-cardinal did not announce his veto until the very last moment when the candidate in question seemed likely to get elected. No vetoes could be employed after an election. After the Holy Roman Empire dissolved in 1806, its veto power devolved upon the Austrian Empire . The last exercise of the veto occurred in 1903, when Prince Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko informed

19250-399: The rise of the French monarchy. The dynasty established by Hugh Capet continued uninterrupted until 1328, and the laws of primogeniture ensured orderly successions of power. Secondly, the successors of Capet came to be recognised as members of an illustrious and ancient royal house and therefore socially superior to their politically and economically superior rivals. Thirdly, the Capetians had

19404-425: The royal system of " apanage " (the giving of regions to members of the royal family to be administered) and through losses in the Hundred Years' War . Only in the 15th century would Charles VII and Louis XI gain control of most of modern-day France (except for Brittany , Navarre , and parts of eastern and northern France). The weather in France and Europe in the Middle Ages was significantly milder than during

19558-426: The same period or later: counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as castellans and lesser seigneurs took control of local lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, most importantly the highly profitable rights of justice, but also travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations to use

19712-460: The seeds for a more centralized and expanded state in the early modern period and the creation of a sense of French identity. Up to the 12th century, the period saw the elaboration and extension of the seigneurial economic system (including the attachment of peasants to the land through serfdom ); the extension of the Feudal system of political rights and obligations between lords and vassals ;

19866-407: The senior cardinal deacon. After seven further ballots, the process may again be similarly suspended, with the address now being delivered by the senior cardinal priest. If, after another seven ballots, no result is achieved, voting is suspended once more, the address being delivered by the senior cardinal bishop. After a further seven ballots, there shall be a day of prayer, reflection and dialogue. In

20020-571: The so-called " Renaissance of the 12th century "; a growing body of secular vernacular literature (including the chanson de geste , chivalric romance , troubadour and trouvère poetry, etc.) and medieval music (such as the flowering of the Notre Dame school of polyphony). From the Middle Ages onward, French rulers believed their kingdoms had natural borders: the Pyrenees, the Alps and

20174-433: The so-called "feudal revolution" of the 11th century during which ever smaller lords took control of local lands in many regions; and the appropriation by regional/local seigneurs of various administrative, fiscal and judicial rights for themselves. From the 13th century on, the state slowly regained control of a number of these lost powers. The crises of the 13th and 14th centuries led to the convening of an advisory assembly,

20328-474: The south and the Mediterranean coast (from Toulouse to Marseille , including Narbonne and Montpellier ) and in the north ( Beauvais , Laon , Amiens , Arras , Bruges , etc.). Market towns increased in size and many were able to gain privileges and franchises including transformation into free cities ( villes franches ); rural populations from the countrysides moved to the cities and burgs. This

20482-426: The south. The rulers of both fiefs eventually became kings, the former by the conquest of England, and the latter by the succession to Aragon. French suzerainty over Barcelona was only formally relinquished by Saint Louis in 1258. Initially, West Frankish kings were elected by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his father's lifetime established

20636-715: The southern part was closer to the Mediterranean climate. While there were great differences between the northern and southern parts of the kingdom there were equally important differences depending on the distance of mountains: mainly the Alps , the Pyrenees and the Massif Central . France had important rivers that were used as waterways: the Loire , the Rhône , the Seine as well as the Garonne . These rivers were settled earlier than

20790-438: The standard needed for election. Aeterni Patris Filius did not eliminate the possibility of election by acclamation , but did require that a secret ballot take place first before a pope could be elected. As early Christian communities emerged, they elected bishops, chosen by the clergy and laity with the assistance of the bishops of neighbouring dioceses. Cyprian (died 258) says that Pope Cornelius (in office 251–253)

20944-454: The support of the Church , which favoured a strong central government in France. This alliance with the Church was one of the great enduring legacies of the Capetians. The First Crusade was composed almost entirely of Frankish Princes. As time went on the power of the King was expanded by conquests, seizures and successful feudal political battles. Papal conclave A papal conclave

21098-519: The task by calling out his baptismal (not papal) name three times in the presence of the master of papal liturgical celebrations, and of the cleric prelates, secretary and chancellor of the Apostolic Camera . The camerlengo takes possession of the Ring of the Fisherman worn by the pope; the ring, along with the papal seal, is later destroyed before the College of Cardinals. The tradition originated to avoid forgery of documents, but today merely

21252-479: The title of King gave them a complicated status. Thus they were involved in the struggle for power within France as princes but they also had a religious authority over Roman Catholicism in France as King. However, and despite the fact that the Capetian kings often treated other princes more as enemies and allies than as subordinates, their royal title was often recognised yet not often respected. The royal authority

21406-549: The total of twelve peers: These twelve peerages are known as the ancient peerage or pairie ancienne , and the number twelve is sometimes said to have been chosen to mirror the 12 paladins of Charlemagne in the Chanson de geste (see below). Parallels may also be seen with mythical Knights of the Round Table under King Arthur . So popular was this notion, that for a long time people thought peerage had originated in

21560-457: The townspeople removed the roof of the Palazzo dei Papi in their attempt to speed up the election. In an attempt to avoid future lengthy elections, Gregory X introduced stringent rules with the 1274 promulgation of Ubi periculum . Cardinals were to be secluded in a closed area and not accorded individual rooms. No cardinal was allowed, unless ill, to be attended by more than two servants. Food

21714-402: The transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of "politics of land" (an expression used by the historian Marc Bloch ). The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a "feudal revolution" or "mutation" and a "fragmentation of powers" (Bloch) that was unlike the development of feudalism in England or Italy or Germany in

21868-499: The two conclaves of 1978, John Paul II 's Universi Dominici Gregis (1996) that of 2005, and two amendments by Benedict XVI (2007, 2013) that of 2013. In 1996, John Paul II promulgated a new apostolic constitution , Universi Dominici gregis , which with slight modifications by Pope Benedict XVI now governs the election of the pope, abolishing all previous constitutions on the matter, but preserving many procedures that date to much earlier times. Under Universi Dominici gregis ,

22022-435: The two-thirds majority requirement, as any majority suffices to block the election until a simple majority is enough to elect the next pope), reaffirming the requirement of a two-thirds majority. Electors formerly made choices by accessus , acclamation ( per inspirationem ), adoration, compromise ( per compromissum ) or scrutiny ( per scrutinium ). The last election by compromise was that of Pope John XXII in 1316, and

22176-488: The vice-dean also cannot participate, the senior cardinal bishop participating performs the functions. Since the College of Cardinals is a small body, there have been proposals that the electorate should be expanded. Proposed reforms include a plan to replace the College of Cardinals as the electoral body with the Synod of Bishops , which includes many more members. Under present procedure, the synod may only meet when called by

22330-549: The weak and unfortunate Carolingian kings. The Carolingian kings had nothing more than a royal title when the Capetian kings added their principality to that title. The Capetians, in a way, held a dual status of King and Prince; as king they held the Crown of Charlemagne and as Count of Paris they held their personal fiefdom, best known as Île-de-France . The fact that the Capetians both held lands as Prince as well as in

22484-476: Was also a period of urban building: the extension of walls around the entirety of the urban space, the vast construction of Gothic cathedrals (starting in the 12th century), urban fortresses, castles (such as Philip II Augustus' Louvre around 1200) and bridges. In the Carolingian period, the "aristocracy" ( nobilis in the Latin documents) was by no means a legally defined category. With traditions going back to

22638-519: Was chosen as Bishop of Rome "by the decree of God and of His Church, by the testimony of nearly all the clergy, by the college of aged bishops [ sacerdotum ], and of good men". As in other dioceses, the clergy of the Diocese of Rome was the electoral body for the Bishop of Rome. Instead of casting votes, the bishop was selected by general consensus or by acclamation . The candidate was then submitted to

22792-554: Was more precisely defined when, in 1059, the College of Cardinals was designated the sole body of electors. Since then, other details of the process have developed. In 1970, Pope Paul VI limited the electors to cardinals under 80 years of age in Ingravescentem aetatem . The current procedures were established by Pope John Paul II in his apostolic constitution Universi Dominici gregis , and amended by Pope Benedict XVI in 2007 and 2013. A two-thirds supermajority vote

22946-430: Was not however systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later. Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders), the vassal/feudal system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all

23100-465: Was originally a royal steward overseeing the entire country but developed into an agent of the crown charged with administration of a seneschalty ( French : sénéchaussée ), one of the districts of the crown lands in Gascony, Aquitaine, Languedoc and Normandy . Hallam states that the first seneschals to govern in this manner did so by an 1190 edict of Philip II . The seneschals also served as

23254-670: Was so weak in some remote places that bandits were the effective power. Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would become some of the strongest rulers of western Europe. The Normans , the Plantagenets , the Lusignans , the Hautevilles , the Ramnulfids , and the House of Toulouse successfully carved lands outside France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history

23408-455: Was supplied through a window to avoid outside contact. After three days of the conclave, the cardinals were to receive only one dish a day; after another five days, they were to receive just bread and water. During the conclave, no cardinal was to receive any ecclesiastical revenue. Adrian V abolished Gregory X's strict regulations in 1276, but Celestine V , elected in 1294 following a two-year vacancy, restored them. In 1562 Pius IV issued

23562-592: Was the Norman Conquest by William the Conqueror , following the Battle of Hastings and immortalised in the Bayeux Tapestry , because it linked England to France through Normandy. Although the Normans were now both vassals of the French kings and their equals as kings of England, their zone of political activity remained centered in France. An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in

23716-408: Was the last to be elected (1522) in absentia . Archbishop Giovanni Montini of Milan received several votes in the 1958 conclave though not yet a cardinal. As the Catholic Church holds that women cannot be validly ordained, women are not eligible for the papacy. Though the pope is the Bishop of Rome, he need not be of Italian background. As of 2017 , the three most recent conclaves have elected

#550449