The baojia system ( Chinese : 保甲 ; pinyin : bǎojiǎ ; Wade–Giles : pao-chia ) was an invention of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song dynasty , who created this community-based system of law enforcement and civil control that was included in his large reform of Chinese government ("the New Policies ") from 1069–1076.
104-469: The leaders of the baos were given authority to maintain local order, collect taxes, and organize civil projects. The idea of the system was that it would diminish the government's reliance on mercenaries , and that it would instead assign responsibility of law enforcement to these civil societies. Baojia regulations were issued centrally in 1548, during the Ming dynasty , but the system was not mandatory. Rather,
208-411: A private military company (PMC) which does not supply any fighters but is used to export military training services. It realised a profit of €222 million in 2019. It is an offence "to recruit" German citizens "for military duty in a military or military-like facility in support of a foreign power" ( §109h StGB ). Furthermore, a German citizen who enlists in the armed forces of a state they are also
312-541: A citizen of risks the loss of their citizenship ( §28 StAG ). In 1998, South Africa passed the Foreign Military Assistance Act that banned citizens and residents from any involvement in foreign wars, except for humanitarian operations, unless a government committee approved deployment. In 2005, the legislation was reviewed by the government because: As of 2010, South Africa forbids citizens from fighting in foreign wars unless they are under
416-515: A city called Daedala or Daidala ( Ancient Greek : Δαίδαλα ) in India, which he called Indo-Cretan, most probably because it was a settlement of Cretan mercenaries. In the late Roman Empire , it became increasingly difficult for Emperors and generals to raise military units from the citizenry for various reasons: lack of manpower, lack of time available for training, lack of materials, and, inevitably, political considerations. Therefore, beginning in
520-559: A history of over 100 years, is one of China's first modern coal mines. It remains active, with an annual production of over 20 million metric tonnes. Much of the North China Oilfied is within Hebei. There are major iron mines at Handan and Qian'an . Iron and steel manufacturing are the largest industries in Hebei. The population in Hebei is mostly Han Chinese . There are 55 ethnic minorities in Hebei, representing 4.27% of
624-677: A mercenary. While mercenaries do not enjoy the same protection as prisoners of war do, they must still be treated humanely according to the rules of the Protocol and they may not be punished without a trial. On 4 December 1989, the United Nations passed resolution 44/34, the International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries. It entered into force on 20 October 2001 and
728-467: A profit, by either providing services involving the potential exercise of [armed] force in a systematic way and by military means, and/or by the transfer of that potential to clients through training and other practices, such as logistics support, equipment procurement, and intelligence gathering". Private paramilitary forces are functionally mercenary armies, though they may serve as security guards or military advisors; however, national governments reserve
832-629: A province. Instead, the area was directly administrated by the Secretariat at the capital Dadu . The Ming dynasty ruled Hebei as Beizhili, meaning Northern Directly Ruled because the area contained and was directly ruled by the imperial capital in Beijing . The "Northern" designation was used because there was a southern counterpart covering present-day Jiangsu and Anhui . When the Manchu Qing dynasty came to power in 1644, they abolished
936-498: A surplus of experienced soldiers. Also, Colombian soldiers are much cheaper than soldiers from developed countries . PMCs from several Middle Eastern countries have signed contracts with the Colombian Defense Ministry to carry out security or military activities. The United Nations questions whether PMC soldiers are sufficiently accountable for their war zone actions. A common argument for using PMCs (used by
1040-661: A videotaped attack; the killings and subsequent dismemberments were a cause for the First Battle of Fallujah . Afghan war operations also boosted the business. The United States has made extensive use of PMCs in Afghanistan since 2001, mostly in a defensive role. PMC teams have been used to guard bases and to protect VIPs from Taliban assassins, but almost never in offensive operations. One mercenary stated about his work in Afghanistan: "We are there purely to protect
1144-477: Is 36,931,232 (49.50%). The gender ratio of the total population was 102.02, decreasing by 0.82 from 2010. Religion in Hebei The dominant religions in Hebei are Chinese folk religions , Taoist traditions , and Chinese Buddhism . According to surveys conducted in 2007 and 2009, 5.52% of the population believe in and are involved in ancestor veneration , while 3.05% identify as Christian, belonging mostly to
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#17327658432791248-537: Is a private individual who joins an armed conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any other official military . Mercenaries fight for money or other forms of payment rather than for political interests. Beginning in the 20th century, mercenaries have increasingly come to be seen as less entitled to protection by rules of war than non-mercenaries. The Geneva Conventions declare that mercenaries are not recognized as legitimate combatants and do not have to be granted
1352-451: Is evidence that the ten person groups played an important role in carrying out the boycott. During the later Republic of China era, Chiang Kai-shek pressed for the reintroduction of the baojia system. He Yingqin argued that the baojia system could be used as the basis for the switch from a mercenary to a compulsory military service. The system had some success, but there was great difficulty in finding qualified and willing baozhang , as
1456-582: Is inaccurate and demeaning to men and women who put their lives on the line to protect people and facilities every day." Tamil poems described the Greek soldiers who served as mercenaries for Indian kings as: "The valiant-eyed Yavanas (Greeks), whose bodies were strong and of terrible aspect". Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher said that some of the troops of Mara in the Gandhara sculptures may represent Greek mercenaries. Stephanus of Byzantium wrote about
1560-660: Is not endorsed by some countries, including the United States. The Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts ( Protocol I ), 8 June 1977 states: Art 47. Mercenaries All the criteria, as listed in 2(a) through 2(f), must be met, according to the Geneva Convention, for a combatant to be considered
1664-998: Is structured in a dual party-government system like all other governing institutions in mainland China . The Governor of Hebei is the highest-ranking official in the People's Government of Hebei. However, in the province's dual party-government governing system, the governor has less power than the Hebei Chinese Communist Party Provincial Committee Secretary ( CCP Party Chief ). Hebei has eleven prefecture-level divisions . All are prefecture-level cities : These eleven prefecture-level divisions are subdivided into 168 county-level divisions (47 districts , 21 county-level cities , 94 counties and 6 autonomous counties ). Those are, in turn, divided into 2207 township-level divisions (1 district public office , 937 towns , 979 townships , 55 ethnic townships , and 235 subdistricts ). At
1768-527: Is that this authorized contractors to engage in combat on behalf of the US government. It is the combatant commander's responsibility to ensure that private security contract mission statements do not authorize performance of inherently governmental military functions, i.e. preemptive attacks, assaults, or raids, etc. On 18 August 2006, the US Comptroller General rejected bid protest arguments that
1872-444: Is usually creamy white, though it is also made in other colors. Hebei cuisine is typically based on wheat, mutton, and beans. The donkey burger , originating from the cities of Baoding and Hejian , Cangzhou , is a staple in provincial cuisine and has spread into the two municipalities. Other dishes include local variants of shaobing . Beidaihe , located near Shanhaiguan, is a popular beach resort. The Ming Great Wall crosses
1976-604: Is usually known as the UN Mercenary Convention . Article 1 of the UN Mercenary Convention contains the definition of a mercenary. Article 1.1 is similar to Article 47 of Protocol I. Article 1.2 broadens the definition to include a non-national recruited to overthrow a "Government or otherwise undermin[e] the constitutional order of a State; or Undermin[e] the territorial integrity of a State"; and "Is motivated to take part therein essentially by
2080-563: The condottiero was a military chief offering his troops, the condottieri , to Italian city-states . The condottieri were extensively used by the Italian city-states in their wars against one another. At times, the condottieri seized control of the state, as one condottiero , Francesco Sforza , made himself the Duke of Milan in 1450. During the ages of the Taifa kingdoms of
2184-543: The Catholic Church . As of 2010 Muslims constitute 0.82% of the population of Hebei. Although the surveys did not provide specific data for other religions, 90.61% of the population are either nonreligious or are involved in worship of nature deities , Buddhism , Confucianism , Taoism , and folk religious sects . Zailiism is a folk religious sect that originated in Hebei. Local worship of deities organized into benevolent churches in reaction to Catholicism in
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#17327658432792288-688: The Chiyou -led Jiuli tribes, took place in Zhangjiakou and started the Huaxia civilization. During the Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC), Hebei was under the rule of Yan in the north and Jin in the south. Also during this period, a nomadic people known as Dí invaded the plains of northern China and established Zhongshan in central Hebei. In the Warring States period (403–221 BC), Jin
2392-684: The Duchy of Athens . The Great Company ruled much of central and southern Greece until 1388–1390 when a rival mercenary company, the Navarrese Company were hired to oust them. Catalan and German mercenaries also had prominent role in the Serbian victory over Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbuzd in 1330. During the later Middle Ages, Free Companies (or Free Lances ) were formed, consisting of companies of mercenary troops. Nation-states lacked
2496-474: The Ji Lu Mandarin subdivision of Chinese. Along the western border with Shanxi , dialects are distinct enough for linguists to consider them as part of Jin , another subdivision of Chinese. In general, the dialects of Hebei are similar to the Beijing dialect , which forms the basis for Standard Chinese and the official language of the nation. However, there are also some distinct differences, such as
2600-925: The Later Tang (923–936). Emperor Gaozu of the Later Jin dynasty ceded much of northern Hebei to the Khitan Liao dynasty . This territory, called the Sixteen Prefectures of Yanyun, became a weakness in the Chinese defense against the Khitans for the next century because it lay within the Great Wall . During the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), the sixteen ceded prefectures continued to be an area of contention between Song China and
2704-748: The Qing dynasty . Hebei has the largest Catholic population in China, with one million members and 1.5 million Catholics according to the Catholic Church. In 1900, apparition of the Virgin Mary was said have appeared in the town of Donglu in Baoding . As a result, Donglu is "one of the strongholds of the unofficial Catholic Church in China". Many Catholics in Hebei remain loyal to the Pope and reject
2808-476: The Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (771–226 BC), the region was ruled by the states of Yan and Zhao . During the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the region was called Zhongshu . It was called North Zhili during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), and simply Zhili during the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). The modern province of Hebei was created in 1928. Five UNESCO World Heritage Sites can be found in
2912-595: The United States Army contracts violated the Anti-Pinkerton Act by requiring that contractors provide armed convoy escort vehicles and labor, weapons, and equipment for internal security operations at Victory Base Complex in Iraq. The Comptroller General reasoned the act was unviolated because the contracts did not require contractors to provide quasi-military forces as strikebreakers. In 2007,
3016-761: The World War II , Hebei was under the control of the Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China , a puppet state of Imperial Japan . The founding of the People's Republic of China saw several changes. The region around Chengde , previously part of Rehe Province (historically part of Manchuria ), and the region around Zhangjiakou , previously part of Chahar Province (historically part of Inner Mongolia ), were merged into Hebei. This extended its borders northwards beyond
3120-540: The Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing , and the province surrounding the new capital was first called North Zhili or Zhili , meaning 'directly ruled'. When Nanjing became the capital of the Republic of China in 1928, the province of Zhili was abolished and given its present name of Hebei. Peking Man , an early pre-historic Homo erectus , lived on
3224-455: The dang (compact). This unit consisted of thirty families and had a corresponding dangzhang . During the Qing dynasty, the system's structure changed again. Ten households made up one pai , ten pai constituted one jia , and every ten jia formed a bao . Studies by Philip Huang and Wang Fuming of Baodi County in northeastern Hebei province (now Baodi District , Tianjin ) have shown that
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3328-544: The paizhang a large incentives to monitor the other families in his pai . The Tonarigumi system was also a self-defense unit and an operational mutual responsibility and surveillance organization. This system lasted until 1937, when the all-out war being waged in East Asia forced the Japanese government to consider more direct and centralized control schemes. On December 1, 1937, a new district and village government system
3432-754: The 7 June 1978 Letter to the heads of Federal Departments and Agencies, the Comptroller General interpreted this decision in a way that carved out an exemption for "Guard and Protective Services". A United States Department of Defense (DoD) interim rule revised DoD Instruction 3020.41 to authorize contractors, other than private security contractors, to use deadly force against enemy armed forces only in self-defense (71 Fed. Reg. 34826), effective 16 June 2006. Per that interim rule, private security contractors were authorized to use deadly force when protecting their client's assets and persons, consistent with their contract's mission statement . One interpretation
3536-536: The Act and the legislative history reveal that an organization was "similar" to the Pinkerton Detective Agency only if it offered for hire mercenary, quasi-military forces as strikebreakers and armed guards. It had the secondary effect of deterring any other organization from providing such services lest it be branded a "similar organization." The legislative history supports this view and no other. In
3640-413: The Anti-Pinkerton Act as forbidding the U.S. government from employing companies offering "mercenary, quasi-military forces" for hire (United States ex rel. Weinberger v. Equifax , 557 F.2d 456, 462 (5th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 1035 (1978)). There is disagreement over whether this proscription is limited to strikebreakers only, because Weinberger v. Equifax states the following: The purpose of
3744-820: The Big Companies and French Companies and placed a decisive role in putting Enrique on the Castilian throne in 1369, who styled himself King Enrique II, the first Castilian monarch of the House of Trastámara. The White Company commanded by Sir John Hawkwood is the best known English Free Company of the 14th century. Between the 13th and 17th centuries the Gallowglass fought within the Islands of Britain and also mainland Europe. A Welshman Owain Lawgoch (Owain of
3848-752: The British Army (specifically units that are administered by the Brigade of Gurkhas ) and the Indian Army. Although they are nationals of Nepal, a country that is not part of the Commonwealth, they still swear allegiance (either to the Crown or the Constitution of India ) and abide by the rules and regulations under which all British or Indian soldiers serve. French Foreign Legionnaires serve in
3952-738: The Foreign Enlistment Act. It was unclear whether or not the Greek rebels constituted a 'state', but the law was later clarified to indicate that they were. The British government considered using the Act against British subjects fighting for the International Brigades in the Spanish Civil War and the FNLA in the Angolan Civil War , but on both occasions chose not to do so. Civilians with
4056-637: The French Crown lacked the necessary military and economic strength to put an end to their activities. To rid France of the rampaging mercenaries and to overthrow the pro-English King Pedro the Cruel of Castile, Marshal Bertrand du Guesclin was directed by King Charles V of France to take the Free Companies into Castile with the orders to put the pro-French Enrique de Trastámara on the Castilian throne. Guesclin's mercanaries were organized into
4160-609: The French Foreign Legion, which deploys and fights as an organized unit of the French Army . This means that as members of the armed forces of Britain, India, and France these soldiers are not classed as mercenary soldiers per APGC77 Art 47.e and 47.f . Volunteers for the Ukraine Foreign legion have three-year contracts, and are eligible for Ukrainian citizenship (the probation period being the duration of
4264-585: The Great Wall. Meanwhile, the city of Puyang was carved away, causing Hebei to lose access to the Yellow River . The city became part of the short-lived Pingyuan Province before eventually being annexed into Henan . The capital was also moved from Baoding to the new city of Shijiazhuang , and, for a short period, to Tianjin . On July 28, 1976, Tangshan was struck by the Tangshan earthquake ,
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4368-743: The Iberian peninsula, Christian knights like El Cid could fight for a Muslim ruler against his Christian or Muslim enemies. The Almogavars originally fought for the counts of Barcelona and kings of Aragon , but as the Catalan Company , they followed Roger de Flor in the service of the Byzantine Empire . In 1311, the Catalan Great Company defeated at the Battle of Halmyros their former employer, Walter V, Count of Brienne , after he refused to pay them, and took over
4472-402: The Italian Wars. They were known for cutting off the heads of dead or captured enemies, and according to Commines they were paid by their leaders one ducat per head. Hebei Hebei is a province in North China . It is China's sixth-most populous province , with a population of over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. It borders Shanxi to the west, Henan to
4576-437: The Liao dynasty. Later, the Southern Song dynasty abandoned all of North China , including Hebei, to the Jurchen Jin dynasty after the 1127 Jingkang Incident of the Jin–Song wars . Hebei was heavily affected by the flooding of the Yellow River; between 1048 and 1128, the river ran directly through the province rather than to its south. The Mongol Yuan dynasty divided China into provinces but did not establish Hebei as
4680-523: The Ming dynasty, this ten family unit was instead labeled a jia (tithing), and ten jia (or one hundred families) made a bao . Each jia possessed a placard that rotated among the families. The family holding it at a given time was the jiazhang , or tithing captain. Similarly, the captain of the bao was the baozhang . There was a great deal of regional variation in the system. In some areas, jia had as few as four families or as many as thirteen. Some Jiangnan counties added an intermediary unit called
4784-504: The PMCs themselves), is that PMCs may be able to help combat genocide and civilian slaughter where the UN or other countries are unwilling or unable to intervene. Yet, after considering using PMCs to support UN operations, Kofi Annan , the Secretary-General of the United Nations , decided against it. In October 2007, the United Nations released a two-year study that stated, that although hired as "security guards", private contractors were performing military duties. The report found that
4888-476: The Red Hand) formed a free company and fought for the French against the English during the Hundred Years' War , before being assassinated by a Scot named Jon Lamb, under the orders of the English Crown, during the siege of Mortagne in 1378. Swiss mercenaries were sought during the late 15th and early 16th centuries as being an effective fighting force, until their somewhat rigid battle formations became vulnerable to arquebuses and artillery being developed at
4992-449: The Rehe Palace, this was the summer resort of the Manchu Qing dynasty emperors. The resort was built between 1703 and 1792. It consists of a palace complex and a large park with lakes, pavilions, causeways, and bridges. There are also several Tibetan Buddhist and Han Chinese temples in the surrounding area. There are Qing dynasty imperial tombs at Zunhua ( Eastern Qing Tombs ) and Yixian ( West Qing Tombs ). The Eastern Qing Tombs are
5096-402: The Roman practice and contracted foreigners especially for their personal corps guard called the Varangian Guard . They were chosen among war-prone peoples, of whom the Varangians (Norsemen) were preferred. Their mission was to protect the Emperor and Empire and since they did not have links to the Greeks, they were expected to be ready to suppress rebellions. One of the most famous guards was
5200-492: The Stratioti were mostly Albanians. According to a study by a Greek author, around 80% of the listed names attributed to the stradioti were of Albanian origin while most of the remaining ones, especially those of officers, were of Greek origin; a small minority were of South Slavic origin. Among their leaders there were also members of some old Byzantine Greek noble families such as the Palaiologoi and Comneni . The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during this era. In
5304-583: The Third Infantry Division charged with Baghdad security after the 2003 invasion of Iraq, said of DynCorp and other PMCs: These guys run loose in this country and do stupid stuff. There's no authority over them, so you can't come down on them hard when they escalate force... They shoot people, and someone else has to deal with the aftermath. It happens all over the place. In 2004, the US and Coalition governments hired PMCs for security in Iraq. In March 2004, four Blackwater employees escorting food supplies and other equipment were attacked and killed in Fallujah in
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#17327658432795408-419: The US Armed Forces lose their law of war protection from direct attack if, and for such time as, they directly participate in hostilities. The Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893 ( 5 U.S.C. § 3108 ) forbids the US government from using Pinkerton National Detective Agency employees or similar private police companies. In 1977, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit interpreted
5512-522: The US Army was temporarily barred from awarding a $ 475 million security contract in Iraq, the largest one at that time, because of a lawsuit filed by a US citizen alleging violation of the Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893. Three of the candidates under final consideration for the contract (to include intelligence services and security for reconstruction work by the United States Army Corps of Engineers ) included British firms Aegis Defence Services and Erinys Iraq , as well as Blackwater of North Carolina. The case
5616-405: The Varangians ceased to be in the service of the Roman Empire remains unclear. In England at the time of the Norman Conquest , Flemings (natives of Flanders ) formed a substantial mercenary element in the forces of William the Conqueror with many remaining in England as settlers under the Normans . Contingents of mercenary Flemish soldiers were to form significant forces in England throughout
5720-402: The area houses a memorial site. The 2018 Women's Bandy World Championship was held in Hebei. Sports teams based in Hebei include National Basketball League (China) , Hebei Springs Benma, and the Chinese Football Association team Hebei F.C. , Hebei Elite F.C. , and Cangzhou Mighty Lions F.C. Baoding is home to the Baoding balls , a kind of metal ball for exercise and meditation. Under
5824-428: The authority of the Catholic Patriotic Church. Four of Hebei's underground bishops have been imprisoned in recent years: Bishop Francis An Shuxin of Donglu since 1996; Bishop James Su Zhimin since October 1997; Bishop Han Dingxiang of Yongnian who died in prison in 2007, and Bishop Julius Jia Zhiguo of Zhengding since late 1999. People speak dialects of Mandarin across the Hebei, with most classified as part of
5928-495: The deadliest earthquake of the 20th century, killing over 240,000 people. There were a series of smaller earthquakes in the following decade. Today, Hebei, along with Beijing and Tianjin municipalities which it includes, make up the Jing-Jin-Ji megalopolis region. With a population of 130 million, it is about six times the size of the New York metropolitan area and is one of the largest megalopolis clusters in China. Beijing had also unloaded some of its non-capital functions to
6032-462: The desire for significant private gain and is prompted by the promise or payment of material compensation". Under Article 1.2, a person does not have to take a direct part in the hostilities in a planned coup d'état to be a mercenary. If a person is proven to have worked as a mercenary for any other country while retaining Austrian citizenship, their Austrian citizenship will be revoked. In 2003, France criminalized mercenary activities, as defined by
6136-400: The direct control of their own national armed forces. In the United Kingdom, the Foreign Enlistment Act 1819 and the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870 make it unlawful for British subjects to join the armed forces of any state warring with another state at peace with Britain. During the Greek War of Independence , British volunteers fought with the Greek rebels, which could have been unlawful per
6240-445: The early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern). They employed hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, feigned retreats and other complex maneuvers. In some ways, these tactics echoed those of the Ottoman sipahis and akinci. They had some notable successes also against French heavy cavalry during
6344-443: The end of 2017, the total population of Hebei was 75.2 million. In 2014, Hebei's gross domestic product (GDP) was 2.942 trillion yuan (US$ 479 billion). It is ranked sixth in the PRC , with its GDP per capita reaching 40,124 renminbi . As of 2011, the primary , secondary , and tertiary sectors of industry contributed 203.46 billion, 877.74 billion, and 537.66 billion RMB respectively. The registered urban unemployment rate
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#17327658432796448-414: The first time. The Great Yan State was established in Hebei from 756 to 763 during the An Lushan Rebellion . After the rebellion, Lulong Jiedushi retained its autonomy from Tang during most of the 9th century. During the late Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period , Lulong was fragmented among several regimes including the short-lived Yan . It was eventually annexed in 913 by Li Cunxu , who established
6552-399: The former US Ambassador to Colombia Myles Frechette has said: "Congress and the American people don't want any servicemen killed overseas. So it makes sense that if contractors want to risk their lives, they get the job". Not only have foreign PMCs worked in Colombia, but a disproportionate number of the mercenaries with PMCs are Colombian, as Colombia's long history of civil war has led to
6656-462: The funds needed to maintain standing forces, so they tended to hire free companies to serve in their armies during wartime. Such companies typically formed at the ends of periods of conflict, when men-at-arms were no longer needed by their respective governments. The veteran soldiers thus looked for other forms of employment, often becoming mercenaries. Free Companies would often specialize in forms of combat that required longer periods of training that
6760-455: The future king Harald III of Norway , also known as Harald Hardrada ("Hard-counsel"), who arrived in Constantinople in 1035 and was employed as a Varangian Guard. He participated in eighteen battles and was promoted to akolythos , the commander of the Guard, before returning home in 1043. He was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 when his army was defeated by an English army commanded by King Harold Godwinson . The point at which
6864-479: The kind of risks that can turn the tide of a battle, but may cost them their lives. He also noted that a mercenary who failed was obviously no good, but one who succeeded may be even more dangerous. He astutely pointed out that a successful mercenary army no longer needs its employer if it is more militarily powerful than its supposed superior. This explained the frequent, violent betrayals that characterized mercenary/client relations in Italy, because neither side trusted
6968-579: The largest lake in Hebei is Baiyangdian , located in Anxin County , Baoding . Major cities in Hebei include: Shijiazhuang , Baoding , Tangshan , Qinhuangdao , Handan , and Zhangjiakou . Hebei has a monsoon -influenced humid continental climate. Its winters are cold and dry, while its summers are hot and humid. Temperatures average −16 to −3 °C (3 to 27 °F) in January and 20 to 27 °C (68 to 81 °F) in July. The annual precipitation ranges from 400 to 800 mm (16 to 31 in), concentrated heavily in summer. The politics of Hebei
7072-400: The late 4th century, the empire often contracted whole bands of barbarians either within the legions or as autonomous foederati . The barbarians were Romanized and surviving veterans were established in areas requiring population. The Varangian Guard of the Byzantine Empire is the best known formation made up of barbarian mercenaries (see next section). Byzantine emperors followed
7176-427: The lowest quasi-official was the xiangbao , who oversaw about twenty villages and was intended to act as a buffer between the people and the government. When the system was reimplemented in the Republic of China, the structure remained essentially the same, with the exception of the introduction of the lianbao (associated bao ), a group of several bao at the district level. Mercenaries A mercenary ,
7280-403: The mountains are the grasslands of Inner Mongolia . The highest peak is Mount Xiaowutai in Yu County in the northwest of the province, with an altitude of 2,882 m (9,455 ft). Hebei borders the Bohai Sea on the east. The Hai River watershed covers most of the province's central and southern parts; the Luan River watershed covers the northeast. Excluding manmade reservoirs,
7384-411: The northern part of Hebei, and its eastern end is located on the coast at Shanhaiguan (Shanhai Pass), near Qinhuangdao . Informally known as the First Pass of The World, Shanhaiguan Pass was where Ming general Wu Sangui opened the gates to Manchu forces in 1644, beginning nearly 300 years of Manchu rule. The Chengde Mountain Resort and its outlying temples are a World Heritage Site . Also known as
7488-700: The old provincial capital, contains the historic Zhili governor's residence and the former court. Xibaipo , a village about 90 km (56 mi) from Shijiazhuang in Pingshan County , was the location of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the headquarters of the People's Liberation Army during the decisive stages of the Chinese Civil War between May 26, 1948, and March 23, 1949. Today,
7592-465: The other nine members of their group upheld their oath. Each member of the group was to attempt to convert nine outsiders to the cause, forming ten groups of ten, which could come together as a group of one hundred. Finally, ten groups of one hundred could meet to form a one thousand person brigade. As with the traditional baojia system, one member of each group of ten became leader of the group. Although no functional group of one thousand ever existed, there
7696-642: The other. He believed that citizens with a real attachment to their home country will be more motivated to defend it and thus make much better soldiers. The Stratioti or Stradioti (Italian: Stradioti or Stradiotti; Greek: Στρατιώτες, Stratiotes) were mercenary units from the Balkans recruited mainly by states of southern and central Europe from the 15th until the middle of the 18th century. The stradioti were recruited in Albania , Greece, Dalmatia , Serbia and later Cyprus . Most modern historians have indicated that
7800-540: The plains of Hebei around 200,000 to 700,000 years ago. Neolithic findings at the prehistoric Beifudi site date to 7000 and 8000 BC. Many early Chinese myths are set in the province. Fuxi , one of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors , is said to have lived in present-day Xingtai . The mythical Battle of Zhuolu , won by the Yellow Emperor , Yan Emperor , and their Yanhuang tribes against
7904-466: The position was unpaid. The Japanese also revived the baojia (in Japanese, Tonarigumi ) system in Manchukuo on December 22, 1933. In this case, the system's primary purpose was to monitor and control the Chinese citizens. The government instituted a lianzuo punishment system, in which crimes committed by one family in a pai would result in punishment for all ten families in that pai . This gave
8008-476: The principals and get them out, we're not there to get into huge firefights with the bad guys". One team from DynCorp provided bodyguards for President Hamid Karzai . In 2006, a US congressional report listed a number of PMCs and other enterprises that have signed contracts to carry out anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of Plan Colombia . Referring to the use of American PMCs in Colombia,
8112-481: The pronunciation of some words, made by entering tone syllables (syllables ending on a plosive ) in Middle Chinese . Traditional forms of Chinese opera in Hebei include Pingju , Hebei Bangzi (Hebei Clapper Opera), and Cangzhou Kuaiban Dagu . Pingju is especially popular because it tends to use colloquial language which is easier for audiences to understand. Originating from northeastern Hebei, Pingju
8216-599: The protocol to the Geneva convention for French citizens, permanent residents, and legal entities (Penal Code, L436-1 , L436-2 , L436-3 , L436-4 , L436-5 ). This law does not prevent French citizens from serving as volunteers in foreign forces. The law applies to military activities with a specifically mercenary motive or with a mercenary level of remuneration. However, due to jurisdictional loopholes several French companies provide mercenary services. The French state owns 50% of Défense conseil international , which it founded,
8320-673: The province with the establishment of the Xiong'an New Area, which integrates the three municipalities. Hebei is the only province in China to contain plateaus, mountains, hills, shorelines, plains, and lakes. Most of central and southern Hebei lies within the North China Plain . Western Hebei rises into the Taihang Mountains (Taihang Shan), while the Yan Mountains (Yan Shan) runs through northern Hebei. Beyond
8424-496: The province: the Great Wall of China , Chengde Mountain Resort , Grand Canal , Eastern Qing tombs , and Western Qing tombs . It is also home to five National Famous Historical and Cultural Cities : Handan , Baoding , Chengde , Zhengding and Shanhaiguan . Hebei's economy is based on agriculture and manufacturing; it is China's premier steel producer, which has contributed to serious air pollution. "Hebei" means 'north of
8528-471: The regulations were more like guidelines for officials who wished to deploy the system in their counties. During Ming dynasty, there was also lijia system to gather taxes, which coincided with baojia. During the Qing dynasty , the baojia system was expanded across all of China. However, Ju Dongzu has written that the system was "on the whole ineffective" during this time, and "remained a formality" for several centuries after its introduction. Being primarily
8632-537: The resting place of 161 Qing emperors, empresses, and other members of the Qing imperial family, while the West Qing Tombs have 76 burials. Both tomb complexes are part of a World Heritage Site . The Zhaozhou , or Anji Bridge , was built by Li Chun during the Sui dynasty and is the oldest stone arch bridge in China. It is one of the most significant examples of pre-modern Chinese civil engineering . Baoding ,
8736-728: The right to control the number, nature, and armaments of such private armies , arguing that, provided they are not pro-actively employed in front-line combat, they are not mercenaries. In February 2002, a British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) report about PMCs noted that the demands of the military service from the UN and international civil organizations might mean that it is cheaper to pay PMCs than use soldiers. PMC "civilian contractors" tend to have poor reputations among professional government soldiers and officers—the U.S. Military Command has questioned their war zone behavior. In September 2005, Brigadier General Karl Horst, deputy commander of
8840-547: The river', derived from the province's location north of the Yellow River in the North China Plain . In the Yu Gong , the province is recorded as " Jizhou ", lending to its traditional abbreviation of "Ji" ( 冀 ). The province's nickname is "Yanzhao" ( 燕赵 ), which is the collective name of the Yan and Zhao states that controlled the region during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (771–221 BC). In 1421,
8944-488: The same legal protections as captured service personnel of the armed forces. In practice, whether or not a person is a mercenary may be a matter of degree, as financial and political interests may overlap. Protocol Additional GC 1977 (APGC77) is a 1977 amendment protocol to the Geneva Conventions . Article 47 of the protocol provides the most widely accepted international definition of a mercenary, though it
9048-716: The same time. The Swiss Guard in particular were employed by the Papal States from 1506 (continuing to serve today as the military of Vatican City ). It was then that the German landsknechts , colourful mercenaries with a redoubtable reputation, took over the Swiss forces' legacy and became the most formidable force of the late 15th and throughout the 16th century, being hired by all the powers in Europe and often fighting at opposite sides. Sir Thomas More in his Utopia advocated
9152-400: The south, Shandong and Liaoning to the east, and Inner Mongolia to the north; in addition, Hebei entirely surrounds the direct-administered municipalities of Beijing and Tianjin on land. Its population is 96% Han Chinese , 3% Manchu , 0.8% Hui , and 0.3% Mongol . Varieties of Chinese spoken include Jilu Mandarin , the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, and Jin Chinese . During
9256-424: The southern counterpart, and Hebei became known as Zhili or Directly Ruled. During the Qing dynasty, the northern borders of Zhili extended deep into Inner Mongolia and overlapped in jurisdiction with the leagues of Inner Mongolia. The Qing dynasty collapsed in 1912 and was replaced by the Republic of China . In a few years, China descended into a civil war, with regional warlords vying for power. Since Zhili
9360-535: The system of self-defense, in 1885, baojia was extended to cover tax collection. This resulted in power abuses and local unrest. The baojia system has continued to resonate with Chinese citizens during the 20th century. During the boycott of Japanese products that occurred during the May Fourth Movement in 1919, students modeled their resistance on the baojia system. Ten people swore a collective oath to boycott Japanese products, and to make sure that
9464-691: The time of the Norman and early Plantagenet dynasties (11th and 12th centuries). A prominent example of these were the Flemings who fought during the English civil wars, known as the Anarchy or the Nineteen-Year Winter (AD 1135 to 1154), under the command of William of Ypres , who was King Stephen 's chief lieutenant from 1139 to 1154 and who was made Earl of Kent by Stephen. In Italy,
9568-420: The total population. The largest ethnic groups are Manchu (2.1 million people), Hui (600,000 people), and Mongol (180,000 people). Population totals do not include those in active service with the People's Liberation Army . In 2019, the birth rate was 10.83 births per 1,000 people, while the death rate was 6.12 deaths per 1,000 people. The male population is 37,679,003 (50.50%), the female population
9672-563: The use of contractors such as Blackwater was a "new form of mercenary activity" and illegal under international law . Most countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, are not signatories to the 1989 United Nations Mercenary Convention banning the use of mercenaries. A spokesman for the U.S. Mission to U.N. denied that Blackwater security guards were mercenaries, saying "Accusations that U.S. government-contracted security guards, of whatever nationality, are mercenaries
9776-471: The use of mercenaries in preference to citizens. The barbarian mercenaries employed by the Utopians are thought to be inspired by the Swiss mercenaries. At approximately the same period, Niccolò Machiavelli argued against the use of mercenary armies in his book of political advice The Prince . His rationale was that since the sole motivation of mercenaries is their pay, they will not be inclined to take
9880-675: The victor of the two, but he was defeated by Cao Cao in the Battle of Guandu in 200. Hebei came under the rule of the Kingdom of Wei , established by the descendants of Cao Cao. After the invasions of northern nomadic peoples at the end of the Western Jin dynasty , chaos ensued in the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Northern and Southern dynasties . Because of its location on the northern frontier, Hebei changed hands many times and
9984-475: The war). The private military company (PMC) is a private company providing armed combat or security services for financial gain. PMCs refer to their personnel as security contractors or private military contractors. PMC contractors are civilians (in governmental, international, and civil organizations) authorized to accompany an army to the field; thus, the term civilian contractor . PMCs may use armed force, defined as: "legally established enterprises that make
10088-599: Was 3.96%. Hebei's industries include textiles , coal , steel , iron , engineering, chemical production, petroleum, power, ceramics , and food. 40% of Hebei's labor force works in the agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry sectors, with the majority of production from these industries going to Beijing and Tianjin . Hebei's main agricultural products are cereal crops, including wheat , maize , millet , and sorghum . Cash crops like cotton , peanut , soybeans and sesame are also produced. Hebei has abundant natural resources. The Kailuan mine in Tangshan , with
10192-480: Was announced. In Taiwan under Japanese rule , the baojia system inherited from the Qing government was adapted into the Hoko system . The system was an effective mechanism in producing domestic stability and social order for the Japanese government. The structure of the baojia system changed over time. In Wang Anshi's original system, its basic unit was the bao (watch), which consisted of ten families. However, during
10296-514: Was controlled at various times by Later Zhao , Former Yan , Former Qin , and Later Yan . The Northern Wei reunified northern China in 440 but split in 534, with Hebei coming under Eastern Wei ; then the Northern Qi , with its capital at Ye near modern Linzhang , Hebei. The Sui dynasty again unified China in 589. During the Tang dynasty (618–907), the area was officially called Hebei for
10400-459: Was influenced by other forms of Chinese opera such as Beijing opera . Traditionally Pingju has a xiaosheng (young male lead), a xiaodan (young female lead), and a xiaohualian (young comic character), though it has diversified to include other roles. Quyang County , in central Hebei, is noted for Ding ware , a type of Chinese ceramics which includes various vessels such as bowls, plates, vases, and cups, as well as figurines. Ding ware
10504-921: Was later dismissed. The better-known combat units in which foreign nationals serve in another country's armed forces are the Gurkha regiments of the British Army and Indian Army , the French Foreign Legion , the Spanish Legion and the Ukraine Foreign Legion . Recruits from countries of the Commonwealth of Nations in the British Army swear allegiance to the British monarch and are liable to operate in any unit. Gurkhas, however, operate in dedicated Gurkha units of
10608-553: Was not available in the form of a mobilized militia. The Routiers formed a distinctive subculture in medieval France who alternated between serving as mercenaries in wartime and bandits in peacetime. The routiers were very destructive and became a significant social problem. After the Treaty of Brétigny ended the war between England and France in 1360, the French countryside was overrun by Free Companies of routiers while
10712-454: Was partitioned and much of its territory in Hebei went to Zhao . The Qin dynasty unified China in 221 BC. The Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) ruled the area under two provinces, You Prefecture in the north and Ji Province in the south. At the end of the Han dynasty, most of Hebei was under the control of warlords Gongsun Zan in the north and Yuan Shao further south. Yuan Shao emerged as
10816-736: Was so close to the capital of Beijing , it was the site of the Zhiwan War , the First Zhifeng War , and the Second Zhifeng War . With the success of the Northern Expedition in 1926 and 1927 by the Kuomintang , the capital was moved from Beijing to Nanjing . As a result, the province's name was changed to Hebei, reflecting the relocation of the capital and its standard provincial administration. During
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